Peace Studies

‘State Security’ and ‘HumanSecurity’ in Conflict and Post-conflict Societies

Mandy Turner

Department of Peace Studies

University of Bradford

Peace Studies

Problematising ‘security’

• Not a neutral concept: ‘security’ for whom?

• Focus on struggles for statehood/recognition: Kosovo, Timor-Leste (East Timor), Bosnia-Herzegovina, Palestine.

• Widening of concept of ‘security’ out from merely ‘state security’ to include ‘human security’.

Peace Studies

Problematising ‘security’

• State building process split into 3 phases:– Period of non-recognition/armed struggle– Process of recognition/peace process.– Initial period of recognition/peacebuilding

Each phase faces different security challenges. We need to ask the same question in all 3 phases: security for whom?

Peace Studies

Period of non-recognition/armed struggle

• Tension between right to self-determination enshrined in Article 1 of UN Charter & right to state sovereignty enshrined in Article 2 of UN Charter (prohibits challenges to the ‘territorial integrity’ or ‘domestic jurisdiction’ of sovereign states.

• Struggle for recognition challenges state sovereignty of the occupier/central state.

Peace Studies

Period of non-recognition/armed struggle

• ‘Security’ in this phase = security of the occupier/central state.

• ‘Human security’ of unrecognised people threatened by occupier/central state, particularly in phase of struggle if O/CT uses military force and refuses to negotiate.

Peace Studies

Period of non-recognition/armed struggle

• Security of unrecognised people in this period dependent upon a peace process and UN (or regional security organisation e.g. NATO) peacekeeping force.

• Direct appeals to UN and other security organisations common method:

– Arafat speech at UN 1974; – Kosovo Liberation Army/NATO.

Peace Studies

Period of non-recognition/armed struggle• Veto power of 5 Permanent Members of UN

Security Council (US, UK, France, Russia & China). Security interests of Great Powers centre stage.

• ‘Right’ to self-determination not a ‘right’ but dependent on other key factors:– Support of a powerful patron.– Does not challenge political/strategic interests of

one of the P5. UN powerless if it does.

Peace Studies

Security in the period of recognition• Coherent and legitimate peace process with

involvement of all parties:– Problem of ‘spoilers’ i.e. parties who seek to

undermine it:• Actors ‘inside’ the peace process?• Actors ‘outside’ the peace process?

– International actors (‘custodians of the peace’) need to ensure security of weaker party and balance asymmetry.

Peace Studies

Security in the period of recognition • Bosnia-Herzegovina

– Dayton Peace Accords/UN SC Resolution 1035 (1995)

– Withdrawal of Serbian forces ensured by UNPROFOR (replaced by NATO, then EU forces).

– UNMIBH and Office of High Representative (international supervision).

Peace Studies

Security in the period of recognition • Kosovo

– No UN SC mandate, NATO intervention– UN SC Resolution 1244 (1999)– Serbian forces withdrawal ensured by KFOR

(NATO)– UNMIK (transitional administration).

Peace Studies

Security in the period of recognition • Timor-Leste

– 1999 vote for independence– UN SC Resolution 1264 (1999)– INTERFET (Australian-led)– UNTAET (transitional administration)

Peace Studies

Security in the period of recognition • Palestine

– Oslo Peace Accords (1993); Oslo II (1995)– Israeli withdrawal not overseen by a UN or

regional security force– Creation of Palestinian Authority (interim self-

rule).– Oslo about ensuring ‘security’ for Israel?

Peace Studies

Security in ‘post’-conflict period‘Freedom from fear’• Demilitarisation of society

– Nascent state needs monopoly over legitimate use of force.

– Pacify other sources of physical force, e.g. militias and freedom fighters.

– DDR and security sector reform.

• Development of ‘rule of law’

Peace Studies

Security in ‘post’-conflict periodFreedom from want• Post-conflict reconstruction

– Humanitarian assistance & IDP resettlement– Infrastructure repaired/built

• Development and state-building– Stimulating the economy & creating jobs– Building state institutions, civil society and political

participation.

Peace Studies

Comparison of case studies: Bosnia• State security:

– borders & independence assured by internationals. – Bonn Powers: OHR.

• Human security: – freedom from fear: Demilitarisation, SSR. ICTFY. EU ‘Stability

Pact’. Problems: organised crime, Republika Srpska, reform fragmented. Ethnic nationalism strong.

– Freedom from want: huge PCR programme; development problematic - high unemployment, low economic growth; state-building - still divided into 2: FBiH/ RS; still under international supervision.

Peace Studies

Comparison of case studies: Kosovo• State security:

– borders & independence ensured by NATO. – Feb 2008 Declaration of independence. Recognised by 3 out of

5 P5; problem of Serbia.

• Human security: • freedom from fear: establishing military, ICTFY, EU Rule of Law

Mission, EU Stability Pact. Problems: organised crime, North Kosovo (Serb). Ethnic divisions widened.

• freedom from want: one of poorest countries in Europe, 40-50% unemployment despite huge international aid. State-building: weak institutional capacity.

Peace Studies

Comparison of case studies: Timor-Leste• State security

– Borders and independence: INTERFET now UNMIT.– Independence May 2002. Attempted assassination of Pres. Ramos

Horta, Feb 2008.

• Human Security– Freedom from fear: SSR & justice weak: April 2006 riots; tension

between UN and TL police.– Freedom from want: Initial large sums of money but continuing

prob of poverty & unemployment. State-building: corruption & poor financial transparency. Too rapid withdrawal of international assistance?

Peace Studies

Comparison of case studies: Palestine• State security

– Borders and independence: left out of Oslo. Areas A, B and C. PA a quasi-state: no sovereignty.

– Oslo forbids national army; IDF dominant.

• Human security– Freedom from fear: SSR. Probs: militia rivalry, IDF.– Freedom from want: huge international aid flows, but

poverty and unemployment: closure system. State-building: governance reforms after 2002. Problems: PA split; ban on Hamas.

Peace Studies

Timor-Leste: sound familiar?

• Annexed by Indonesia in 1975 after Portuguese decolonisation.

• Cold War dynamics - resolution impossible: US support for Indonesia.

• 24 year armed struggle. 1 umbrella organisation: CNRT; dominated by one party: Fretilin.

• End of Cold War: end of US support for Indonesia.• 1999 vote for independence. Violence from Indonesian

troops and pro-Indonesia militias.

Peace Studies

Timor-Leste: sound familiar?

• 1999. 70% of infrastructure destroyed by Indonesian forces and militias. 300,000 displaced.

• Challenge = rebuild infrastructure, strengthen administration and create jobs.

• Reform of justice sector and institution building key focus of international involvement.

• Need to address the ‘youth crisis’.

• Agriculture dominates economy, undeveloped private sector, govt spending main source of economic growth.

Peace Studies

The differences...

• Palestine not post-conflict. Palestine economy under occupation: fragmentation of territory. Demise of 2-state solution? Aid money flowing into bottomless pit.

• Le More ‘killing with kindness’. “The US decides, the World Bank leads, the EU pays, the UN feeds.”

• Difference: Timor-Leste: oil and gas wealth. How to utilise. Security issues are internal – no powerful domineering neighbour. Israel: the ‘elephant in the corner’.

Peace Studies

Israel’s ‘security’ = Palestine’s insecurity

• Strong ‘security’ discourse for actions: – military spending is the second highest in the

world at US$1737 per capita in 2008.– ‘revolving door’ between IDF and politics.• Human security: cost of occupation

financial/social?• State security: protection of borders, territory

and Jewish character of state.

Peace Studies

Israel’s ‘security’ = Palestine’s insecurity • Actions in West Bank – a ‘resource conflict’ -

land and water grab.• Settlements = illegal extra-territorial

communities. How to remove??• De facto implementation of Allon Plan?• Gaza: destroy Hamas, divide Palestinian national

movement, make Gaza Egyptian problem.• Security of ‘Eretz Israel’.

Peace Studies

Palestine’s insecurity = Israel’s ‘security’

• Preserving Jewish character of state?– Demographic challenges: 20% of Israeli

population = Palestinians. Lieberman: expulsion.– Right of return for Jews but not Palestinian

refugees.– Demise of 2-state solution? Belligerent

occupation over West Bank and Gaza: Palestinians and Israeli populations @ equal.

Peace Studies

Common problems in ‘post’-conflict societies

• Destroyed infrastructure. Return of displaced peoples.

• Weak & ‘war’ economies. Problem of (re)building private sector. Unemployment.

• State-building, problems of capacity, corruption, democratisation.

• Militias: demobilise?; SSR. Rule of law

Peace Studies

A ‘checklist’ for security and stability• Security (freedom from fear)

• Wealth and welfare (freedom from want)

• Representation + legitimacy (‘social contract’, democracy)

• Sovereignty. Right to self-determination/ self-rule.