60
PARKINSON’S  DISEASE: :   EVALUATION,  REHABILITATION  AND  TREATMENT Bradley R. Ertel MD Renee Ertel Puleo Pharm.D. Mercy Hospital of South Buffalo

Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

Embed Size (px)

DESCRIPTION

Neurorehabilitation

Citation preview

Page 1: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

PARKINSON’S DISEASE::  EVALUATION, REHABILITATION 

AND TREATMENT

Bradley R. Ertel MD

Renee Ertel Puleo Pharm.D.

Mercy Hospital of South Buffalo

Page 2: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

DISCLOSURES

None

2

Page 3: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

OBJECTIVES

Discuss the pathophysiology of Parkinson’s Disease (PD)

Define specific movement disorders associated with PD

Discuss pharmacological and non‐pharmacological 

treatments 

3

Page 4: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

DEFINITIONS OF MOVEMENT DISORDERS

Neurological dysfunctions in which there exists either: 

Hyperkinesia: excessive movement

Hypokinesia: paucity of voluntary and automatic movements

Not associated with weakness or spasticity

4

Page 5: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

EXAMPLES OF HYPERKINESIA

Akathisia:  Restlessness, anxiety, inner tension

Athetosis:  Slow, writhing, involuntary movements that are usually distal

Ballismus:  Violent, involuntary movements involving one side of body

Chorea:  Brief, repetitive, jerky, involuntary movements

Dystonia:  Repetitive, twisting movements leading to abnormal posture

5

Page 6: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

MORE EXAMPLES OF HYPERKINESIA

Hemifacial spasm:  Irregular, involuntary muscle contractions on one side of the face

Myoclonus:  Brief, shock‐like muscular contractions that can be regular or arrhythmic

Restless Leg Syndrome:  Urge to move the legs to relieve unpleasant sensations

Tics:  Sustained, nonrhythmic, rapid, and stereotyped muscle contractions

Tremor:  Rhythmic and oscillating movements

6

Page 7: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

EXAMPLES OF HYPOKINESIA

Parkinson’s Disease

Secondary Parkinsonism Meningitis AIDS Reglan MPTP

Parkinson’s Plus Syndromes Shy Drager:  Autonomic dysfunction Olivopontocerebellar atrophy:  Ataxia and dysarthria

7

Page 8: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

PARKINSON’S DISEASE

Progressive disorder of the basal ganglia due to loss of 

dopaminergic cells in the substantia nigra

Hyperactivity of cholinergic neurons in the caudate nuclei

Imbalanced cholinergic / dopaminergic transmission

8

Page 9: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

9

Page 10: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

INCIDENCE AND EPIDEMIOLOGY

Prevalence Rate : 200 per 100,000Rare for individuals < 40 years of age 1% for individuals > 60 years of age 2% for individuals > 85 years of ageMen > Women Incidence rate : 20 per 100,000 (annually)The National Parkinson’s Foundation estimates that up to 1.5 million Americans have the diseaseApproximately 50,000 new cases are diagnosed each year 

10

Page 11: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

CLINICAL FEATURES OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE

Resting tremor

Lead pipe rigidity

Cogwheel rigidity

Bradykinesia / Masked Facies

Postural instability

Festinating (shuffling) gait

Freezing phenomenon11

Page 12: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

RESTING TREMORS

• Suppressed by activity or sleep 

• Intensified by stress or fatigue (pill rolling)

12

Page 13: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

RIGIDITY

Lead pipe• Smooth resistance to passive 

movement that is independent of velocity

Cogwheel• Ratcheting through range of 

motion due to subtle tremor superimposed on rigidity

13

Page 14: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

BRADYKINESIA

14

Upper extremities

• Begins distally with decreased manual dexterity of fingers

• Typing• Tying shoelaces• Buttoning shirt

Page 15: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

BRADYKINESIA

Lower extremities

Leg dragging Shuffling feet Difficulty standing up from a chair Difficulty getting out of a car

15

Page 16: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

MASKED FACIES

Occurs when bradykinesia affects the muscles of facial expression

16

Page 17: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

POSTURAL INSTABILITY

• Slumped over

• Protracted shoulders

• Flexed hips

• Flexed knees

17

Page 18: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

DIAGNOSIS OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE 

Primarily clinical

Two groups of symptomsMinimal or no rest tremor (predominant rigidity and akinesia) Rest tremor predominant

The use of laboratory or neuroimaging is for exclusionary purposes and atypical cases

Routine electrodiagnostic studies will not aid in diagnosis of PD

18

Page 19: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

STAGES OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE

EarlyMildModerateSevereLate

19

Page 20: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

STAGES OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE

EARLY  No functional impairment Mild symptoms Unilateral tremors Family members detect poor posture, loss of balance, and abnormal facial expressions

MILD  Bilateral symptoms Difficulty ambulating and maintaining balance Difficulty completing ADL

20

Page 21: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

STAGES OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE

MODERATE  Multiple medications Occupational and social activities affected Inability to walk or stand straight Noticeable slowing of movements

SEVERE  Medication side effects Resistance to therapies Reduced quality of life Unable to perform ADL Cannot live independently Decreased tremors (mechanism unknown)

LATE  Dependent in ADL, wheelchair or bed bound

21

Page 22: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

PROGNOSIS OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE

Tremor predominant patients progress more slowly than patients with bradykinesia as the predominant complaint

Bradykinesia is more disabling than tremors

Akinesia can indicate a more rapidly progressing disease process

Life expectancy is variable, but significantly improved with medical management

Dysphagia is the most important risk factor associated with early demise

22

Page 23: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

PROGNOSIS OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE

Positive Prognostic Indicators

Early tremorRigidityFamily history of Parkinson’s Disease

Negative Prognostic Indicators

BradykinesiaAkinesiaPostural instabilityGait dysfunctionCognitive deficitsLate age of onset

23

Page 24: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

PARKINSON’S DISEASE

PET scans highlight the loss of dopamine storage capacity in Parkinson’s disease. In the scan of a disease‐free brain, made with [18F]‐FDOPA PET (left image), the red and yellow areas show the dopamine concentration in a normal putamen, a part of the mid‐brain. Compared with that scan, a similar scan of a Parkinson’s patient (right image) shows a marked dopamine deficiency in the putamen.

24

Page 25: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

PARKINSON’S DISEASE

BCMJ, Vol. 43, No. 3, April 2001, page(s) 142‐147

25

Page 26: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

IMPAIRMENTS IN PARKINSON’S DISEASE

GaitBladderOrthostatic hypotensionPainGastrointestinalCognitionDepressionPsychosis and HalluciniationsSleep

26

Page 27: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

GAIT

Can result from disease or secondary to medications Inefficient Compromised by bradykinesia, poor posture, and fear of falling 2 Stereotypical patterns Freezing:  Inability to initiate gait after stopping Festination:  Rapid shuffling steps with additional trunk flexion

27

Page 28: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

BLADDER

Most common abnormality: nocturiaUrgencyFrequencyDetrusor hyperreflexiaTreatmentTimed voiding while awake Intermittent catheterizationAnticholinergics

28

Page 29: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION

Due to autonomic dysfunction from sympathetic denervation

Magnified by intravascular volume depletion due to poor fluid intake

Elderly:  Consider cardiovascular disease and other causes of hypotension, such as medications

Treatment Avoid warm baths and heavy meals Avoid straining while defecating Avoid Valsalva maneuver Compression leg stockings Abdominal binders Arise slowly from a seated position Pause in a sitting position before arising from a supine position Tilt table test Antihypertensive medication management

29

Page 30: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

PAIN

Primary central processes Secondary to other conditions Aching pain in affected limbMost common cause of pain in PD limb rigidity Restless leg syndrome Headaches Treatment Pharmacological and non‐pharmacological

Increase mobility and flexibility

30

Page 31: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

GASTROINTENSTINAL

Swallowing Decreased lingual control and bolus propulsion Due to abnormalities in striated muscle under DA control and smooth muscle under autonomic control

Nutrition Restrict protein consumption Vitamin B6 supplementation

Decreased gastric emptying Early satiety Nausea/vomiting Reglan worsens dyskinesia Decreased peristalsis and GERDheartburn

Constipation Altered sympathetic innervation of GI tract Decreased mobility and hydration

31

Page 32: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

COGNITION

Psychomotor retardation, memory difficulty, and altered personality

Anatomic and pathologic basis is not understood

Dementia occurs late in the disease

Risk factors Later age of onset Longer symptom duration Hallucinations Depressive symptoms Family history of dementia

32

Page 33: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

DEPRESSION

Most common psychiatric disturbance seen in PD  Independent of disease severity and duration Features of depression and Parkinson’s are similar Deficits in serotonergic transmission Decreased norepinephrine and dopamine Treatment Counseling TCA SSRI

33

Page 34: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

PSYCHOSIS / HALLUCINATIONS

Visual hallucinations are the most common psychiatric symptom in PD patients

PsychosisUnderlying Lewy Body diseaseAntiparkinson drugs (Dopamine agonists)Generally resolves when medications are discontinuedSingle greatest reason for nursing home placement in patients with PD

34

Page 35: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

SLEEP

Ranked as one of the most troublesome nonmotorsymptoms in early and late PD

Most common sleep disturbances:  Sleep fragmentation and early morning awakening

Most common etiologies Nocturia Difficulty turning over in bed Cramps Vivid dreams Nightmares Pain (most commonly neck or back)

35

Page 36: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

SURGICAL TREATMENT OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE

Page 37: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

DESTRUCTIVE SURGERY

Thalamotomy Surgical destruction of specific cells in the thalamus Restricts contralateral tremor

Pallidotomy Permanent ablation of a portion of the globus pallidus IndicationsDyskinesias Stiffness FreezingNot effective for controlling tremors

37

Page 38: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION (DBS)

DBS targets:  Thalamus, Globus pallidus interna, and STN

High frequency stimulation involves placing an electrode into the targeted brain area under electrophysiologic guidance

Electrode is connected to a pulse generator, which is activated and deactivated by passing a magnet over the apparatus

The precise mechanism of action is unknown, but DBS is purported to work by resetting abnormal firing patterns in the brain

Associated with fewer complications than thalamotomy

Is replacing thalamotomy as the procedure of choice for Parkinson’s38

Page 39: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

TYPES OF DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION

SubthalamicReduces tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesiaReduces antiparkinsonian medications by halfMost common surgical procedure for Parkinson’s Disease

ThalamicReduces contralateral tremorWorsens bradykinesia, rigidity, and gait

39

Page 40: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION

40

Page 41: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

PHARMACOLOGICAL TREATMENT

41

Page 42: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

PHARMACOLOGICAL AGENTS FOR PD

Carbidopa/Levodopa

Dopamine Agonists

Monoamine oxidase B (MAO‐B) inhibitors

Catechol‐O‐methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitors

Amantadine

Anticholinergic agents

BotulinumNeurotoxin (Botox)42

Page 43: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

CARBIDOPA/LEVODOPA

Carbidopa/Levodopa (Sinemet)Carbidopa/LevodopaODT (Parcopa)Carbidopa/LevodopaCR (SinemetCR)

Mechanism of Action Levodopa is the metabolic precursor of dopamine Levodopa crosses the blood‐brain barrier, where it is converted to dopamine Treats bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremor

Adverse reactions GI: anorexia, n/v Cardiovascular: arrhythmia and orthostatic hypotension Psychiatric: mood disorders, sleep disturbances, hallucinations, and delusions Controlled by adjusting dose and frequency

43

Page 44: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

CARBIDOPA/LEVODOPA DOSING

Immediate release Initial: Carbidopa 25 mg/levodopa 100 mg PO TID Food to reduce nauseaOrally disintegrating does not require water

Sustained release Carbidopa 50 mg/levodopa 200 mg PO BIDDecrease dose in elderlyDo not crush

44

Page 45: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

DOPAMINE AGONISTS

Pramipexole (Mirapex) Apomorphine (Apokyn)

Bromocriptine (Parlodel) Ropinirole (Requip)

Rotigotine (Neupro)Mechanism of Action Exact unknown; stimulate dopamine receptors Treat bradykinesia and rigidity Reduce off time 

Adverse Reactions Somnolence, edema, n/v, hypotension, hallucinations, and peripheral edema Pulmonary fibrosis with bromocriptine 45

Page 46: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

DOPAMINE AGONIST DOSING

Pramipexole Initial: 0.125 mg PO TID Food to reduce nausea Adjust for renal impairment

Ropinirole Initial: 0.25 mg PO TID, Max: 24 mg/day

Rotigotine  Transdermal patch applied daily Initial: 2mg/24hr (early), 4mg/24hr (advanced)

Apomorphine 0.06 mg/kg  “rescue” subcutaneous injection

Bromocriptine Initial: 1.25 mg PO BID Food to reduce nausea

46

Page 47: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

MAO‐B INHIBITORS

Selegiline (Eldepryl)SelegilineODT (Zelapar)

Rasagiline (Azilect) Mechanism of Action Selectively inhibits MAO‐B from breaking down dopamine May be neuroprotective Treat motor fluctuations Reduce off time 

Adverse Reactions Headache, nausea, hypertension with >400mg tyramine Insomnia with selegiline

47

Page 48: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

MAO‐B INHIBITOR DOSING

Selegiline 5 mg PO BID with breakfast and lunch 10 mg PO daily in the morningDose decrease in elderly

Rasagiline 1 mg PO dailyDose decrease in mild hepatic impairment

48

Page 49: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

COMT INHIBITORS

Entacapone (Comtan)Tolcapone (Tasmar)

Mechanism of Action Used in conjunction with carbidopa/levodopa Selectively inhibits peripheral COMT Treat motor complications

Adverse Reactions Increased levodopa adverse reactions, brown‐orange urine

Black Box Warning Hepatotoxicity with tolcapone

49

Page 50: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

COMT INHIBITOR DOSING

Entacapone 200 mg with each dose of carbidopa/levodopaMax: 1600 mg/day

Tolcapone Initial: 100 mg PO TID

50

Page 51: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

COMBINATION PRODUCT

Carbidopa/Levodopa/Entacapone (Stalevo) Substitute for patients already stabilized on equivalent doses of each component

ComplicationNeuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS) is associated with dose reductions and withdrawal of levodopa preparations Muscle rigidity, fever, instability, and delirium

51

Page 52: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

AMANTADINE (SYMMETREL)

Mechanism of Action Stimulates dopamine release and inhibits glutamate neurotransmission Treats dyskinesia and tremor

Adverse Reactions Edema, dizziness, confusion, and livedo reticularis

52

Page 53: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

AMANTADINE (SYMMETREL) DOSING

Initial: 100 mg BID if sole therapy, once daily if combination

Adjust for renal impairment

53

Page 54: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

ANTICHOLINERGIC DRUGS

Benztropine (Cogentin)

Trihexyphenidyl (Artane) Mechanism of Action Antagonize acetylcholine receptors Goal: regain balance between dopamine and acetylcholine Treat tremor and dystonia

Adverse Reactions Dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, and urinary retention More serious: forgetfulness, sedation, depression, and anxiety Trihexyphenidyl: glaucoma, need ophthalmic exam

54

Page 55: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

ANTICHOLINERGIC DOSING

Benztropine Initial: 0.5‐6 mg/day in 1‐2 divided dosesDose decrease in elderly

Trihexyphenidyl Initial: 1‐2 mg/day in 2 divided doses Max: 5‐15 mg/day in 3‐4 divided doses 

55

Page 56: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

BOTULINUMNEUROTOXIN (BOTOX)

Treatment  Cervical dystonia, blepharospasm, focal upper extremity dystonia, laryngeal dystonia, essential tremor, and sialorrhea

Mechanism of Action Blocks the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction Localized muscle weakness

Adverse Reactions Local; only impacts areas into which it is injected

Limited duration of action Reinjection every 3‐4 months

56

Page 57: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

TREATMENT OF IMPAIRMENTS

Gait: reduce pharmacologyBladder: anticholinergics or alpha blockersOrthostatic hypotension: midodrinePain: symptomatic treatmentGastrointestinal: polyethylene glycolCognition: reduce polypharmacyDepression: TCA & SSRIPsychosis and Hallucinations: reduce dopamine agonistsSleep: melatonin

57

Page 58: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

CONCLUSIONS

Parkinson’s disease results from a dopamine / acetylcholine transmission imbalance

PD is a hypokinetic movement disorder

There are a variety of debilitating impairments associated with PD

There are several pharmacological and non‐pharmacological treatments for PD and its corresponding impairments

There is no cure for PD, but managing the symptoms of the disease can lead to an improved quality of life

58

Page 59: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

REFERENCES

Braddom, Randall MD.  Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation:  Third Edition.  Philadelphia:  Elsevier. 2007

Chou, Kelvin MD.  “Clinical Manifestations of Parkinson’s Disease.”   www.uptodate.com.   Ed. Howard Hurtig MD.  July 25, 2014.

Delisa, Joel MD.  Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation:  Principles and  Practice (Fifth Edition).  Philadelphia.  Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.  2010.

Pahwa, R. "Practice Parameter: Treatment of Parkinson Disease with Motor Fluctuations and Dyskinesia (an Evidence‐based  Review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology."Neurology 66.7  (2006): 983‐95. Web.

Simpson, D. M., A. Blitzer, A. Brashear, C. Comella, R. Dubinsky, M. Hallett, J. Jankovic, B. Karp, C. L. Ludlow, J. M. Miyasaki, M.  Naumann, and Y. So. "Assessment: Botulinum Neurotoxin for the Treatment of Movement Disorders (an Evidence‐based Review): Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of  Neurology."Neurology 70.19 (2008): 1699‐706. Web.

59

Page 60: Parkinson's Disease - Evaluation, Treatment and Rehabilitation

REFERENCES

Suchowersky, O. "Practice Parameter: Neuroprotective Strategies and Alternative Therapies for Parkinson Disease (an  Evidence‐based Review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology." Neurology 66.7 (2006): 976‐82. Web.

Trail, Marilyn, Elizabeth Protas, and Eugene C. Lai.Neurorehabilitation in Parkinson's Disease: An Evidence‐based Treatment  Model. Thorofare, NJ: SLACK, 2008. Print.

Wells, Barbara G. "Parkinson's Disease." Pharmacotherapy Handbook. New York: McGraw‐Hill Medical Pub. Division, 2009. 629‐36. Print.

Zesiewicz, T. A., K. L. Sullivan, I. Arnulf, K. R. Chaudhuri, J. C. Morgan, G. S. Gronseth, J. Miyasaki, D. J. Iverson, and W. J. Weiner. "Practice Parameter: Treatment of NonmotorSymptoms of Parkinson Disease: Report of the Quality Standards  Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology." Neurology 74.11  (2010): 924‐31. Web.

60