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Neurorehabilitation
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PARKINSON’S DISEASE:: EVALUATION, REHABILITATION
AND TREATMENT
Bradley R. Ertel MD
Renee Ertel Puleo Pharm.D.
Mercy Hospital of South Buffalo
DISCLOSURES
None
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OBJECTIVES
Discuss the pathophysiology of Parkinson’s Disease (PD)
Define specific movement disorders associated with PD
Discuss pharmacological and non‐pharmacological
treatments
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DEFINITIONS OF MOVEMENT DISORDERS
Neurological dysfunctions in which there exists either:
Hyperkinesia: excessive movement
Hypokinesia: paucity of voluntary and automatic movements
Not associated with weakness or spasticity
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EXAMPLES OF HYPERKINESIA
Akathisia: Restlessness, anxiety, inner tension
Athetosis: Slow, writhing, involuntary movements that are usually distal
Ballismus: Violent, involuntary movements involving one side of body
Chorea: Brief, repetitive, jerky, involuntary movements
Dystonia: Repetitive, twisting movements leading to abnormal posture
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MORE EXAMPLES OF HYPERKINESIA
Hemifacial spasm: Irregular, involuntary muscle contractions on one side of the face
Myoclonus: Brief, shock‐like muscular contractions that can be regular or arrhythmic
Restless Leg Syndrome: Urge to move the legs to relieve unpleasant sensations
Tics: Sustained, nonrhythmic, rapid, and stereotyped muscle contractions
Tremor: Rhythmic and oscillating movements
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EXAMPLES OF HYPOKINESIA
Parkinson’s Disease
Secondary Parkinsonism Meningitis AIDS Reglan MPTP
Parkinson’s Plus Syndromes Shy Drager: Autonomic dysfunction Olivopontocerebellar atrophy: Ataxia and dysarthria
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PARKINSON’S DISEASE
Progressive disorder of the basal ganglia due to loss of
dopaminergic cells in the substantia nigra
Hyperactivity of cholinergic neurons in the caudate nuclei
Imbalanced cholinergic / dopaminergic transmission
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INCIDENCE AND EPIDEMIOLOGY
Prevalence Rate : 200 per 100,000Rare for individuals < 40 years of age 1% for individuals > 60 years of age 2% for individuals > 85 years of ageMen > Women Incidence rate : 20 per 100,000 (annually)The National Parkinson’s Foundation estimates that up to 1.5 million Americans have the diseaseApproximately 50,000 new cases are diagnosed each year
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CLINICAL FEATURES OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE
Resting tremor
Lead pipe rigidity
Cogwheel rigidity
Bradykinesia / Masked Facies
Postural instability
Festinating (shuffling) gait
Freezing phenomenon11
RESTING TREMORS
• Suppressed by activity or sleep
• Intensified by stress or fatigue (pill rolling)
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RIGIDITY
Lead pipe• Smooth resistance to passive
movement that is independent of velocity
Cogwheel• Ratcheting through range of
motion due to subtle tremor superimposed on rigidity
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BRADYKINESIA
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Upper extremities
• Begins distally with decreased manual dexterity of fingers
• Typing• Tying shoelaces• Buttoning shirt
BRADYKINESIA
Lower extremities
Leg dragging Shuffling feet Difficulty standing up from a chair Difficulty getting out of a car
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MASKED FACIES
Occurs when bradykinesia affects the muscles of facial expression
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POSTURAL INSTABILITY
• Slumped over
• Protracted shoulders
• Flexed hips
• Flexed knees
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DIAGNOSIS OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE
Primarily clinical
Two groups of symptomsMinimal or no rest tremor (predominant rigidity and akinesia) Rest tremor predominant
The use of laboratory or neuroimaging is for exclusionary purposes and atypical cases
Routine electrodiagnostic studies will not aid in diagnosis of PD
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STAGES OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE
EarlyMildModerateSevereLate
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STAGES OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE
EARLY No functional impairment Mild symptoms Unilateral tremors Family members detect poor posture, loss of balance, and abnormal facial expressions
MILD Bilateral symptoms Difficulty ambulating and maintaining balance Difficulty completing ADL
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STAGES OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE
MODERATE Multiple medications Occupational and social activities affected Inability to walk or stand straight Noticeable slowing of movements
SEVERE Medication side effects Resistance to therapies Reduced quality of life Unable to perform ADL Cannot live independently Decreased tremors (mechanism unknown)
LATE Dependent in ADL, wheelchair or bed bound
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PROGNOSIS OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE
Tremor predominant patients progress more slowly than patients with bradykinesia as the predominant complaint
Bradykinesia is more disabling than tremors
Akinesia can indicate a more rapidly progressing disease process
Life expectancy is variable, but significantly improved with medical management
Dysphagia is the most important risk factor associated with early demise
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PROGNOSIS OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE
Positive Prognostic Indicators
Early tremorRigidityFamily history of Parkinson’s Disease
Negative Prognostic Indicators
BradykinesiaAkinesiaPostural instabilityGait dysfunctionCognitive deficitsLate age of onset
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PARKINSON’S DISEASE
PET scans highlight the loss of dopamine storage capacity in Parkinson’s disease. In the scan of a disease‐free brain, made with [18F]‐FDOPA PET (left image), the red and yellow areas show the dopamine concentration in a normal putamen, a part of the mid‐brain. Compared with that scan, a similar scan of a Parkinson’s patient (right image) shows a marked dopamine deficiency in the putamen.
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PARKINSON’S DISEASE
BCMJ, Vol. 43, No. 3, April 2001, page(s) 142‐147
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IMPAIRMENTS IN PARKINSON’S DISEASE
GaitBladderOrthostatic hypotensionPainGastrointestinalCognitionDepressionPsychosis and HalluciniationsSleep
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GAIT
Can result from disease or secondary to medications Inefficient Compromised by bradykinesia, poor posture, and fear of falling 2 Stereotypical patterns Freezing: Inability to initiate gait after stopping Festination: Rapid shuffling steps with additional trunk flexion
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BLADDER
Most common abnormality: nocturiaUrgencyFrequencyDetrusor hyperreflexiaTreatmentTimed voiding while awake Intermittent catheterizationAnticholinergics
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ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION
Due to autonomic dysfunction from sympathetic denervation
Magnified by intravascular volume depletion due to poor fluid intake
Elderly: Consider cardiovascular disease and other causes of hypotension, such as medications
Treatment Avoid warm baths and heavy meals Avoid straining while defecating Avoid Valsalva maneuver Compression leg stockings Abdominal binders Arise slowly from a seated position Pause in a sitting position before arising from a supine position Tilt table test Antihypertensive medication management
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PAIN
Primary central processes Secondary to other conditions Aching pain in affected limbMost common cause of pain in PD limb rigidity Restless leg syndrome Headaches Treatment Pharmacological and non‐pharmacological
Increase mobility and flexibility
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GASTROINTENSTINAL
Swallowing Decreased lingual control and bolus propulsion Due to abnormalities in striated muscle under DA control and smooth muscle under autonomic control
Nutrition Restrict protein consumption Vitamin B6 supplementation
Decreased gastric emptying Early satiety Nausea/vomiting Reglan worsens dyskinesia Decreased peristalsis and GERDheartburn
Constipation Altered sympathetic innervation of GI tract Decreased mobility and hydration
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COGNITION
Psychomotor retardation, memory difficulty, and altered personality
Anatomic and pathologic basis is not understood
Dementia occurs late in the disease
Risk factors Later age of onset Longer symptom duration Hallucinations Depressive symptoms Family history of dementia
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DEPRESSION
Most common psychiatric disturbance seen in PD Independent of disease severity and duration Features of depression and Parkinson’s are similar Deficits in serotonergic transmission Decreased norepinephrine and dopamine Treatment Counseling TCA SSRI
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PSYCHOSIS / HALLUCINATIONS
Visual hallucinations are the most common psychiatric symptom in PD patients
PsychosisUnderlying Lewy Body diseaseAntiparkinson drugs (Dopamine agonists)Generally resolves when medications are discontinuedSingle greatest reason for nursing home placement in patients with PD
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SLEEP
Ranked as one of the most troublesome nonmotorsymptoms in early and late PD
Most common sleep disturbances: Sleep fragmentation and early morning awakening
Most common etiologies Nocturia Difficulty turning over in bed Cramps Vivid dreams Nightmares Pain (most commonly neck or back)
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SURGICAL TREATMENT OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE
DESTRUCTIVE SURGERY
Thalamotomy Surgical destruction of specific cells in the thalamus Restricts contralateral tremor
Pallidotomy Permanent ablation of a portion of the globus pallidus IndicationsDyskinesias Stiffness FreezingNot effective for controlling tremors
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DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION (DBS)
DBS targets: Thalamus, Globus pallidus interna, and STN
High frequency stimulation involves placing an electrode into the targeted brain area under electrophysiologic guidance
Electrode is connected to a pulse generator, which is activated and deactivated by passing a magnet over the apparatus
The precise mechanism of action is unknown, but DBS is purported to work by resetting abnormal firing patterns in the brain
Associated with fewer complications than thalamotomy
Is replacing thalamotomy as the procedure of choice for Parkinson’s38
TYPES OF DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION
SubthalamicReduces tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesiaReduces antiparkinsonian medications by halfMost common surgical procedure for Parkinson’s Disease
ThalamicReduces contralateral tremorWorsens bradykinesia, rigidity, and gait
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DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION
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PHARMACOLOGICAL TREATMENT
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PHARMACOLOGICAL AGENTS FOR PD
Carbidopa/Levodopa
Dopamine Agonists
Monoamine oxidase B (MAO‐B) inhibitors
Catechol‐O‐methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitors
Amantadine
Anticholinergic agents
BotulinumNeurotoxin (Botox)42
CARBIDOPA/LEVODOPA
Carbidopa/Levodopa (Sinemet)Carbidopa/LevodopaODT (Parcopa)Carbidopa/LevodopaCR (SinemetCR)
Mechanism of Action Levodopa is the metabolic precursor of dopamine Levodopa crosses the blood‐brain barrier, where it is converted to dopamine Treats bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremor
Adverse reactions GI: anorexia, n/v Cardiovascular: arrhythmia and orthostatic hypotension Psychiatric: mood disorders, sleep disturbances, hallucinations, and delusions Controlled by adjusting dose and frequency
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CARBIDOPA/LEVODOPA DOSING
Immediate release Initial: Carbidopa 25 mg/levodopa 100 mg PO TID Food to reduce nauseaOrally disintegrating does not require water
Sustained release Carbidopa 50 mg/levodopa 200 mg PO BIDDecrease dose in elderlyDo not crush
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DOPAMINE AGONISTS
Pramipexole (Mirapex) Apomorphine (Apokyn)
Bromocriptine (Parlodel) Ropinirole (Requip)
Rotigotine (Neupro)Mechanism of Action Exact unknown; stimulate dopamine receptors Treat bradykinesia and rigidity Reduce off time
Adverse Reactions Somnolence, edema, n/v, hypotension, hallucinations, and peripheral edema Pulmonary fibrosis with bromocriptine 45
DOPAMINE AGONIST DOSING
Pramipexole Initial: 0.125 mg PO TID Food to reduce nausea Adjust for renal impairment
Ropinirole Initial: 0.25 mg PO TID, Max: 24 mg/day
Rotigotine Transdermal patch applied daily Initial: 2mg/24hr (early), 4mg/24hr (advanced)
Apomorphine 0.06 mg/kg “rescue” subcutaneous injection
Bromocriptine Initial: 1.25 mg PO BID Food to reduce nausea
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MAO‐B INHIBITORS
Selegiline (Eldepryl)SelegilineODT (Zelapar)
Rasagiline (Azilect) Mechanism of Action Selectively inhibits MAO‐B from breaking down dopamine May be neuroprotective Treat motor fluctuations Reduce off time
Adverse Reactions Headache, nausea, hypertension with >400mg tyramine Insomnia with selegiline
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MAO‐B INHIBITOR DOSING
Selegiline 5 mg PO BID with breakfast and lunch 10 mg PO daily in the morningDose decrease in elderly
Rasagiline 1 mg PO dailyDose decrease in mild hepatic impairment
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COMT INHIBITORS
Entacapone (Comtan)Tolcapone (Tasmar)
Mechanism of Action Used in conjunction with carbidopa/levodopa Selectively inhibits peripheral COMT Treat motor complications
Adverse Reactions Increased levodopa adverse reactions, brown‐orange urine
Black Box Warning Hepatotoxicity with tolcapone
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COMT INHIBITOR DOSING
Entacapone 200 mg with each dose of carbidopa/levodopaMax: 1600 mg/day
Tolcapone Initial: 100 mg PO TID
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COMBINATION PRODUCT
Carbidopa/Levodopa/Entacapone (Stalevo) Substitute for patients already stabilized on equivalent doses of each component
ComplicationNeuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS) is associated with dose reductions and withdrawal of levodopa preparations Muscle rigidity, fever, instability, and delirium
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AMANTADINE (SYMMETREL)
Mechanism of Action Stimulates dopamine release and inhibits glutamate neurotransmission Treats dyskinesia and tremor
Adverse Reactions Edema, dizziness, confusion, and livedo reticularis
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AMANTADINE (SYMMETREL) DOSING
Initial: 100 mg BID if sole therapy, once daily if combination
Adjust for renal impairment
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ANTICHOLINERGIC DRUGS
Benztropine (Cogentin)
Trihexyphenidyl (Artane) Mechanism of Action Antagonize acetylcholine receptors Goal: regain balance between dopamine and acetylcholine Treat tremor and dystonia
Adverse Reactions Dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, and urinary retention More serious: forgetfulness, sedation, depression, and anxiety Trihexyphenidyl: glaucoma, need ophthalmic exam
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ANTICHOLINERGIC DOSING
Benztropine Initial: 0.5‐6 mg/day in 1‐2 divided dosesDose decrease in elderly
Trihexyphenidyl Initial: 1‐2 mg/day in 2 divided doses Max: 5‐15 mg/day in 3‐4 divided doses
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BOTULINUMNEUROTOXIN (BOTOX)
Treatment Cervical dystonia, blepharospasm, focal upper extremity dystonia, laryngeal dystonia, essential tremor, and sialorrhea
Mechanism of Action Blocks the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction Localized muscle weakness
Adverse Reactions Local; only impacts areas into which it is injected
Limited duration of action Reinjection every 3‐4 months
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TREATMENT OF IMPAIRMENTS
Gait: reduce pharmacologyBladder: anticholinergics or alpha blockersOrthostatic hypotension: midodrinePain: symptomatic treatmentGastrointestinal: polyethylene glycolCognition: reduce polypharmacyDepression: TCA & SSRIPsychosis and Hallucinations: reduce dopamine agonistsSleep: melatonin
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CONCLUSIONS
Parkinson’s disease results from a dopamine / acetylcholine transmission imbalance
PD is a hypokinetic movement disorder
There are a variety of debilitating impairments associated with PD
There are several pharmacological and non‐pharmacological treatments for PD and its corresponding impairments
There is no cure for PD, but managing the symptoms of the disease can lead to an improved quality of life
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REFERENCES
Braddom, Randall MD. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation: Third Edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier. 2007
Chou, Kelvin MD. “Clinical Manifestations of Parkinson’s Disease.” www.uptodate.com. Ed. Howard Hurtig MD. July 25, 2014.
Delisa, Joel MD. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation: Principles and Practice (Fifth Edition). Philadelphia. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. 2010.
Pahwa, R. "Practice Parameter: Treatment of Parkinson Disease with Motor Fluctuations and Dyskinesia (an Evidence‐based Review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology."Neurology 66.7 (2006): 983‐95. Web.
Simpson, D. M., A. Blitzer, A. Brashear, C. Comella, R. Dubinsky, M. Hallett, J. Jankovic, B. Karp, C. L. Ludlow, J. M. Miyasaki, M. Naumann, and Y. So. "Assessment: Botulinum Neurotoxin for the Treatment of Movement Disorders (an Evidence‐based Review): Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology."Neurology 70.19 (2008): 1699‐706. Web.
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REFERENCES
Suchowersky, O. "Practice Parameter: Neuroprotective Strategies and Alternative Therapies for Parkinson Disease (an Evidence‐based Review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology." Neurology 66.7 (2006): 976‐82. Web.
Trail, Marilyn, Elizabeth Protas, and Eugene C. Lai.Neurorehabilitation in Parkinson's Disease: An Evidence‐based Treatment Model. Thorofare, NJ: SLACK, 2008. Print.
Wells, Barbara G. "Parkinson's Disease." Pharmacotherapy Handbook. New York: McGraw‐Hill Medical Pub. Division, 2009. 629‐36. Print.
Zesiewicz, T. A., K. L. Sullivan, I. Arnulf, K. R. Chaudhuri, J. C. Morgan, G. S. Gronseth, J. Miyasaki, D. J. Iverson, and W. J. Weiner. "Practice Parameter: Treatment of NonmotorSymptoms of Parkinson Disease: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology." Neurology 74.11 (2010): 924‐31. Web.
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