People who live on dangerous places should move essay

Exam No: Y1475719 Module: SPY00017H Word Count: 3481

People who l ive in dangerous places should move: Discuss

More than ha l f t he wor ld ’ s popu la t ion res ide in dangerous , hazardous p laces (D i l l ey e t a l . , 2005 ; Tob in e t a l . , 2007) , w i th h igh po ten t ia l fo r death and des t ruc t ion (Smi th , 1992 , 2013; Mehta and S impson-Hous ley , 1994 ) . Na tu ra l hazards , a re dangerous phys ica l events , capab le o f impos ing damage in the immed ia te a rea dur ing the i r occur rence , bu t a lso on po tent ia l l y l ong- te rm bas is ’ f rom the i r assoc ia ted consequences (A lcántara -Aya la , 2002; Wh i te , 1973) . When these consequences impac t soc ie ty and / in f ras t ruc tu re , they become d isas te rs (A lcán ta ra -Aya la , 2002 ; Ka tes and Bur ton , 1964 ; A lexander , 1993) .

Th is s tudy focuses on vo lcan ica l l y ac t i ve deve lop ing coun t r ies (DC) , whose mos t p rominen t cha l lenges today cons is t o f a l l ev ia t ing pover ty and reduc ing vo lcan ic r i sk imposed on impover ish g roups . Vo lcan ic hazards cause the mos t devas ta t ing o f consequences in deve lop ing count r ies . Th is re la tes to the i r inc reased vu lnerab i l i t y , and reduced capac i ty to cope in the even t o f a d i sas te r . Cur ren t r i sk assessment methods , and the i r in f luence on vo lcan ic - r i sk -management (VRM) po l i c ies s ign i f i can t l y co r re la te to the po l ic ies success . There fo re , some l i te ra tu re a rgues remov ing the impover ish commun i t ies o f f the dangerous vo lcan ic a reas i s the bes t op t ion to reduce the r i sk and ass is t t hem ou t o f pover ty . However , an emerg ing r i sk - reduc t ion approach presen ts the oppor tun i ty to ha rness vo lcanoes soc ie ta l bene f i t s t o ach ieve improvements in bo th prob lems, a l l ow ing commun i t i es to p rosper l i v ing in the dangerous vo lcan ic a reas .

Volcanic Risk

Vo lcanoes a re d i s t r i bu ted a long tec ton ic boundar ies , no to r ious ly the Pac i f i c R ing o f F i re , on the Ear th ’ s sur face layer a longs ide humans (Schmincke , 2004 ; Co t t re l l , 2014) . There a re over 1000 poten t ia l l y ac t ive vo lcanoes wor ldw ide , w i th 60 e rupt ions annua l ly (S imk in 1993 ; S imk in & S ieber t 2000) . The comp lex i ty o f vo lcan ic r i sks a r ise f rom h igh ly var iab le ac t i v i t y and e rup t ions (Tob in e t a l . , 2007) , resu l t i ng in d i f f e ren t hazards and consequences . Desp i te common percept ions , the mos t common erup t ions compr ise sma l l amounts o f l ava (Smi thson ian Ins t i t u te da tabase 10,000BP to AD1994, unknown date ; Newha l l and Se l f , 1982) . The la rge poten t ia l fo r devas ta t ion in one vo lcan ic even t i s pa lpab le th rough few e rup t ions be ing respons ib le fo r a la rge p ropor t i on o f fa ta l i t i es (Lough l in e t a l . , 2015; Vo ight , 1990) . So fa r vo lcan ica l l y caused fa ta l i t ies a re re la t i ve ly few re la t i ve to o ther hazards ,


approx imate ly 275 ,000 s ince AD 1 (S imk in , 1993 ; Tanguy e t a l . , 1998) . Desp i te advances , p red ic t i on remains h igh ly uncer ta in (S t i r l i ng , 2003) .

An es t imated 600 mi l l i on peop le l i ve in dangerous vo lcan ic a reas (Auker e t a l . , 2013 ; Pe terson , 1986 ; Sma l l and Naumann, 2001) , 500 mi l l i on o f wh ich in DC (Dunk ley , da te unknown) . Thus , desp i te the r i sks peop le res ide in these unsa fe a reas (Thoure t

1999 ; Barc lay e t a l . , 2008) , as d i scussed be low.

Vo lcan ic -d i sas te rs a re mos t t rag ic i n DC, due to the combina t ion o f ex t reme r i sk and poor res i l i ence (Nor r i s e t a l . , 2007 ; Qu iambao, 2006 ; Rozd i lsky , 2001) and weak ly re la ted to exp los iv i t y as exh ib i t ed in Tab le 1 . Th is has been a t t r i bu ted to the i r geograph ic loca t ion , h igh popu la t ion dens i ty and poor deve lopment , whereby weak deve lopmenta l , economic , soc ia l , po l i t i ca l and cu l tu ra l cond i t i ons and lack o f essen t ia l p rocedures es tab l i shed to cope w i th d isas ters , con t r ibu te to the i r h igh vu lnerab i l i t y (A lcán ta ra -Aya la , 2002) . Thus , DC lack the capac i t y to p revent hazardous even ts man i fes t ing in to d i sas ters . Such h igh - r isk popu la t ions a re concerns fo r p lanners and po l i cy -makers who seek to unders tand how to preven t d i sas te rs f rom vo lcan ic ep isodes (Tob in e t a l . , 2007) .

Understand ing the Prob lem

R isk is mu l t i f ace ted , thus can be perce ived d i f fe rent ly (Becker e t a l . , 2001 ; Haynes , 2005 , Johns ton e t a l . , 1999) . B iased r isk

percep t ions in forming r i sk -reduc t ion po l ic ies have led to c lashes w i th pub l ic pe rcep t ions and b roader soc ia l goa ls (Gregg e t a l . , 2004 ; Dominey-Howes and Minos-

Figure 1: Risk Equation (UNISDR).

Table 1: Comparison of VEI and death tolls outcomes (Auker et al., 2013)


Minopou los , 2004 ; Lav igne e t a l . , 2008) , and the resu l tan t f a i l u re in m i t iga t ing d i sas te rs (Greene, Per ry and L inde l l , 1981) . Desp i te an essen t ia l componen t in d i sas te r r i sk reduc t ion and r isk percep t ion , soc ia l -sc ience rema ins neg lec ted in VRM (Wi lson e t a l . , 2014; Lav igne e t a l , 2008 ; Wh i te , 1973 ; S lov ic , 1999) . Vu lnerab i l i t y l a rge ly de termines the magn i tude o f d i sas te rs (Tab le 1 ) , however , na tu ra l -sc ience r isk assessments la rge ly d i s regards i t in po l i c ies , cen t ra l l y focused on the hazards componen t o f the equa t ion (F igu re 1 ) (W i l son e t a l . , 2014 ; Na t iona l Research Counc i l , 1994) . Thus , p reven ta t i ve measures on ly tack le ha l f o f the p rob lem (Acko f f , 1974 ; F reeman e t a l . , 2002) .

DC have been inadequate ly p lann ing fo r vo lcan ic d isas te rs by neg lec t ing vu lnerab i l i t y and loca l pe rcep t ions o f vo lcanoes soc ie ta l impac ts in r i sk -po l i c ies (Mehta , 2005 ; Hubbard , 2009 ; Bradbury , 1989) . Techn ica l r i sk assessments fa i l to re la te r i sk to ind iv idua l ac t ion o r soc ia l po l i cy fo rmat ion (K ishchuk , 1987) , due to the lack o f pa r t i c ipa t ion o f vu lnerab le vo lcan ic commun i t ies (H i l l and Cu t te r , 2001) . P rocedura l inequ i ty o f t hese commun i t i es is exp l i c i t i n VRM po l i c ies be ing ine f fec t i ve to p revent ing mass fa ta l i t ies (M i le t i e t a l . , 1991; Newha l l and Punongbayan , 1996 ; Cr i t t enden , 2001 ; B la i k ie e t a l . , 1994) . Charac ter i sed as power less , ex t reme ly poor and marg ina l i sed f rom wider soc ie ty , these group a re i so la ted f rom dec is ion -mak ing p rocesses (S lov ic , 1999) . Top-down approaches have led to fa ta l consequences fo r those t ry ing to secure l i ve l i hoods fo r surv i va l , and lack o f bo t tom-up approaches have exc luded those a t h igh - r isk .

Arguments to move

Technica l Risk Assessment

Vo lcan ic ac t iv i t y endangers any person l i v ing in c lose prox im i t y (B la i ke e t a l . , 1994) , w i th p r imary - and secondary hazards tha t canno t be mi t i ga ted (B long , 1996) . The rap id -onse t charac te r i s t i cs and l im i ted warn ing t imes con t r ibu te to the h igh - r i sks they pose . Vo lcan ic d i sas ters can lead to long- las t ing , devas ta t ing soc ia l change , economic wreckage and damages (Ches te r , 1993 ; Smi th , 1996 ; Rees , 1979) . Vo lcan ic ac t i v i t y has des t ruc t ive consequences f rom erup t ions , ash- fa l l s , py roc las t ic f lows , l ahars , lava f lows , vo lcan ic gas , l ands l ides and mudf lows (descr ibed in Tab le 2 ; Ches te r , 1993 ; Smi th , 1996) , con t inu ing fo r po ten t ia l l y months o r years . The aggress ive r i sks a re loss o f l i fe , l oss o r damage to p roper t y , soc ia l and economic env i ronments and c r i t i ca l i n f ras t ruc tu re (B long , 1984 ; Lough l in e t a l . , 2015) , consequences fo r human hea l th , des t ruc t ion o f commun ica t ions networks .


Secondary hazards , f rom d isease and famine , t o home lessness , job lessness , land lessness and soc ia l d i sa r t i cu la t ion ar i se f rom evacua t ion , p roper t y and env i ronmenta l l oss and degradat ion . These accoun t fo r over 65 ,000 fa ta l i t i es s ince 1600 AD (Auker e t

a l . , 2013) . Commun i t ies in such areas thus face an endur ing ba t t le and recovery e f fo r ts can be h indered by soc ioeconomic and env i ronmenta l cond i t i ons (Lane , Tob in and Wh i te ford , 2003) .

Inequi table d is t r ibut ion of vo lcanic r isk

In DC, the poores t g roups res ide on dangerous vo lcan ic a reas (Hewi t t , 1997; M i le t i , 1991) . Poor l y cons t ruc ted, unsafe dwe l l i ngs , i nadequa te se rv i ces and in f ras t ruc tu re and poor access to wa te r , san i ta t i on and nu t r i t i on a re common l i v ing cond i t i ons (Wh i te e t a l . , 2004; ISDR, 2003, 2009) . Emp i r i ca l ev idence shows these impover i sh g roups w i th the sma l les t share o f resources a re burdened w i th an inequ i tab le share o f vo lcan ic - r i sks ( Cu t te r , Boru f f and Sh i r l ey , 2003 ; Godscha lk , 2003 ; Tob in and Wh i te ford , 2002) . Pover t y i s the roo t cause (Cu t te r , Boru f f , Sh i r l ey , 2003 , Ad le r , 2005) , charac te r is ing soc ia l i nequ i t ies in the share o f power , f reedom o f cho ice and access resources in soc ie ty , severe depr i va t ion o f bas ic human needs and income (UNDP, 2003; Chambers , 1995) .

These poor soc ioeconomic charac te r is t i cs , exacerba ted by land lessness , popu la t ion pressure and s t ruc tu ra l cons t ra in t s , cons t ra in the poor to occupy dangerous vo lcan ic a reas , by mak ing

Table 2: Characteristics and social impact case studies of primary volcanic hazards in DC.

Primary Hazard

Characteristics Cases of disastrous social impacts

Literature

Pyroclastic Flow

Extremely high velocity and temperature surging ash cloud.

Pinatubo, 1991 (Philippines); Krakatau, Indonesia (1883); Mt Vesuvius, 79AD (Italy), Chichónal Volcano, (Mexico).

Carey et al., 1996; Loughlin et al., 2002; Blong, 1984.

Lahars High-velocity mudflows.

Pinatubo, 1991; Galunggung, 1982, (Indonesia); Nevado del Ruiz, 1985 (Colombia).

Sejak, 1982; Pierson et al., 1990; Suryo and Clarke, 1985.

Lava Molten rock expelled; flow characteristics differ.

Nyiragongo, 1977 (DRC) Sparks et al., 2002; Murata, Dondoli and Saenz, 1966.

Tephra Ejected fragmented rock particles, from blocks to dust.

Pinatubo, 1991; Yasur, 1984 (Vanuatu Pacific Island); Surtsey, 1969 (Iceland); Volcan Hudson, 1991, (Chile); Vulcan Paricutin, 1943, (Mexico)’ Monserrat, (Carribean Island), 1995-97.

Hansell, Horwell and Oppenheimer, 2006; Wilson et al, 2011; Wilson et al., 2014; Wilson et al., 2010; Punongbayan and Newhall, 1996; Cronin and Sharp, 2010; Hicks and Few, 2015.

Gases Released during activity. Mainly CO, CO², SO², H2S,

Lake Nyos (Oku Volcanic Field), 1986, Cameroon.

Kling et al, 1987.


sa fe r , a l t e rna t i ve loca t ion inaccess ib le ( Hardoy and Sat te r thwai te , 1989 ; Fernandes and Var ley , 1998 ; ISDR, 2003) . Wh i le the wea l th ie r choose to res ide on dangerous vo lcan ic a reas , the poor a re fo rced to res ide the re , i nvo lun ta r i l y accep t ing the burdensome vo lcan ic r i sks ( S ta r r , 1969 ; S joberg , 1987 ; Adams, 1995 ; Cap lan, 2000) .

Due to these groups da i l y s t rugg les fo r su rv iva l , t he i r r i sk -percep t ions underes t ima te the t rue vo lcan ic r i sks (Cannon , 1994 ; Kr imsky and Gold ing , 1992 ; Ga i l la rd , 2008) , and a re o f ten unw i l l i ng to fo l low VRM procedures . The be l ie fs o f the Mt Agung commun i t i es ( Indones ia ) encouraged the i r d ismiss ing o f f i c ia l vo lcan ic -warn ings (A l fano , 2006 ; Donovan , 2009) . These g roups a re mos t unprepared and unab le to respond to d i sas te rs (Lockwood & Haz le t t , 2013) , mos t l i ke l y to d ie and su f fe r i n ju r ies , and su f fe r h igh losses and obs tac les in respond ing and recover ing f rom vo lcan ic events (Fo therg i l l and Peek , 2004) . Thus , the 97% o f na tu ra l d i sas te r re la ted- fa ta l i t i es occur r ing in DC ( WB, 2001 ; Burney , S immonds and Quee ley , 2007) have been a t t r i bu ted to these fac to rs .

Poverty -d isaster t rap

Disas te rs con t r ibu te to and are exacerbated by fac to rs tha t make peop le vu lnerab le . By des t roy ing e f fo r t s to reduce pover ty , by caus ing unemployment , po l i t i ca l and economic ins tab i l i t y , f ood insecur i t y among o thers ( ISDR, 2003) . Vo lcan ic d i sas ters o f ten des t roy the few asse ts and resources these poor groups have , as they o f ten assembled the i r en t i re cap i ta l s tock a t t he d i sas ter s i te (Par ry , 2007 ; Wor ld Bank , 2004 ; T inh and Hang, 2003) , and cash reserves a re un l i ke ly . The loss o f l i ve l i hood sources , and thus income pos t -d isas te r makes the i r su rv i va l and pover ty - reduc t ion ta rgets a lmos t imposs ib le (Brund t land e t a l . , 1987 ; Cannon , 1994 ; ISDR, 2003 ) . A l l t he vo lcan ic d i sas te rs c i ted th roughou t th i s sec t ion can be cons t rued as c rea t ing a pover ty -d isas ter t rap ; desp i te hav ing long qu iescence per iods , t hey cause in tens i f i ed pover ty -s t r i cken cond i t i ons a f te r the d i sas te r ( ISDR, 2003 , 2004 , 2009 ; Donovan , 2009 ; Burney , S immonds and Quee ley , 2007) , inh ib i t i ng sus ta inab le deve lopment and fu tu re genera t ions v iab i l i t y (B rund t land e t a l . , 1987) .

Exacerbated vulnerabi l i ty

When impover i sh-commun i t ies res ide on dangerous vo lcan ic a reas in DC, the assoc ia ted r i sks super impose on the i r a l ready f rag i le surv i va l e f fo r t s , mak ing them inc reas ing ly vu lne rab le (Burney , S immonds and Quee ley , 2007 ; ISDR, 2003) . Vu lnerab i l i t y compr i ses hea l th , l i ve l i hood res i l ience, ab i l i t y and w i l l ingness to de fend themselves , as we l l as soc ia l and f inanc ia l cap i ta l


(Cannon , 1994; Lav igne e t a l . , 2008; Mor row, 1999 ; Degg and Ches te r , 2005) . I t i s the cause o f devas ta t ing fa ta l i t i es ; as these cond i t i ons a re weak in impover ish g roups (UNDP 2003 ; Anderson and Woodrow, 1998 ; Eade , 1998 ; IFRC, 1999 ; Wisner , 2003) . I t i s in tens i f i ed th rough soc ia l i nequa l i t i es , gender re la t ions and soc ioeconomic pos i t i ons ( ISDR, 2003, 2009) .

Such groups re ly on the insecure pr imary sec to r f o r the i r su rv iva l and l i ve l i hoods ; p redominan t l y moun ta inous subs is tence agr i cu l tu ra l i s ts ( Lave l l , 2009 , N jome e t a l . , 2010) . These groups l i ke l y su f fe r poor hea l th , l im i ted income, no f inanc ia l sav ings and economic and soc ia l marg ina l i t y wh ich can be a t t r i bu ted to s t ruc tu ra l cons t ra in t s i nh ib i t i ng access to c r i t i ca l resources ( ISDR, 2003 ; Benson and C lay 2004 ; Wi l son e t a l . , 2010) . Because o f the i r vu lne rab le s ta te , impover i sh-peop le w i l l respond poor l y to a vo lcan ic d i sas te r and be unprepared fo r i t , due to f i nanc ia l cons t ra in ts i nh ib i t i ng d i sas te r m i t i ga t ion measures (B la i k ie , e t a l . , 1994) . Th is has led to fa ta l consequences , i n add i t i on to the examp les ment ioned E l Ch ichon , (Mex ico , 1982) and Mount Agung ( Indones ia , 1963) w i th 3 ,500 and 1 ,584 fa ta l i t ies respec t ive ly (Tob in , 1999 ; W isner , 2001; A l fano, 2006 ; Esp indo la e t a l . , 2000) .

I f t hese impover ish g roups fo rced to res ide on dangerous vo lcan ic areas had access to sa fe r a reas to l i ve , the i r chances o f be ing l i f t ed ou t o f pover t y wou ld inc rease , t he i r vu lne rab i l i t y and r isk wou ld decrease, and they wou ld have eas ie r access to c r i t i ca l amen i t i es (med ica l and educa t ion fac i l i t ies ) and income genera t ing oppor tun i t i es ( ISDR, 2003) .

Arguments to s tay

Volcanic benef i ts

As we l l as r i sks , vo lcanoes p rov ide benef i t s du r ing the i r repose (Ke lman & Mather , 2008 , B i rd e t a l . , 2010 , Wi t te r , 2012) . Some vo lcan ic -commun i t i es chose to res ide the re fo r t he bene f i t s , a rgu ing they have a r i gh t to , vo lun ta r i l y accept ing the vo lcan ic r i sks (S tar r , 1969 ; Mercer and Ke lman, 2010) . These inc lude spec i f i c so i l qua l i t ies (He i jmans , 2001; Duncan e t a l . , 1981) , vo lcan ic mate r ia l s fo r ex t rac t ion (Er i ckson , 1988 ; Decker and Decker , 1991) , t ou r i sm, f reshwate r resources and geotherma l sys tems (Smal l & Naumann, 2001 ; Uehara , 2005 ; S igurdsson e t a l . , 2000) . Some res ide there fo r cu l tu ra l , sp i r i tua l and her i tage reasons (Dove , 2008 ; Cron in e t a l , 2004a ; Wi t te r , 2012; Mercer e t a l . , 2007) ; f o r examp le , t he Mt Marap i ( I ndones ia ) peop le be l ieve the vo lcanoes supernatu ra l be ing p ro tec ts them (Donovan , 2009) .

New Risk Management At t i tude


Rea l isa t ions emerged tha t changes in VRM were impera t i ve fo l low ing the 1985 Nevado de l Ru iz and 1991 P ina tubo d isas te rs and recogn is ing tha t some chose to res ide on vo lcanoes ( ISDR, 2004 , 2008) . S ince 1990 VRM has been more success fu l w i th reduced fa ta l i t ies per e rup t ion , fo r example 1993 Ga le ras (Co lombia ) and 2014 Mount S inaburg ( Indones ia ) e rup t ions c la im ing respec t i ve ly 9 and 26 l i ves (Bax te r and Gresham, 1997; Hasaya e t a l . , 2014; Auker e t a l , 2013) . These successes have been a t t r ibu ted to the par t i c ipa t ion and in f l uence o f the vu lnerab le -vo lcan ic commun i t ies in r i sk po l i cy (Marzocch i & Bebb ing ton , 2012 ; L indsay , 2010 ; Rober t s e t a l . , 2011; La rson e t a l . , 2010) . M i le t i e t a l . , (1991) and Punongbayan (1996) repor ted the fa i lu res o f the P ina tubo and Nevado de l Ru iz d i sas te rs was the lack o f commun i ty ’ s pa r t i c ipa t ion in VRM.

Vo lcan ic r i sk and vu lnerab i l i t y can be managed to ach ieve a ba lance be tween l i ves and l i ve l i hoods , so commun i t i es have the poten t ia l to func t ion e f fec t i ve ly , adap t and p rosper p roduc t i ve ly pos t -d i sas te r (P fe f fe rbaum and Wyche , 2008; Dominey-Howes and Minos-Minopou los , 2004) . L i v ing w i th vo lcan ic dangers (UNISDR, 2004) by ba lanc ing the po ten t ia l dangers and benef i t s vo lcanoes pose i s becoming feas ib le and success fu l (Hewi t t and Bur ton , 1971 ; Lew is , 1999 ; Wisner e t a l . , 2004) .

Successfu l R isk Management St ra tegies

A componen t o f l i v ing w i th r i sk i nco rpora tes loca l i s ing d isas te r r i sk reduc t ion (Ke lman and Mather , 2008) . Success fu l vo lcan ic VRM measures have been observed when d isas te r approaches a re communi ty -based and fea ture poor commun i ty ’ s par t i c ipa t ion in hazard , vu lne rab i l i t y and r i sk assessment (Anderson and Woodrow, 1989 ; Banko f f e t a l . , 2004; Mercer and Ke lman, 2010) . Through e f fec t i ve pre -d isas ter ( i .e . , p reparedness , m i t iga t ion) and pos t -d i sas ter ( i .e . , response, recovery ) ac t ions , l i ve l ihood cons idera t ion and loca l invo lvement , d i sas te r r i sk -reduc t ion i s more manageab le and ach ievab le (Lew is , 1999 ; Wisner e t a l . , 2004 ; Cron in e t a l . , 2004a , 2004b) .

Invo lv ing h igh - r isk vo lcan ic commun i t i es in mon i to r ing , commun ica t ing and dec is ion -mak ing , c rea tes commun i ty -coord ina ted approaches wh ich have success fu l i n m in im is ing VRM fa i lu res (Tob in and Wh i te fo rd , 2002) . These loca l i sed , bo t tom-up methods mi t i ga ted the po ten t ia l vo lcan ic d i sas te rs o f t he la rge 1997 Sou f r ie re H i l l s (Montser ra t ) and 2011 Nabro Vo lcano (Er i t rea) e rup t ions , respec t ive ly c la im ing 19 and 31 fa ta l i t ies , as the commun i t ies es tab l i shed a rap id warn ing sys tem (Ke lman and Mather , 2008 ; Barc lay e t a l . , 2008; Hammond, 2016) . Add i t i ona l ly , the 16 and 100 fa ta l i t ies fo r Moun t S inabung (2014) and Merap i


(2015) respec t ive ly were a t t r i bu ted to Indones ian ’s re fo rmed vo lcan ic r i sk s t ra teg ies focus ing on commun i t y pa r t i c ipa t ion in de termin ing loca l ly -e f fec t ive evacua t ion p rocedures (Donovan , 2009 ; Dove , 2007; Ke lman and Mather , 2008) .

The in teg ra t ion o f soc ia l and natu ra l d i sc ip l ines in r i sk -po l i cy has been a t t r i bu ted to improvement i n s t ra teg ies , th rough incorpora t ing the vu lnerab le -g roups (Pa ton e t a l . , 2008 ; Bur ton , Ka tes and Wh i te . 1978; A lexander 1993 ; Cashman and Cron in 2008) . The psychomet r i c soc ia l -sc ience approach to VRM o f S lov ic has loca l know ledge a t i t s core (Donovan , 2009 ; S lov ic and Webber , 2002 ; S lov ic , 2000) . Bo t tom-up, l oca l i sed par t i c ipa t ion approaches (Wisner e t a l . , 2004) a re based on the poor themselves knowing the i r s i t ua t ion and needs the bes t , o f fe r ing va luab le ins igh ts to i n f luence po l icy -des igns and implementa t ions in tend ing to be t te r t hem (Kran tz , 2001 ; Kumar , 2002 ; Mercer and Ke lman, 2010) . As a resu l t , VRM is more loca l l y focused th rough in teg ra t ion o f l oca l r i sk -percept ion and knowledge (Cron in e t a l . , 2004a ; Donovan , 2009; Mercer e t a l . , 2007 ; Degg and Ches te r , 2005 ; D ibben and Ches te r , 1999) .

Everyday knowledge can fu r ther unders tand ing fo r po l i c ies der i ved f rom soc ia l no rms (Foucau l t , 1980) , and no t p resumpt ions o f dec is ion -makers who a re fa r f rom the rea l exper iences o f the poores t peop le (F ischhof f e t a l . , 1978) . Ca lbuco (Ch i le ) and Ga leras (Co lombia ) commun i ty know ledge a ided commun ica t ing vo lcan ic warn ings dur ing the i r respec t ive 2015 and 1993 e rup t ions resu l t i ng in 0 and 9 fa ta l i t ies (Mercer and Ke lman, 2010; Sher idan and Cordoba , 2010; Hami l ton , 2013) . For Ga le ras ZAVA res idents , the i r i n f l uence in evacua t ion p rocedures made them h igh ly e f fec t i ve dur ing the 1993 erup t ion (Sher idan and Cordoba, 2010 ; Ke lman and Mather , 2010; Va lenc ia , 2013) . The fa i lu res to evacua te vo lcan ic communi t i es desp i te warn ings dur ing the Nevado de l Ru iz 1985 and P ina tubo 1991 devas ta t ing e rupt ions a t t r i bu ted to lack o f l oca l know-how (Vo igh t , 1990 ; Ha l l , 1992 ; Leone and Ga i l l a rd , 1999 ; Cr i sos tomo, 1992) .

Thus , power to i n f luence VRM t rans fe r red to loca l i nd iv idua ls has been success fu l , however , i nadequa te documenta t ion on how to broad ly ach ieve in teg ra t ion o f i nd igenous knowledge in to o f f i c ia l r i sk - reduc t ion ne tworks ex is ts (Dekens , 2007; NDC, 2005) . To tack le th i s , the app l ica t ion o f t he Sus ta inab le L ive l ihoods Approach (SLA) i s a poss ib le op t ion (Ke lman and Mather , 2008) .

Susta inable L ive l ihoods Approach

In a t tempt to ach ieve loca l i s ing l i v ing w i th r i sk in rea l i t y , t he SLA has o f ten been adop ted fo r vo lcan ic d i sas te r r i sk reduc t ion (see F igure 2 fo r co re concep ts ) . The SLA makes dangerous vo lcan ic -


areas sa fe r to an ex tent , by in teg ra t ing vo lcano- re la ted oppor tun i t ies in to everyday l i ve l i hoods (Ke lman and Mather , 2008; Mercer e t a l . , 2007; B la i k ie e t a l . , 1994; Haynes , Barc lay and P idgeon , 2008 ; Brown, 1981) . Chambers and Conway , (1992) sugges ts l i ve l ihoods tha t a re f l ex ib le , secure and sa fer can endure and recover f rom shocks and de l i ver bene f i t s a t the loca l l eve l (Ke lman and Mather , 2008; Kran tz , 2001 ; ISDR, 2004 ; Paavo la , 2008) . The SLA cons iders tha t peop le ’ s behav iours dur ing vo lcan ic d i sas ters i s cons t ra ined by soc ia l , economic and po l i t i ca l fo rces beyond the i r con t ro l , and f rames prob lems f rom the perspec t i ve o f f ocus ing on l i ve l i hoods (Chambers 1995) . By tack l ing the s t ruc tura l cons t ra in ts wh ich inh ib i t impover ish g roups f rom a

secure l i v ing , pover ty , vu lne rab i l i t y and d isas te r - r i sk are reduced (Chambers and Conway , 1992 ; Chambers , 1995) .

Figure 2 Core concepts of the SLA (Kelman and Mather, 2008)


Manag ing vu lnerab i l i t y and r i sk to p revent d isas ters

A c r i t i ca l componen t o f the SLA i s commun ica t ing and manag ing vu lnerab i l i t y and r i sk in assoc ia t ion w i th loca l pe rcept ions (Cron in e t a l , 2004a , 2004b) . L ive l ihood d ivers i f i ca t ion invo lves expand ing the i r income-genera t ing sources beyond the v o lcanoes to ensure t rans fe rab i l i t y o f l i ve l i hoods pos t -d isas te r ( ISDR, 2009 ; Paavo la , 2008 ; Scoones , 1998 ; E l l i s : 2000, Chambers and Conway , 1992) . M i le t i e t a l . , (1991) descr ibed how the lack o f l i ve l i hoods and commun i ty exc lus ion p r io r to 1985 Nevado de l Ru iz (Co lomb ia ) exacerba ted pover t y fo l l ow ing pos t - lahar d isp lacement . The p romot ion o f l i ve l i hood d ive rs i f i ca t ion a l l ows peop le to r i se ou t o f pover ty and be empowered fo l l ow ing a d isas ter (Carney , 1998 ; Cannon , Twigg and Rowel l , 2004) . For P ina tubo , l i ve l ihood d ive rs i f i ca t ion enab led rap id commun i ty recovery fo r the ind igenous Aeta g roup fo l l ow ing lahar inunda t ion (Ga i l l a rd and Leone , 2000 ; Ga i l l a rd , 2003 , 2006 ; Cr i t tenden , 2001) .

Through improv ing l i v ing-cond i t ions and secur ing l i ve l i hoods fo r poor peop le , t he SLA he lps them ad jus t the i r pe rcep t ions o f t rue vo lcan ic r i sks (S lov ik , 1999) . Th is he lps commun i t ies reduce the i r vu lne rab i l i t y and inc rease the i r adapt ive capac i t y (Cron in e t a l , 2004a , 2004b) . For example , t he new w i l l ingness o f vo lcan ic -commun i t i es to fo l l ow and suppor t evacua t ion p rocedures have been a t t r i bu ted to th i s (Mercer and Ke lman, 2010) . Such as the 1993 Ga le ras ’ success fu l evacua t ion (Va lenc ia , 2013) . I t was repor ted tha t th is approach wou ld be enab led more commun i ty -w i l l i ngness fo r the Papua New Guinea 2004 evacua t ion (Ke lman and Ke lman, 2010) . Thus , SLA enab les bet te r responses and more l i ke l y su rv i va l du r ing vo lcan ic -d i sas ters , and thus the ab i l i t y to m i t iga te a c r i s i s becoming a d isas te r (Ke lman and Mather , 2008) .

Commun i t y sus ta inab i l i t y

Th is approach he lps max imise the benef i t s commun i t i es can der i ve f rom the vo lcan ic env i ronment th rough repose per iods , th rough bo t tom-up ass is tance (Cron in e t a l , 2004b) . Th is i s sa id to inc rease soc ia l and economic res i l ience , wh ich as s ta ted by


Rozd i lsky , 2001 , on Monser ra t , a re key componen ts fo r sus ta inab le deve lopment . These fac to rs enhance commun i ty res i l i ence and adap t i ve capab i l i t i es dur ing and a f te r a vo lcan ic d is tu rbance (P fe f fe rbaum and Wyche , 2008) .

I t mus t be acknowledged tha t no t a l l vo lcanoes are feas ib le to l i ve on, dependent on the i r charac te r is t i cs and h is to ry ; and not a l l vo lcan ic ac t iv i t y y ie lds l i ve l ihoods wh ich shou ld be encouraged (e .g . , c ra ter tou rs ) ( IAVCEI , 1994 , 1999) . Thus , vo lcanoes shou ld not be re l i ed on fo r l i ve l i hoods or homes w i thout t horough cons idera t ion o f t he r i sks (Mercer and Ke lman, 2008) .

Core concepts for sa fer l ives

There was encourag ing p rogress in VRM s ince 1990 . However some r isk -po l i c ies cont inue to ignore r i sks emerg ing f rom the fab r ic o f soc ie ty , d i s locat ing vo lcan ic - r i sk f rom day- to -day under ly ing cons t ra in ts o f the mos t vu lne rab le (Ga i l l a rd , 2008) . When assess ing and app ly ing r i sk in to some reduc t ion s t ra teg ies (e .g . , Papua New Guinea) , the re i s a need to re fe r to the key p r inc ip les o f the r i sk equa t ion , and cons ider a l l d imens ions o f r i sk . Some have made improvements (e .g . , Ph i l i pp ines , Co lombia and Ch i le ) , and seen success f rom in tegra t ing vu lnerab i l i t y as a po l icy too l (Cron in e t a l , 2004a) .

D isas te r - r i sks a re fundamenta l l y l inked to c r i t i ca l sus ta inab le deve lopment p rac t ices (Brund t land Repor t , 1987 ; Baker , 2005) , h igh l igh t ing a need fo r r i sk -po l i cy re forms in DC. The need to equ i tab le and jus t deve lopment i s h igh l igh ted th rough the cont inu ing inequ i tab le d i s t r i bu t ion o f vo lcan ic r i sks w i th in soc ie t ies . Thus , contempora ry VRM needs to p r io r i t i ze such inequa l i t i es and par t i c ipa t ion concerns (S lov ic , F i schof f and L ich tens te in ’ s , 1980 ; F ischho f f e t a l . , 1978 ; Donovan , 2009 ; Cooke and Ko thar i , 2002) .

A l though the w ide ly app lauded success in VRM s t ra teg ies s ince 1990 , the re s t i l l rema ins many l im i ta t ions and room fo r improvement , and the vo lcan ic r i sks w i l l never fu l l y be removed . H igh l igh ted l im i ta t ions w i th SLA i s i t s e f fec t i veness in go ing beyond the conven t iona l s t ra t i f i ca t ions o f power w i th in commun i t i es to ensure the approach is bo t tom-up (Foucau l t , Mor r is and Pa t ton 1979, Foucau l t , 1980 , Ke lman and Mather , 2008) . A t ru l y bo t tom-up par t i c ipa tory approach , d is t r ibu t ing power to commun i t i es can encompass the needs o f the poor i n VRM (Foucau l t , 1980 ; Brown, 1981) . The i r par t i c ipa t ion p romotes reduced inequa l i t i es , c r i t i ca l pover ty a l lev ia t ion , sus ta inab le l i ve l ihoods and deve lopment (A lder , 2005 ; F reeman e t a l . , 2002) .

Conclusion


In conc lus ion , commun i t i es tha t choose to , can p rosper l i v ing on dangerous vo lcan ic a reas . A l though the vo lcan ic - r i sk w i l l never be removed , th i s s tudy demons t ra tes how new VRM invo lv ing the commun i t i es themse lves , have c rea ted success fu l s t ra teg ies , by incorpora t ing bo th co re r i sk components , and commun i ty par t i c ipa t ion and knowledge . Wh i ls t l i ve l i hood d ive rs i f i ca t ion can reduce the i r vo lcan ic -vu lnerab i l i t y and pover t y , i nc reas ing impover ish commun i t ies capac i t y to cope , l ead ing to less fa ta l i t ies .

However , l i v ing on vo lcanoes i s no t feas ib le fo r everyone or each vo lcano, and r isk assessments mus t be thorough. The r i sks assoc ia ted w i th vo lcanoes a re s t i l l g rave , and coun t r ies need to comple te ly embrace communi ty -par t i c ipa t ion fo r r i sk s t ra teg ies to p reven t d i sas te rs .

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