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Part XPart XMemory: Picture Memory, Distortions, etc.
El b i d i di1. Elaborations during encoding
2. Inability to encodey
3. Misleading information at encodingencoding
4. Retrieval biases
5. Verbal processing
fPlease recall all of the words that you were asked to learn at the beginning of the lecture.
How racial stereotypes distort social perceptions:After briefly viewing this picture, one participant described it to a second participant, who described it to a third, and so on. After six rounds of
i i h fi l f l d h bl d h ld b hcommunication, the final report often placed the razor blade held by the white man into the black mans’ hand.
Please take a moment to answer the questions about the video you watched earlierabout the video you watched earlier.
H f t th i h th hHow fast were the cars going when they _____ each other?
VERB USED ESTIMATE (in MPH)Smashed† 40.8Collided 39.3Bumped 38.1 u ped 38Hit 34.0Contacted 31.8
O k l h d b k† One week later, these participants reported seeing broken glass (when there was none)!!!!
Robbery and Murder experiment (Loftus, 1974)
Three Groups▪ Circumstantial Evidence▪ +Eyewitness Testimony▪ +Eyewitness Testimony
with 20/400 visionwith 20/400 vision
Convenience Store experiment (Brigham et al., 1982)p ( g , 9 )
Unusual/Distinct ActionsDirectionsPaying in Change
Later memory2 vs. 24 hours later
Videotaped crimeMisled by another “witness”2 DVs (Loftus & Greene, 1980)
Face ReconstructionFace Recognition
L i R i iLures in RecognitionSanders (1984)
Jury Ignorance Cutler, Penrod, & Dexter, 1990
ff f fEffects of Misleading InformationWhy does this happen?
Another Loftus accident experiment
Stop and Yield Signs
Before misleadingBefore misleading information:
After misleading information:
fWhy does Loftus’s explanation sound bad?
What else might explain this?
d h hLet’s do the math
New Explanation of Loftus Miller & Burns (1978)
Control Group
New Explanation of Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)
Expected Total
% of Subjects Performance CorrectRemember 40% 100% 40%
Don’t Remember 60% 50% 30%Total 70%
Misled Group
Remember 40% 100% 40%
Don’t Remember 60% 25% 15%Total 55%
See: See:
Hear: “7-Up” Hear: “7-Up”
Test: Coke or 7-Up? Test: Coke or Sunkist?
Control Group
Expected Total% of Subjects Performance Correct
Remember 40% 100% 40%4 4Don’t Remember 60% 50% 30%
70%
Misled Group
Expected Total% of Subjects Performance Correct% of Subjects Performance Correct
Remember 40% 100% 40%Don’t Remember 60% 50% 30%
70%
Forced Choice procedure
h ffNew way to test this effect
l d lResults and implications
l f hBest explanation for these errors?
See:See:
Hear: “7-Up”7 p
Test Coke? T t h i di id llTest: Coke?7-Up?Sunkist?
Test each individually
LEARN A B LEARN A C TEST A BLEARN A-B LEARN A-C TEST A-B
Interference from new learning
Karl Lashley vs. Gordon BowerSearching for engrams▪ Unsuccessfully, gave up
M i i l i▪ Memory is not a single unit▪ Composed of multiple components (features)
Emotional featuresSemantic featuresEpisodic featuresVisual/Auditory featuresVisual/Auditory featuresMore features…
f fComposed of many features, just like any other memory…
h h d l dWhat have we reviewed already?
h dShepard (1967)2-AFC Recognition▪ Words vs Pictures▪ Words vs. Pictures▪ Delay vs. Immediate
Standing (1973)2-AFC Recognition
D l I di▪ Delay vs. Immediate
Why is it so good?y g
Faded Snapshot Image decayImage decayImpaired access, random distortion
ConstructivistFeatures constructed and lostPredictable biases
Hierarchical Organization (Stevens & Coupe, 1978)
Map example
Comparison of cities▪ Farther East: Reno or
San Diego
Why does this happen?
Grouping and Categories(Hirtle & Jonides, 1985)
Distances within vsDistances within vs. between categories
Near vs. Distant Buildings
Wh d hi h ?Why does this happen?
fCognitive Reference Points (Holyoak & Mah, 1982)
Distances from certain landmarks
Distances TO and FROM▪ San Francisco to Salt Lake City▪ New York to Philadelphia
h d h hWhy does this happen?
lAlignment (B. Tversky, 1981)
South and North AmericaSouth and North America
Why does this happen?Grouping/CategoriesGrouping/Categories
Rotation (B. Tversky, 1981)
Back to South AmericaR t tiRotationSimilar to another bias?
d k ff d ll lLandmark Effect (Sadalla et al., 1980)
Wh d k f ll h bi i i ?What do we take from all these biases in picture memory?BackgroundOrientationOrientationRelation of figuresReference Frame
Whi h i h h ?Which is the correct theory?
Memory is feature based (“multicomponent”)y p
M EMemory Errors
Eyewitness Testimony
Picture Memoryy
Biases in Picture Memory