Amur LeopardPanthera pardus orientalis

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Black RhinoDiceros bicornis

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Cross River GorillaGorilla gorilla diehli

People usually think of leopards in the savannas of Africa

but in the Russian Far East, a rare subspecies has adapted

to life in the temperate forests that make up the northern-

most part of the species’ range. Similar to other leopards,

the Amur leopard can run at speeds of up to 37 miles per

hour.The Amur leopard is solitary. Nimble-footed and strong,

it carries and hides unfinished kills so that they are not taken

by other predators. It has been reported that some males

stay with females after mating, and may even help with

rearing the young. Several males sometimes follow and fight

over a female. They live for 10-15 years, and in captivity up

to 20 years.

European hunters are responsible for the early decline of

black rhino populations. It was not uncommon for five or six

rhinos to be killed in a day for food or simply for amusement.

European settlers that arrived in Africa in the early 20th

century to colonize and establish farms and plantations

continued this senseless slaughter. Most people regarded

rhinos as vermin and exterminated them at all costs.

This subspecies of the western gorilla is very similar in

appearance to the more numerous western lowland gorilla,

but subtle differences can be found in the skull and tooth

dimensions. Cross River gorillas live in a region populated by

many humans who have encroached upon the gorilla’s

territory—clearing forests for timber and to create fields for

agriculture and livestock. Poaching occurs in the forests as

well, and the loss of even a few of these gorillas has a

detrimental effect on such a small population. Efforts to

protect these animals are focused on securing the forests that

house them.

Hawksbill TurtleEretmochelys imbricata

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Javan RhinoRhinoceros sondaicus

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Leatherback TurtleDermochelys coriacea

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Javan rhinos are the most threatened of the five rhino

species, with as few as 35 individuals surviving in Ujung Kulon

National Park in Java, Indonesia. Vietnam’s last Javan rhino

was poached in 2010. The Javan rhino is a dusky grey color

and has a single horn of up to about 10 inches. Their skin has

a number of loose folds giving the appearance of armor

plating. This species is very similar in appearance to the

closely-related greater-one rhinoceros, but has a much

smaller head and less apparent skin folds.

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Mountain GorillaGorilla beringei beringei

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

SaolaPseudoryx nghetinhensis

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

South China TigerPanthera tigris amoyensis

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

 Saola (pronounced: sow-la) are recognized by two parallel

horns with sharp ends, which can reach 20 inches in length

and are found on both males and females. Meaning “spindle

horns” in Vietnamese, they are a cousin of cattle but resemble

an antelope. Saola have striking white markings on the face

and large maxillary glands on the muzzle, which could be

used to mark territory or attract mates. They are found only in

the Annamite Mountains of Vietnam and Laos.

The South China tiger population was estimated to number

4,000 individuals in the early 1950s. In the next few decades,

thousands were killed as the subspecies was hunted as a

pest. The Chinese government banned hunting in 1979. By

1996 the population was estimated to be just 30-80

individuals.

Today the South China tiger is considered by scientists to be

“functionally extinct,” as it has not been sighted in the wild for

more than 25 years.

As their name implies, mountain gorillas live in forests high in

the mountains, at elevations of 8,000 to 13,000 feet. They

have thicker fur, and more of it, compared to other great apes.

The fur helps them to survive in a habitat where temperatures

often drop below freezing. But as humans have moved more

and more into the gorillas’ territory, the gorillas have been

pushed farther up into the mountains for longer periods,

forcing them to endure dangerous and sometimes deadly

conditions.

Sumatran elephants feed on a variety of plants and deposit

seeds wherever they go, contributing to a healthy forest

ecosystem. They also share their lush forest habitat with

several other endangered species, such as the Sumatran

rhino, tiger, and orangutan, and countless other species that

all benefit from an elephant population that thrives in a healthy

habitat.

Sumatran ElephantElephas maximus sumatranus

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Sumatran OrangutanPongo abelii

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Sumatran RhinoDicerorhinus sumatrensis

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

 Historically, the Sumatran orangutan was distributed over the

entire island of Sumatra and further south into Java. The

species' range is now restricted to the north of the island with

a majority in the provinces of North Sumatra and Aceh. Of the

nine existing populations of Sumatran orangutans, only seven

have prospects of long-term viability, each with an estimated

250 or more individuals. Only three populations contain more

than 1,000 orangutans. Orangutans that were confiscated

from the illegal trade or as pets are being reintroduced to

Bukit Tigapuluh National Park. They number around 70 and

are reproducing. 

 Sumatran rhinos are the smallest of the living rhinoceroses

and the only Asian rhino with two horns. They are covered

with long hair and are more closely related to the extinct

woolly rhinos than any of the other rhino species alive today.

Calves are born with a dense covering that turns reddish

brown in young adults and becomes sparse, bristly and

almost black in older animals. Sumatran rhinos compete with

the Javan rhino for the unenviable title of most threatened

rhino species. While surviving in greater numbers than the

Javan rhino, Sumatran rhinos are more threatened by

poaching. There is no indication that the population is stable

and just two captive females have reproduced in the last 15 y

years.

Sumatran TigerPanthera tigris sumatrae

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

VaquitaPhocoena sinus

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Western Lowland GorillaGorilla gorilla gorilla

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

The vaquita has a large dark ring around its eyes and dark

patches on its lips that form a thin line from the mouth to the

pectoral fins. Its dorsal surface is dark gray, sides pale gray

and ventral surface white with long, light gray markings.

Newborn vaquita have darker coloration and a wide gray

fringe of color that runs from the head to the dorsal flukes,

passing through the dorsal and pectoral fins.

Vaquita are under threat from the fishing industry. They often

die after being caught in gillnets, a problem known as bycatch.

Accelerating deforestation and rampant poaching mean this

noble creature could end up like its extinct Javan and

Balinese relatives.Sumatran tigers are the smallest surviving

tiger subspecies and are distinguished by heavy black stripes

on their orange coats. They are protected by law in Indonesia,

with tough provisions for jail time and steep fines. But despite

increased efforts in tiger conservation—including law

enforcement and antipoaching capacity—a substantial market

remains in Sumatra and the rest of Asia for tiger parts and

products. Sumatran tigers are losing their habitat and prey

fast, and poaching shows no sign of decline.

Western lowland gorillas can be distinguished from other

gorilla subspecies by their slightly smaller size, their brown-

grey coats and auburn chests. They also have wider skulls

with more pronounced brow ridges and smaller ears. Large

numbers have not protected the western lowland gorilla from

decline. Because of poaching and disease, the gorilla’s

numbers have declined by more than 60% over the last 20 to

25 years. Even if all of the threats to western lowland gorillas

were removed, scientists calculate that the population would

require some 75 years to recover.

Yangtze Finless PorpoiseNeophocaena asiaeorientalis ...

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

African Wild DogLycaon pictus

ENDANGERED

Amur TigerPanthera tigris altaica

ENDANGERED

Amur tigers were once found throughout the Russian Far

East, northern China, and the Korean peninsula. By the

1940s, hunting had driven the Amur tiger to the brink of

extinction—with no more than 40 individuals remaining in the

wild. The subspecies was saved when Russia became the

first country in the world to grant the tiger full protection.

 

Wild dogs are social and gather in packs of around ten

individuals, but some packs number more than 40. They are

opportunistic predators that hunt medium-sized ruminants,

such as gazelles. In a sprint, African wild dogs can reach

speeds of more than 44 miles per hour.

 The Yangtze River, the longest river in Asia, used to be one

of the only two rivers in the world that was home to two

different species of dolphin—the Yangtze finless porpoise and

the Baiji dolphin. However, in 2006 the Baiji dolphin was

declared functionally extinct. This was the first time in history

that an entire species of dolphin had been wiped off the planet

because of human activity. Its close cousin, the Yangtze

finless porpoise, is known for its mischievous smile and has a

level of intelligence comparable to that of a gorilla.

Asian ElephantElephas maximus indicus

ENDANGERED

Bengal TigerPanthera tigris tigris

ENDANGERED

Black Spider MonkeyAteles paniscus

ENDANGERED

 The Bengal tiger is found primarily in India with smaller

populations in Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, China and

Myanmar. It is the most numerous of all tiger subspecies with

fewer than 2,500 left in the wild. The creation of India’s tiger

reserves in the 1970s helped to stabilize numbers, but

poaching to meet a growing demand from Asia in recent years

has once again put the Bengal tiger at risk. The mangroves of

the Sundarbans—shared between Bangladesh and India—are

the only mangrove forests where tigers are found. The

Sundarbans are increasingly threatened by sea level rise as a

result of climate change.

 Asian elephants are extremely sociable, forming groups of six

to seven related females that are led by the oldest female, the

matriarch. Like African elephants, these groups occasionally

join others to form herds, although these associations are

relatively transient.

More than two thirds of an elephant’s day may be spent

feeding on grasses, but large amounts of tree bark, roots,

leaves and small stems are also eaten. Cultivated crops such

as bananas, rice and sugarcane are favorite foods. Elephants

are always close to a source of fresh water because they

need to drink at least once a day.

 The black spider monkey—also known as the Guiana or red-

faced spider monkey—is found in eastern South America in

areas north of the Amazon River. They are one of seven

species of spider monkeys found in Latin America and one of

the largest primate species in South America.

Black-footed FerretMustela nigripes

ENDANGERED

Blue WhaleBalaenoptera musculus

ENDANGERED

Bluefin TunaThunnus spp

ENDANGERED

 Bluefin are the largest tuna and can live up to 40 years. They

migrate across oceans and can dive more than 4,000 feet.

Bluefin tuna are made for speed: built like torpedoes, have

retractable fins and their eyes are set flush to their body. They

are tremendous predators from the moment they hatch,

seeking out schools of fish like herring, mackerel and even

eels. They hunt by sight and have the sharpest vision of any

bony fish. There are three species of bluefin: Atlantic (the

largest and most endangered), Pacific, and Southern. Most

catches of the Atlantic bluefin tuna are taken from the

Mediterranean Sea, which is the most important bluefin tuna

fishery in the world.

 The blue whale is the largest animal on the planet, weighing

as much as 200 tons (approximately 33 elephants). The blue

whale has a heart the size of a Volkswagen Beetle. Its

stomach can hold one ton of krill and it needs to eat about

four tons of krill each day. They are the loudest animals on

Earth and are even louder than a jet engine. Their calls reach

188 decibels, while a jet reaches 140 decibels. Their low

frequency whistle can be heard for hundreds of miles and is

probably used to attract other blue whales.

 Once thought to be globally extinct, black-footed ferrets are

making a comeback. For the last thirty years, concerted

efforts from many state and federal agencies, zoos, Native

American tribes, conservation organizations and private

landowners have given black-footed ferrets a second chance

for survival. Today, recovery efforts have helped restore the

black-footed ferret population to nearly 1,000 animals across

North America. Although great strides have been made to

recover the black-footed ferret, habitat loss and disease

remain key threats to this highly endangered species.

BonoboPan paniscus

ENDANGERED

Bornean OrangutanPongo pygmaeus

ENDANGERED

Borneo Pygmy ElephantElephas maximus borneensis

ENDANGERED

 Once believed to be remnants of a domesticated herd given

to the Sultan of Sulu in the 17th century, pygmy elephants

were determined by WWF to be genetically different from

other Asian elephants. DNA evidence proved these elephants

were isolated about 300,000 years ago from their cousins on

mainland Asia and Sumatra. Over time, they became smaller

with relatively larger ears, longer tails and straighter tusks.

Today, the pygmy elephants of Borneo are the smallest

elephants in Asia.

 The Bornean orangutan differs in appearance from the

Sumatran orangutan, with a broader face and shorter beard

and also slightly darker in color. Three subspecies are

recognized, each localized to different parts of the island:

Northwest Bornean orangutans are the most

threatened subspecies. Its habitat has been

seriously affected by logging and hunting, and a

mere 1,500 individuals or so remain. Many habitat

patches in the area are small and fragmented.

Northeast Bornean orangutans are the smallest in

size and found in Sabah and eastern Kalimantan as

Wild bonobos can only be found in forests south of the Congo

River in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Sometimes

known as the pygmy chimpanzee, bonobos weren’t

recognized as a separate species until 1929. As the last great

ape to be scientifically described, much remains unknown

about the bonobo—including the extent of its geographic

range. Efforts to survey the species over the past two

decades have been hampered by the remote nature of its

habitat, the patchiness of their distribution and years of civil

unrest within the DRC.

ChimpanzeePan troglodytes

ENDANGERED

Eastern Lowland GorillaGorilla beringei graueri

ENDANGERED

Fin WhaleBalaenoptera physalus

ENDANGERED

Throughout the unrest, the gorillas have been vulnerable to

poaching, even in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, home to the

largest population of protected eastern lowland gorillas.

Rebels and poachers invaded the park and people set up

illegal mines. But, with help from WWF and other

organizations, park staff are reestablishing control over the

land.

 

 

In their habitat in the forests of central Africa, chimpanzees

spend most of their days in the tree tops. When they do come

down to earth, chimps usually travel on all fours, though they

can walk on their legs like humans for as far as a mile. They

use sticks to fish termites out of mounds and bunches of

leaves to sop up drinking water. 

Galápagos PenguinSpheniscus mendiculus

ENDANGERED

Ganges River DolphinPlatanista gangetica gangetica

ENDANGERED

Giant PandaAiluropoda melanoleuca

ENDANGERED

 

 

Green TurtleChelonia mydas

ENDANGERED

Hector's DolphinCephalorhynchus hectori

ENDANGERED

Humphead WrasseCheilinus undulatus

ENDANGERED

 

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Indian ElephantElephas maximus indicus

ENDANGERED

Indochinese TigerPanthera tigris corbetti

ENDANGERED

Indus River DolphinPlatanista minor

ENDANGERED

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Loggerhead TurtleCaretta caretta

ENDANGERED

Malayan TigerPanthera tigris jacksoni

ENDANGERED

North Atlantic Right WhaleEubalaena glacialis

ENDANGERED

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

OrangutanPongo abelii, Pongo pygmaeus

ENDANGERED

Sea LionsZalophus wollebaeki

ENDANGERED

Sei WhaleBalaenoptera borealis

ENDANGERED

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Snow LeopardPanthera uncia

ENDANGERED

Sri Lankan ElephantElephas maximus maximus

ENDANGERED

TigerENDANGERED

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

Leatherback turtles are named for their shell, which is leather-

like rather than hard, like other turtles.They are the largest sea

turtle species and also one of the most migratory, crossing

both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Pacific leatherbacks

migrate from nesting beaches in the Coral Triangle all the way

to the California coast to feed on the abundant jellyfish every

summer and fall.Although their distribution is wide, numbers of

leatherback turtles have seriously declined during the last

century as a result of intense egg collection and fisheries

bycatch.

 

PAPER 5 NOTESHey,Erm so I was looking up threads that might actually help in Paper 5 [considering I have my mock exam tomorrow] but I couldn't really find one, so decided to post one.

Things You Should Know For: Design, Analysis and Planning

VARIABLESScientists use an experiment to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one thing causes something else to vary in a way that the scientist can describe as a 'trend'. The most useful way to describe a trend is a mathematical one.These changing quantities are called variables, and an experiment usually has three main kinds: independent, dependent, and controlled.

*The independent variable is the one that is changed by the scientist. In an experiment there is only one independent variable. This is usually plotted on the X-axis of the graph that the scientist uses to display his/her results in.As the scientist changes the independent variable, he or she observes what happens.

*The dependent variable changes in response to the change the scientist makes to the independent variable. The new value of the dependent variable is caused by and depends on the value of the independent variable. For example, if you turn on a water tap (the independent variable), the quantity of water flowing (dependent variable) changes in response - the water flow increases. The more open the tap - the faster the flow of water. The number of dependent variables in an experiment varies, and there is often more than one.

*Experiments also have controlled variables. Controlled variables are things that would have an effect on the dependent variable. S/he must be sure that the only thing affecting that variable is his/her adjustment to the independent variable.So, controlled variables are quantities that a scientist needs to keep constant, and s/he must observe them as carefully as the dependent variables.For example, if we want to measure how much water flow increases when we switch on a tap, it is important to make sure that the water pressure from the water supply (the controlled variable) is held constant. That's because both the water pressure and the opening of the tap valve have an impact on how much water flows. If we change both of them at the same time, we can't be sure how much of the change in water flow is because of the faucet opening and how much because of the water pressure.Most experiments have more than one controlled variable. Some people refer to controlled variables as "constant variables."

*INTRODUCTION

Whenever you design an experiment you have to first 'set the scene'.You are not ever finding anything out without any preconceptions. You always have ideas about what you are going to find out - you have expectations!In a science experiment these expectations will be based on:- what you have experienced in life,-experiments you have carried out before and-scientific knowledge (things you have been taught about science at school, or have found out from books).*In your report you need to explain to the reader what you expect to find out and why!*You do not have to look into a crystal ball and write down numeric predictions... just predict a general trend. A good way to do this is to sketch a graph!*You do have to explain the main scientific ideas that your prediction is based on. Try to use scientific keywords in this section and explain in simple terms what you understand them to mean.

A Fair TestA fair test situation is vital for an investigation's results to be meaningful. You therefore have to use the scientific knowledge you have explained toidentify the variables in your investigation - things you have to control, otherwise it will not be a fair test. Say what will need to be controlled and why - using theory to explain it.One of the variables will be the variable you are going to change. Say which on you are going to change and by how much (the range over which you will change it). Say how you found out that was a suitable range. It may well be your preliminaries that helped you decide on a suitable range! Then say have you are going to control all of the others you have identified.Your fair test must be linked to your scientific knowledge.

*PRELIMINARY READINGSYou will have a rough idea of what you want to do, but will need to 'tweak' your idea by trying things out practically. You therefore sketch out a rough experimental procedure and test out the best way to do it in a preliminary session.You may want to:- choose materials to work with: check that you will get a big enough range of readings with the ones you have chosen to investigate.- find out if you are controlling the other variables well enough to have a 'fair test'.... maybe you will spot some you hadn't thought of!- practise using the equipment, and see if you need to make adjustments to avoid or minimize errors.... or make it safer!- spot dangers in your procedure that you ought to avoid.

Always check with a teacher before you carry out preliminary experiments - they have more experience at spotting potential dangers than you do!!

What you find out from your preliminary readings will influence your final design of your experiment.Remember to say in your report if you found out a better way to do it from preliminary work.... and how you checked your ideas were sound before proceeding.

*PROCEDURE

The procedure has several parts to it:*A fully labelled diagram of the experimental equipment.This should be so detailed that a person could carry out the experiment just from the diagram! It must be fully labelled with specifications of the equipment (e.g. '250 ml beaker' rather than just 'beaker'). Measuring instruments must have their range as well as increments marked on them (e.g. rather than 'thermometer' you would put a mercury filled thermometer with a range of -10oC to 110oC in 0.5 oC increments) A full side of A4 should be given to this!*A full list of equipment - including minor partsThis should be done on a separate sheet of paper as a list to be given to a technician. Full specifications of the equipment (e.g. '250 ml beaker' rather than just 'beaker') must be requested. Measuring instruments must have their range as well as increments marked on them (e.g. rather than 'thermometer' you would put a mercury filled thermometer with a range of -10oC to 110oC in 0.5 oC increments). Odds and ends such as: 4 connecting wires, 2 crocodile clips, sellotape etc. must be itemized.*A risk assessmentList all of the possible hazards you have identified and how you intend to avoid them.*A set of instructionsThese should be in past impersonal tense.... 'The apparatus was set up as shown in the diagram. The beaker was filled with 100 ml water..... etc.'. This is far better than a list of instructions with bullet points - but you may want to start off with such a list and then translate it into the correct form of English for scientific writing. The order must be logical!Don't forget to say that the experiment was repeated, how many times it was repeated etc. Remember to say that results were recorded - in a table of whatever, averaged, and that a graph was plotted.

*RESULTS/ANALYSISWhen successive measurements of the same quantity are repeated there is a distribution of values obtained. In experimental physics it is vital to be able to measure and quantify this uncertainty. The words "error" and "uncertainty" are often used interchangeably by physicists - this is not ideal - but get used to it!Some important questions can only be answered if, in addition to performing an experiment, an error analysis has been conducted. These include:

Do the results agree with theory?

Are they reproducible?

Has a new phenomenon or effect been observed?

*Types of Error

We need to identify the following types of errors:

Systematic errors - these influence the accuracy of a result

Random errors - these influence precision

Mistakes - bad data points.

*Accuracy and Precision

These are two terms that have very different meanings in experimental physics. We need to be able to distinguish between an accurate measurement and a precise measurement. An accurate measurement is one in which the results of the experiment are in agreement with the ‘accepted’ value. Note this only applies to experiments where this is the goal – measuring the speed of light, for example. A precise measurement is one that we can make to a large number of decimal places.

*ERRORSThese cause reading to be different from the true value. For example; Error is a measure of how close you can be sure about your measurement.Percentage error = (smallest measurement you can measure/your measurement)*100e.g. a ruler in mm divisions measurees a length of 10 mm. The smallestthat the ruler can measure is to within 0.5 mm. So the error in mymeasurement of 10mm is;(0.5 mm/10 mm ) x 100 = 5%This means I have measured 10 mm +/- 5%The measurement may actually have been as big as 10.5 mm or as small as 9.5 mm.

*Types of Errors

- Random Random errors may be detected and compensated for by taking a large number of readings.For example: Random errors may be caused by human error, a faulty technique in taking the measurements, or by faulty equipment. These cause readings to be spread about some value other than the true value; in other words, all the readings are shifted one way or the other way from the true value.- Systematic These cause readings to be spread about some value other than the true value; in other words, all the

readings are shifted one way or the other way from the true value.- Zero For example: A zero error occurs when a needle on an ammeter fails to return to zero when no current flows, or when a top-pan balance shows a reading when there is nothing placed on the top-pan balance

now x is suppose.. 83 +/- 5...You can work either with upper limit and mean value (88 and 83)ORYou can work with mean value and lower limit (83 and 78)

I will go with the former (88 and 83)

the uncertainty is = lg 88 - lg83 = lg (88 / 83) = 0.025

If I work with mean value and lower limit (83 and 78)the uncertainty is = lg 83 - lg78 = lg (83 / 78) = 0.025

So, the final answer is log(83 +/- 5) = 1.92 +/- 0.025

Yes my teacher told me and i also saw this in the book of which i have posted snapshots

= [log(UL) - log (LL)]/2^This is also correct!

We can further modify it using a little knowledge of logarithms and it becomes = 0.5 lg (UL / LL)

EXPEMPLE

QUESTION

Hey could someone tell me to find the absolute error of a log eg. 1.2+/- 0.1 can i do it like this [(0.1)/(1.2)] * [log(1.2)]? Or is this wrong?

And if if there is no log it would just be.... (0.1/1.2) * 100 right?

Its from october november 2007

ANWER

If a function such as log or ln is used to calculate the values, then for e.g value is 6.0 +/- 0.5, to find error:

absolute error = log (6.0+o.5) - log 6.0

OTHER

Sweet thanks, i was reading other threads too, thats the same as doing this: (Log(6.5)-log(5.5))/2 and also log(6.5/6.0) right? Even though the answers are slightly different?

Oh and also is absolute error the same as absolute uncertainty?

ANSWER

Yes, you can do either of these 3 to get the answer. However I prefer the way I showed you, more simple and less chance of making a mistake while typing in values on the calculator.

Errors and uncertainties are not quite the same, the difference is that uncertainty is a quantity that is

associated with an estimate whose true value is not known. Error is a quantity that is associated with an estimate whose true/accepted value is known.

But for our A-level papers, they tend to mean the same thing

some uncertainties helpnote# equals change

1.when finding error for logslog(worst value) - log(best value)

2. when square #x^2/x^2 = 2(#x/x)

3. when in formulasay-> Y= x/zso error=>#y/y= #x/x + #z/z

4. when finding gradientdiff of best gradient and worst gradient

5. when y-intercept errorsfind y-intercept with bst gradient than with worst gradient find their diff that is your uncertainity

mostly same is the case with the last one

hope this helps

here's a revision note for 9702 physics paper Question 1:first be able to reduce the equation in the simplest form ..i.e y=mX=c ..and recognize the gradientcalculate the data in 3 s.f(generally done) or to one s.f more or equal to the s.f of the raw datain case of logarithmic calculations, the number of d.p is the number of s.f ..hence for a raw data of 3 s.f the log should be calculated to 3 or 4 d.pto calculate absolute uncertainty the most accepted method is to calculate the maximum difference and divide by 2 ..sf of uncertainty is usually ignored in the mark scheme but stick to 1 or 2 s.fplot all the six points,a small encircled dot is acceptable use sharp pencil to plot , and draw the error bars. all to nearest half square on the grid.(u can also analyze from the graph as how much s.f to use..as the graphs interval's points's tenth division place is to be plotted )the gradient should be calculated by drawing a triangle and mentioning the points of the vertices in the best-fit line ..the hypotenuse should be greater than halt the length of the best-fit line.working should be shown clearlyand the worst-fit line is drawn by joining the top of the topmost point's error bar and the bottom of the bottommost error bar..and the line should touch every error bar.both line should be clearly LABELLED ,and the gradient of worst-fit is calculated in similar way to best-fit ..calculate it on the blank page at the end..and just show the gradient value in working area while calculating the uncertainty in gradient..the error in gradient is gradient of best fit - gradient of worst fit ,or 1/2 * (steepest line's gradient - shallowest line's gradient)all calculation to 3 s.f and for calculations , which is usually related to the calculated gradient, take care of units, power of tens and to calculate the percentage uncertainty work out the value with the gradient and again with the error+the gradient and work out the difference which is the absolute uncertainty , hence calculate the percentage uncertainty .(working is only credited here and calculations are not checked)Question 2:state the basic statement, it is awarded 1 mark..such as change pressure and measure power..and repeat(o/n 05)Draw a diagram with all the equipment you might use during the experimentation of this plan..a basic, well labelled diagram could score many marks; even if the explanation is weak.identify the control variable

make sure you know the working of some equipments as:collimator,sonometer, strobe, bourdon gauge, joule meter,thermometers,light-spot galvanometer needle valve, vacuum grease , lightgate, smart pulley ,balance,newton meter,ticker tape data-loggers , optical bench, set squares etc.. don't panic of you don't but u should know what equipment to use to measure something.make sure u understand the question and collect all the method marks by suggesting means of measuring the quantities u might measure during the experiment.there are 5 method marks to be scored.now beware of safety measures. like earmuffs eardrums, goggles , safety screens . sand bucket for falling masses..etcnow be able to point some additional details they are worth 4 marks.these can also be awarded on a detailed diagram..suggest the possible ranges of devices, suggest some ways of sophisticating the experiment..but donot make vague references and do not forget why are u performing this experiment .

Btw, i feel the method i used is easier as you just have to find the UL and not both UL and LLMy formula:

= lg (UL / RL)

*RL means real value

Experiments that have been asked to be designed so far:

angelicsuccubus said: ↑

1. investigating the terminal velocity of a steel ball dropped in oil and it's relation to the radius

2. determining the resistivity of glass

3. determining the Young modulus of wood

4. investigating the relation between the depth of a nail being hammered into wood and the speed with which it's hammered (jobless much?)

5. determining the absorbtion coefficient of glass

6. investigating the relation between the amplitude of a sound wave and the air pressure inside a double-glazed window

7. investigating the relation between the resistance of an LDR with the distance from the light source

8. investigating the relation the volume of air in a bottle and its resonant frequency

9. investigating how the emf in a coil Y depends on the frequency of the current in coil X

10. investigating the relation between the strength of the magnetic field and the radius of the coil, using a hall probe

I didn't go through all the variants so someone else can add to the list.

ANSWER

Okay so im gonna try and see what we can do to solve these,people please correct/add to this!!

1 - Measure time for each ball of different radius and put in some equation. (Which one??!)2- R=(rho)L/A - Vary length of the glass.3- Stress/strain. (I dont know how to go about this)4- 5- I have NO idea. What formula do we use?6- Idk7- Yes! this is fairly simple. R is inversely proportional to the intensity of light 8- Try different volumes,and the loudest heard sound will correspond to that particular volume ?9- Vary current,see what effect that has on the emf.10- No idea!! :/

You always need both an independent and dependent variable. Use the equation, and re-arrange it to find what can be easily varied and measured.Independent variable =IVdependent variable =DV

1.IV = radius, DV= terminal velocity (use light gates to measure time taken to fall fixed distance to find terminal velocity)2. IV = length or are, DV = resistance3. IV = weight of the load, DV =extension produced. (other quantities kept constant)4. IV= speed of nail(light gates connected to timer will measure time taken to fall fixed distance,and hence speed), DV =depth of nail into wood (use vernier)5. you're given an equation for this. Re-arrange it to see what can be made the IV.6. Use loudspeaker connected to a.f signal generator, microphone to C.R.O, and bottle to which vacuum pump and pressure gauge attached.10. Most probably won't come out, came out last year's Nov session.

Guys this is an answer to qs 1 of j07. I want to know the correct way of writing the answer. I have posted my answer to question 1 below. If there are any problems with my answer please tell me so that i can correct my answer. Thanku in advance.

In this experiment the independent variable is r and the dependant variable is v, the terminal velocity of the object. A constant variable in this experiment is temperature. Another constant variable is the distance when time is being measured.

We will calculate the diameter of the ball by using vernier calipers and then we will calculate the radius by using the formula d=r/2. We take metal balls of different radii to vary r. We measure the time taken for the ball to fall a fixed distance through the oil. To ensure the ball falls through a fixed distance we place fudicial markers on the container. We will measure the time taken for the ball to fall through two fixed points of the container at terminal velocity. Then we will calculate the terminal velocity of the ball by using the formula v=s/t. We will take multiple trials for each ball and then take out the average speed to reduce random errors in the experiment. To ensure the ball has reached terminal velocity we will place fiducial marks well below the surface of the oil. We will take the diameter of the ball at different points of the ball and calculate the average. The oil used in the experiment should be clear and the container should be wide and transparent. After calculating all the required values will plot a graph of v against r2. If the graph has a straight line passing through the origin then relationship has been confirmed. One safety precaution is to prevent the oil ffrom being near any fire because it may be flammable.

im sry i didnt see that ur a girl....sry.... ...one more thing so when do we use the formula [{value+uncertainity} - {value-uncertainity}]/2 AND when should we use the fractional formula??? kind of confused with that....

i's alrightuse the first one for logs and the second one when value is to be calculated either from division or multiplication, eg when R (resistance) is to be calulated from voltage V and current I, then R will be found out by V/I and uncertainity by adding their fractional errors and then multiplying by the R u got previously with their values...

let me brief u on errors :

1-ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION :when 2 measurements are added or subtracted their errors are ALWAYS added up eg :when u wanna add 2 +/- 0.2 and 3 +/- 0.2 then ure final answer shud be 6 +/- 0.4.....if u r asked to find the percentage error frm this then find fractional error and multiply with 100 like 0.4/6 = 0.06667 now multiply with 100 = 6.67%

2-PRODUCT :(product of values) +/- (sum of fractional errors)(product of values)

eg for multiplying 5 +/- 2 with 10 +/- 2......after applying above formula ure answer shud come out to be 50 +/- 30

3-DIVISION :

(division of values) +/- (addition of fractional errors)(divsion of values)eg for dividing 5 +/- 2 with 10 +/- 2......after applying above formula ure answer shud come out to be 0.5 +/- 0.5

4-CONSTANT POWER(powered value) +/- (power x fractional error)(powered value)

eg if U = 4 +/- 0.2....find out U^2 then :(4^2) +/- (2 x 0.2/4)(4^2)------> 16 +/- 1.6

yeah i have problem understanding what are light gates and when to use them in experiments. And can u also explain about the electromagnet switch u were talking abt?

light gates measure timings for a object to fall a particular distance..u have a light source on one end and a timer on the opposite, when a ball falls between them the light gets obstructed and the sensor on the other side no longer detects any light ( at this time ball is right infront of the timer), the timer starts,,,,having another such thing below this set up at a fixed distance h starts this second timer and the difference in readings from the first and second will be the time measured but u dont need to explain all of this in the procedure just say measure timings through light gates

for an electromagnet u OPEN the switch nd electromagnet no longer retains its magnetism letting go of ball..

im attaching a file, but remember in this case the ball is to be dropped from surface of oil to avoid a splash (a safety)

a simple setup is in oct 2009 paper 52

can you show the pic of worst acceptable line joining error bars? plz

Its does look great but gives a rough idea that the worst acceptable line should start for the lowest point of the first error bar to the top of the highest error bar.See the image!!!

why 1.5?i thought 0.5 above 2.5 and 0.5 below 2.5.

The value of current was 2A, and the error is plus/minus 0.5so, you add 0.5 to 2 , to get the upper limit of the error bar, and you subtract 0.5 to get the lower limit of the error barhence, 2+0.5 = 2.5 (upper limit) and 2 - 0.5 = 1.5 (lower limit)

Hi, so what are the basic strategies to score full marks for question 1?

This is what I've got in mind so far:- 3 variables (independent, dependent, constant)- Draw and label a diagram- Method for carrying out the experiment (briefly explain how the experiment is carried out, vary the independent variables, record the data, plot a graph)- Draw a graph and label it (if an equation is given use it to find the x/y axis and the y-intercept and outline how the gradient is calculated) - Describe at least 5 safety precautions/additional information

Anything else to add on?

Paper 5 Tips: Practical TestPlanning Question• Do not panic if the context of the question appears unfamiliar to you. During your A Level studies you will have used or learnt about suitable apparatus for completing the task. If you are asked to ‘use’ any unfamiliar apparatus the question will supply you with all the details that you need to know about.• Read the question very carefully – it may give you guidance on those aspects of your plan to which you need to pay particular attention. It will also help you to identify the independent and the dependent variables.• When writing your answer you will need to consider some or all of the following:- what apparatus you will use- what experimental arrangement will be used- what procedure will be followed- the independent and dependent variables- the means of keeping other variables constant - use the word ‘constant’when identifying these variables, saying you will ‘control’ them is insufficient- how the raw data readings will be processed to give the desired result, e.g. what derived quantities you might calculate or what graph you might plot- what relevant safety precautions should be in place• The relationship to be tested, given to you in the introduction to the task, willsuggest the type of graph to be expected. You will need to describe it asprecisely as possible. For example, is it linear, does it pass through the origin? Ifyou choose a logarithmic graph, you will be expected to predict its slope from the

given expression.• When writing your answer you must write down all the information clearly andexplicitly - the examiner cannot give you marks for things that are vaguely implied.• Many of the marks can often be scored by having a good working diagram (even if the accompanying explanation is weak) and so you should spend time making sure that your diagram shows all the relevant details and is fully labelled. For example, make clear the exact points, between which, measurements, such as distance, are to be made.• The equipment and procedures that you describe in your answer should be realistic and workable.• One mark is available for describing safe working. This must relate specifically to the apparatus being used. It is not sufficient to write, for example, ‘keep all bags and coats out of the way’.• Additional marks are available for detailed descriptions of apparatus/techniques. There are always more possible answers than marks available, so if you write your plan carefully, then some these marks should be gained as you go along. It is not expected that you write a separate section solely for the detail marks.• As part of your preparation for this question you should plan some of your own experiments, but this should be done under the close supervision of your teacher. Also practise answering past papers.• A sketch graph is not necessary, but if drawn it should be consistent with your description of the graph.

Evaluating data Question• The number of significant figures used in a derived quantity that you calculate from your raw readings should be equal in number to (or possibly one more than) the number of significant figures in the raw readings. For example, if you measure potential difference and current to 2 and 3 sig figs respectively, then the corresponding value of resistance calculated from them should be given to 2 or 3 sig figs, but not 1 or 4. If both were measured to 3 significant figures, then the resistance could be given to 3 (or 4) sig figs.• When drawing your graph, do not forget to label each axis with the appropriate quantity and unit, using the same format for expressing column headings in a table. Choose a scale such that the plotted points occupy at least half the graph grid in both the x and y directions. The x-axis scale should increase positively to the right and the y-axis scale should increase positively upwards. Use a convenient scale such as 1, 2 or 5 units to a 2cm square as you will then be less likely to make a mistake with the position of your plotted points and it will be easier for you to read off points from your graph if you are calculating the gradient or finding an intercept. Similarly, it is good practice to mark values on at least every other 2cm square.• All your plotted points should be on the grid; points in the white margin area will be ignored. Plot all your observations and ensure that they are accurate to half a small square. A fine cross (or an encircled dot) drawn with a sharp pencil is acceptable, but be careful not to obscure the position of your points by your line of best fit or other working.• When drawing your line of best fit, ensure you have an even balance of points about the line along its whole length. If it is a straight line, use a clear plastic rule so that you can see points on both sides of the line as it is being drawn.• Show all your working when calculating a gradient. It is helpful to draw the triangle used to calculate the gradient on the graph and to clearly label the coordinates of the vertices (accurate to half a small

square). These values can then be used in the gradient calculation. The length of the hypotenuse of the triangle should be greater than half the length of the graph line.• If you are required to give a value for the y-intercept, it may be possible to directly read it off from your graph from an axis where x=0. If this is not possible you can instead calculate the y-intercept by using the equation of a straight line. In this case you should substitute into this equation a pair of x and y values from your line of best fit along with your calculated value of gradient.• It is particularly important that the rules, previously given for significant figures, are strictly adhered to.• You will be expected to use the uncertainty given in the raw data to find the uncertainty in calculated data. The latter will involve a function such as a logarithm. This requires plenty of practise, if you are to be able do it with confidence in the examination.• You will need to be able to translate the calculated uncertainties into error bars on your graph and then to draw the worst acceptable line. Again, this requires plenty of practise.• Once the graph has been drawn, you will be expected to find uncertainties in both the gradient and the intercept – using your line of best fit and your worst acceptable line. A lot of marks depend on your being able to calculate the uncertainties in the calculated data.• Every candidate is provided with the same data and so the final values calculated should be very similar. One mark is available to candidates who manage to work within a given tolerance, determined by the Principal Examiner.

Source:Learner Guide for Cambridge AS and A Level Physics(© Cambridge International Examinations 2012)

Hope this helps!!!

http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_w10_qp_52.pdf

How to do the errors part here ?> errors in log T ?

Soldier313fb.junks

or anyone ?

for this one ...calculate the error in T values which o.2/10 = 0.02

now get the upper limit of T which is for the first one in the table lg(1.96+0.02)subtract this from normal lg value ...which is lg1.96

so lg1.98-lg1.96 = 0.004 easy peasyand so on

http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_w10_qp_52.pdf

How to do the errors part here ?> errors in log T ?

Soldier313fb.junks

or anyone ?

{x + delta x/2 } / { x - delta x /2} take log of whole term .........like for first box ... {1.96 + (0.2/1o)/2} / { 1.96- (0.2 / 10)/2} then take log

rafay malik said: ↑

Is it acceptable to write the answer to question one in bullet forms, under the specific headings? ( defining the problem, methods of data collection etc).

I am not sure but if it was even acceptable.The examiner will mark those points under only that specific heading only so I recommend to write in paragraphs with no headings so each point where ever mentioned is considered.

http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_w10_qp_53.pdfQ2 e part please

V=V0e^-t/CR.10Vo=V0e^-t/CR(AS 10% of original potential difference)ln(.10)=-15/CR (V0 eliminated on both sides)

Uncertainty of R=(Uncertainty of C/C )xR

Assalamoalaikumcan anyone plz tell me how to find the absolute uncertainties in Q2b http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_s10_qp_51.pdf

Xc = V0 / I0So, (Error in Xc) / Xc = [ (Error in V0) / V0 ] + [ (Error in I0) / I0 ]

eg for first row:Error in Xc = { [ 0.2/5 ] + [ (0.2x10^-3) / (15 x 10^-3) ] } x 330Error in Xc = 18

Hope that helped

Javior said: ↑

does anyone know how to draw a hall probe .. should we show the plane and voltmeter or just a probe labelled hall probe?and is it true that if you attach a signal generator to a coil you an ac current?plz anyone ill be real grateful

...Just draw a box(label it with hall probe) and show connections to voltmeter and power supply ...or if u good at showing plane show the pplane perpendicular to field to get max voltmeter reading...and for second its true signal generator can produce ac...and we can vary frequency of ac..

Can someone please show me how to calculate the tabular values of v^2 ?http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_w12_qp_53.pdf

v = s/t where s=distance, t=timev^2 = (s/t)^2so v^2 = (0.05/t)^2then substitute values of time from each row into the eqneg for row 1, v^2 = (0.05/0.046)^2so v^2 = 1.18

then uncertainty is (max value of v^2 - min value of v^2) / 2so max value of v^2 = (0.051/minimum time)^2min value of v^2 = (0.049/ max time ) ^2

subtract these two values and then divide by 2 to obtain uncertainty

Hope that helped

an anyone plz tell how the newtonmeter is used in finding the force b/w two charged plates in winter 2006 paper 5 question2?are there any weights added?plz explain IT'S URGENT!!

..this may be helpful. Correct me if I am wrong..

Can someone please show me the diagram for question #1 ?

http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/...nd AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_w09_qp_52.pdf

sorry you're seeing a reply after so long! Anyway i cant post a pic,but the basics of the diagram are what is shown in the question,plus:-a meter rule placed vertically "behind" the wire,to measure distance-micrometer to measure diameter of wire-rheostat in circuit to keep current constantand ammeter in currentthats it!hope i helped!

Aoa wr wbCan someone please provide a detailed diagram and explanation for qn 1 of this paper please?

http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_w11_qp_51.pdfhttp://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_w11_ms_51.pdf

I'll try to upload an image later, but hopefully, for now, the explanation is okay - sorry!

The independent variable in the investigation is the field strength B at the center of the coil and the dependent variable is, then, the radius of the coil. Since the strength of the magnetic field at the center of the coil depends upon the current in the coil and the number of turns in the coil, these two variables need to be kept constant; no matter what the radius is, the same number of turns should be used (the more the coils, the greater the field strength, so it is a control variable) per coil. The current can be kept constant by placing a rheostat in series with the coil and using an ammeter to measure the current through the coil. If the current decreases, the resistance of the rheostat can be decreased to bring up the current. If the current increases (sudden surge, any other reason) the resistance of the Rheostat can be increased to bring the current down.

The experiment can be carried out by first taking a length of wire and wrapping it firmly around a cylindrical object; this will give it a coil-like shape with an approximately constant radius. To increase the radius later, a wider cylinder can be used. A ruler can be used to measure the diameter of the coil, and the result divided by 2 to get the radius. This measurement can be repeated around the coil along several diameters and the values of r averaged.

The coil can be connected to a d.c. power source, an ammeter and a rheostat, all in series (diagram) and the coil can be hung (after being flattened) from a clamp/ retort stand holder. The center of the coil can be found using a ruler, and a stack of books with a track/ruler placed on top of them can be aligned with the coil such that the ruler is perpendicular to the plane of the coil and is going into the plane of the coil. This track can be used to move the hall probe towards the center of the coil. The Hall probe should be connected to a calibrated galvanometer/ voltmeter, and the maximum reading shown can be noted down as the value of B. Several readings of B can be taken for each radius r and averaged to plot into the graph.

About 10 readings can be plotted into a graph of B on the y-axis versus (1/r) on the x-axis. If the relationship is indeed true, the graph should be a straight line through the origin (the equation is the form of B = k/r where k is a constant, so the gradient is B * r = k, so gradient is constant).

The coil may heat up due to the current passing through it, so it is advisable to let the coil cool down between experiment before replacing it/ using heat resistant gloves while doing so.

A large current can be used to ensure a large value of B; this reduces percentage uncertainties (any that might creep into the readings) and also gives a large value of B. Similarly, a large number of coils can also be used, but kept constant throughout the experiment. Any external currents and magnetic fields will have to be eliminated, so the experiment should be performed in an isolated location. Again, the current can be kept constant using a rheostat (as mentioned above) and if the same Hall Probe setup is being used for all the experiments, the probe and voltmeter can be calibrated in a magnetic field of known strength.

Hope this helped!Good Luck for all your exams!

when we divide quantity by something.what will be the uncertainty of new value? mj/10/52 question number two.plz someone help

If you are referring to dividing t by 10 to give T, the uncertainty is also divided by 10.

The reason is that when you multiply/divide two quantities together, you add their percentage uncertainties to find the percentage uncertainty in the resulting value.In this case, if you want to find the percentage uncertainty in the value of T, it will be the (% uncertainty in t) + (% uncertainty in 10) = (% uncertainty in t), since 10 is a constant, absolute value which is completely accurate and has no percentage error.

As an example, if we take the first value of t, 18.9, the percentage uncertainty is:

0.1/18.9 = 0.00529 (0.5 %).Therefore, the uncertainty in the final answer is 0.5% = 0.00529:The absolute uncertainty is 1.89 * 0.00529 = 0.01.

You can see that the uncertainty in 1.89 is 10 times less than the uncertainty in 18.9, so the uncertainty has been divided by 10, the same value that divided t to give T.

Hope this helped!

Good Luck for all your exams!

http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_w10_qp_52.pdf

anyone did the graph portion ov this one? and the errors one too obviously ?

can anybody show the graph plotted or the errors ?

Hopefully this diagram can assist you with the hall probe issue:

Question 1 of this paperThere's a bell jar with a bell inside it, If it already has a bell inside it, why do we need to provide a source of sound in form of a loudspeaker etc??!

http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics

(9702)/9702_nos_sp_5.pdfhttp://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_nos_sm_5.pdf

You don't need to 'provide' a source of a sound in the form a loudspeaker. The bell is a source of sound, and that's more than enough. A loudspeaker can be used as an additional material to make it easier for the person to hear the sound of the bell.

so mic is out side bell jar or inside it ???

"Workable arrangement Should include container, source of sound, pump, microphone, CRO"

Since this marking point is one of the methods of data collection rather than just an additional detail, it led me to assume that, we need a sound source.

So the bell is a sound source, no?

Yeah it is.

But in the variables to be controlled it also states frequency of sound source, so how do we exactly control the frequency of the bell sound ?

MJ2008

MJ2010 51

MJ2011 52

And other years I've done, diagrams have already been posted

anyone oct nov 09 51 ques 1 diagram plz???

Studen12345 said: ↑

http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_w12_qp_53.pdfhow to find uncertanity in v^2 in Q2 plzz answer tahnks

Ashrith said: ↑

Can someone tell me how to do the table for Q2 of 9702/53/O/N/12?http://papers.xtremepapers.com/CIE/Cambridge International A and AS Level/Physics (9702)/9702_w12_qp_53.pdf

v = s/t where s=distance, t=timev^2 = (s/t)^2so v^2 = (0.05/t)^2then substitute values of time from each row into the eqneg for row 1, v^2 = (0.05/0.046)^2so v^2 = 1.18

then uncertainty is (max value of v^2 - min value of v^2) / 2so max value of v^2 = (0.051/minimum time)^2min value of v^2 = (0.049/ max time ) ^2subtract these two values and then divide by 2 to obtain uncertainty

Hope that helped

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TACTIC 1Estimate the angles before doing any calculationsIf the diagram does not mention not going to scale you must you must use a ruler.TACTIC 2 In the diagrams that are drawn to scale you can make assumptions of the lengths Eliminate the correct angles or answers before answering any questionsDo not forget to use the ruler behindTACTIC 3 When the diagrams are not drawn to scale draw them again with that given angles as accurately as possible did this in only extreme cases. TACTIC 4 When working with rectangles don't hesitate to add another line another diagonal in order to find the lengths TACTIC 5 use the backsolving method and always start with C The multiple-choice questions are usually given in increasing or decreasing order if he is too large you can eliminate one of the 2 others This is to avoid doing long of algebra questionsTACTIC 6 replaced each variable with an easy to use numberSolve the problem using those numbersTACTIC 7 usually used in problems involving factions ratios and percentage tough to pick a convenient number plug in When using fractions the best number to use is the least common denominator when using percentage the easiest number to use is 100  when doing percentage or fractions do not forget to take random numbers Exp. the number of people attending math class and Italian class when gives as a fraction use them all in terms of fractions and invent the total number of students in class TACTIC 8 when you have no idea how to solve a question eliminate all the absurd choices and guess from  among the remaining onesTACTIC 9 The straightforward way to find the area of the shaded portion is to find the area of the entire figure and then subtracted from the area of the white region TACTIC 10 find the simplest ways to solve quadratic equations do not open the Quetion and start finding x and y instead subtract or add the equations 

TACTIC 15 trust to all grids graphs and charts The lengths of all three sides of the triangle to perimeter of the triangle the area of the trianglethe slope of each lineThese are things you can find from grids and graphs In a triangle the smallest angle is facing the smallest side and the biggest angle is facing the biggest side. To find the sum of the interior angles Triangle- 180 Square- 360 To find the angle of other polygons add 180 to each additional side The measure of the exterior angle of the triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of the two opposite interior anglesDifference/Original X100

To reduce- Abridge – Curtail – Abate

Accept- Compliance- concede- Acknowledge

Disapprove- Deprecate – Deplore

Unclear – Ambiguous- Dubious –Equivocal- Opaque

Clear- Explicit

Hate- Abhor- Antipathy- Enmity – Aversion- Antagonism

Smart- Acumen – Astute – Ingenious- Assiduous – Erudite

False – Fallacious- Erroneous (Error)

Admire- Praise- Acclaim- Adulation- Extol- Exalt- Accolade-Venerate

Happy- Contentious – Exuberance- Elated

Sad- Piteous- Morose- Lament- Somber-Mundane

Depressed- Recluse- Seclusion- Despondent

Gullible- Credulous

Not straight Forward- Eclectic- Devious- Digression- Circumlocution-Taciturn

Straightforward- Candid

Calm Down – Placate- Mitigate- Assuage- Appease

Includes Everything- Comprehensive- Exhaustive

Denial- Refute- Rebuttal – Repudiate- Negate

Approval- Consensus- Ratify-Compliance- Sanction

Disapproval- Censure-Refute

Difference- Discrepancy- Disparately- Adversary

Not Religious- Cant

Religious- Pious

Sharp – Acrimony- Incisive

Temporary- Ephemeral- Transient

Brief- Concise- Succinct- Brevity- Cursory- Terse

Respectful- Reverent, Deferent

Systematic- Pragmatic- Methodical

Inactive- Static- Sluggish- Inert- Stagnant

Flatter- Cajole- Coax

Doubtful- Dubious- Skeptic- Apocryphal

Friendly- Affable

Not friendly- Aloof- Apathy

Hypocritical (believe in the Hypothesis) OPPOSITE Hypothetical (Does not believe in the Hypothesis)

Not Interested- Apathy- Indifferent- Insipid- Nonchalant- Frivolous-listless

To improve- Enhance, Embellish, Innovate

Strongly supporting a political party- Partisan- Doctrine

To examine carefully- Scrutinize- meticulous

Spread- Disperse- Disseminate-Pervasive-Prevalent

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, --That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.--Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance.He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the

Inhabitants of these States:For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offencesFor abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our Brittish brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.

In July 4, 1776 the 13 English colonies declared themselves independent from the English crown. The American Revolution had all ready started in April of 1775 at Lexington and Concord, but this made it official. Thus, began the fight for freedom from the English crown.

America got freedom when it won the revolution on July 4th that's why its called the independence day

The Colonists of the 13 British Colonies in America felt their rights as British subjects were being

violated because the British brought over Royal Governors who answered to the King and not to the

colonists living in those colonies. The colonists objected to being taxed with having representation,

that started discontent with English rule when they saw time and again that their Governors

answered to the King and not to them, and troops were quartered among them, basically creating an

occupation which they felt violated their rights as subjects of the Britain. The American colonists

fought the American Revolution to get independence from Britain, but they felt that their rights and

freedom were natural rights and came from God.

Recall that in the Declaration of Independence it says:

We hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by

their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of

Happiness.

Note that they said that men are created and endowed by their Creator. These ideas of natural rights

came from a political philosophy by the name of Natural Law Theory. Among those who wrote of

Natural Law Theory were John Locke, Thomas Hobbes and other English philosophers. The war with Britain was from 1775 to 1781. October 19, 1781 Britain's final defeat at Yorktown, Virginia.

 Congress declared independence as a new nation in July 1776, when Thomas Jefferson wrote and the Congress unanimously approved the United States Declaration of Independence. The British lost Boston in 1776, but then captured and held New York City. The British would capture the revolutionary capital at Philadelphia in 1777, but Congress escaped, and the British withdrew a few months later.

The American Revolution was the result of a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations in American society, government and ways of thinking. Americans rejected the aristocraciesthat dominated Europe at the time, championing instead the development of republicanism based on the Enlightenment understanding of liberalism, abandoning the concept of royal rule by divine right. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a democratically-elected representative government responsible to the will of the people. However, sharp political debates erupted over the appropriate level of democracy desirable in the new government, with a number of Founders fearing mob rule.

The mysterious and doubtful stance of Ennahda

Describe the problem.

Convince the reader the problem needs solving.

Explain the solution proposal.

Argue that this is the best solution.

Refute any objections.The Ennahda party is accused by the opposition of pushing an Islamist agenda, and trying to establish a government characterized by Islamic law, in a nation that is principally secular and liberal among Tunisians 81 percent believe the government is taking the wrong path towards democracy.

The tunisian spring happened very fast and decisions were made too rapidly according to me and I think people should have slowed down a hunch before deciding to take the road of democracy because its a long road to recovery from all the scars dictators imprinted on their skins and this is something the population will never forget , the first truth according to me is that you cannot expect a country that has been ruled for millions of years by dictators to rise on its feet when democrats appear out of nowhere imposing their new rule assuming its the best thing for the country. Obviously, this was felt and considered a rough way of beginning a new start  While Ennahda was good at rhetoric before being elected, it was not so good at delivering afterwards. That is why it agreed to relinquish power. It failed to reform state institutions, trigger economic growth and attract foreign direct investment.In fact, it achieved the contrary. The budget deficit and unemployment are skyrocketing, and the public is seriously questioning the effectiveness of the revolution. Some Tunisians have gone even further by saying the days of dictatorship were not that bad after all…Confrontations between the governing coalition parties, and their disagreements on various clauses in the constitution, resulted in a long political deadlock and economic stagnation.The situation was exacerbated by the assassination of two opposition leaders within five months: Chokri Belaid in Feb. 2013, followed by Mohamed Brahmi in July. The assassinations were blamed on members of extremist Islamist parties, and Ennahda was held accountable for not being able to secure the country from such groups. this was then followed by a  consent of ennadha backing down; A few weeks ago, when people took to the streets calling for the government to resign, Ennahda took the most reasonable decision and agreed to step down to avoid replicating in Tunisia the scenario of Egypt’s ousted government.

Democtratic stability...This is easier said than done. Political maturity requires generations of well-educated and prepared people to embrace democracy, which is not a magic recipe that fits all contexts, but an incremental one that needs to grow in fertile soil that is ready to nurture equality, transparency, justice and equity.

The solution to this problem in Tunisia would be for the population to slow down and realize the situation of being a democratic country, Transition to democracy is not a process that evolves overnight. Organic models are subject to trial and error. They need time, effort and trust in the elected government. Arabs tend to follow the current rather than the logic. They tend to look at what others do and try to imitate them. When Ennahda was elected. Tunisia is headed in the right direction, creating a model of democracy in the Arab world. It is undeniable that Ennahda did not deliver, but it can take credit for acknowledging its poor performance and prudently stepping down.In fact, it is not the failure of democracy, but the failure to make the right choices in the absence of better alternatives.

Tunisia's opposition alliance on Monday called for country-wide protests next week, accusing ruling Islamists of holding up the start of negotiations and delaying the formation of a new government.

Political activity has ground to a halt in Tunisia since the murder of opposition MP Mohamed Brahmi in July, amid a bitter standoff between the ruling Islamist party Ennahda and the opposition.

The National Salvation Front (NSF), a loose coalition of opposition parties, called on Tunisians "in all regions, especially the capital" to take part in a "massive demonstration on October 23 to demand the appointment of a competent government."

The date marks the second anniversary of the election of the National Constitution Assembly, which was tasked with promulgating a new constitution but has failed to do so amid deep mistrust among political factions.

The opposition coalition on Monday accused Ennahda of manoeuvering to buy time and of aggravating Tunisia's political crisis by not sticking to its commitment to negotiate the formation of a cabinet of independents.

Ennahda agreed on October 5 to respect a roadmap aimed at creating a new government within three weeks and ending the political deadlock plaguing the country since Brahmi was shot dead on July 25.

Under the blueprint, a new constitution and electoral law must be adopted and a timetable drawn up for fresh parliamentary and presidential polls.

But the Islamists have since questioned the timing of the new government's formation, saying any countdown can only be agreed upon once a national dialogue on unresolved political issues has begun.

A date for those negotiations has yet to be fixed, with the parties so far only holding preparatory meetings, and with the NSF insisting that they begin no later than October 19.

As Tunisia's political crisis drags on, the country is also grappling with an armed jihadist movement, which is blamed for Brahmi's murder and which the opposition says Ennahda has failed to rein in.

The ruling Islamists are also accused of mismanaging the economy and failing to improve living standards.

Poor social conditions were seen as a driving factor behind the 2011 revolution that toppled longtime ruler Zine El Abidine Ben Ali and sparked the Arab Spring.

Model United Nations

From July 22nd through the 24th, Georgetown University in Qatar (GU-Q) will host their first ever Model

United Nations conference in Delhi, India, where over 250 high school students from 31 Delhi-area

schools will take part in the long standing tradition of academic simulations of the United Nations, to

gain insights into effective negotiation and global conflict resolution.

Earlier this year, GU-Q hosted their 8th annual MUN conference at the Qatar National Convention

Center, where some 350 high school students representing 20 local and 40 international schools from

at least 25 different countries, took part. However, the upcoming Delhi conference will be the first time

that any campus of Georgetown University, which was founded in Washington D.C. in 1789, will host

an MUN in India.

GU-Q dean, Dr. Gerd Nonneman, explains the move to India as a natural extension of the school’s

global perspective. “Since the 2005 establishment of the Georgetown University campus in Qatar, we

have embarked on the exciting journey of bringing an internationally ranked liberal arts and

international affairs program to new communities and new students in Qatar and the region. As part of

the fast-developing web of relations between countries across the globe, India's regional and global

roles have also grown increasingly complex, which is why we particularly look forward to hosting an

MUN in India for the first time, and to engaging future generations of global citizens from this dynamic

country.”

The upcoming MUN will be focused on the issues and topics that will be covered by actual UN

committees, such as transnational water resources and human rights, state-building, pollution and

development, the debt crisis, and sectarian violence in Burma and Iraq.

Our programs provide a diverse group of informed college/university students and faculty from all over

the world a forum for addressing global concerns in a real world context. Conferences address

important issues including regional conflicts, peacekeeping, human rights, women and children,

economic and social development, and the environment. In its simplest sense, we work to provide

student participants with a better understanding of the inner working of the UN as they build skills in

diplomacy and compromise.

But beyond the working sessions, the conference will also feature a Diplomatic Reception which will

give participating students the opportunity to meet and interact with Delhi's diplomatic community, as

well as an "Explore Georgetown" evening where participants can learn more about the history of

Georgetown and about campus life for their students in Education City. Taking advantage of their India

visit, the university is also organizing an Alumni event, with a reception for Georgetown graduates

living in India.

“All of the programs at Georgetown strive to create well-rounded graduates who are uniquely poised to

address complex global issues,” added Dean Nonneman. “Our MUN program has proven very

successful in Doha: it presents an outstanding platform for high-school students to debate global

questions and we are proud to bring it to India.

War in Syria

“Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.”- Martin Luther King Jr.

If you have been listening to the news lately chances are you have heard about the escalating tension in Syria and the heated debate between nations about whether it may be time for other countries to intervene and help the rebels. So what exactly is the crisis that has the entire world up in arms and how did it get to this stage? Read on . . .

It all began in December 2010, when the people of the tiny North African country of Tunisia decided to put an end to years of autocratic rule enforced by their leader Zine El Abidine Ben Ali by staging what is now called the 'Jasmine Revolution'. Their success encouraged the residents of neighboring Egypt to protest with their own 'Lotus Revolution' and oust their leader, President Hosni Mubarak.

The victories gave residents of neighboring countries the courage to stand up to their oppressive regimes and by 2011, there was a tsunami of revolutions going on simultaneously in Algeria, Libya, Yemen, Bahrain and Iran. The upheaval that became known worldwide as the 'Arab Spring' seemed to bypass Syria and Jordan whose leaders quickly tried to quell the rumblings in their countries with some positive changes.

Syrian President Bashar al-Assad was especially accommodating. He released dozens of political prisoners, announced the formation of a new government and even lifted the state of emergency that had been used by his regime to suspend the constitutional rights of its citizens for 48 years!

But it was a case of 'too little, too late' - The people had suffered enough and the protests continued first on a regional level staged by small groups and then nationally, as the rebels became more organized and formed a unified opposition.

By 2012, President Assad realized that the revolution had escalated to a full-size civil war, but unlike some of the other Arab leaders, he was not ready to succumb to the wishes of his people and instead, instructed his government to prepare for a long conflict. By the end of the year, most countries in the world had formally recognized the opposition national coalition as 'the legitimate representative' of the Syrian people and even begun offering them humanitarian aid. There was however no talk of helping the rebels fight for their cause with any kind of military intervention.

That sentiment has changed somewhat since allegations that the president sanctioned the firing of chemical weapons in some densely populated areas at 2.30 am on August 21st, 2013, have come to light. According to reports over 1,500 innocent civilians including over 400 children suffocated to death from the deadly gas that was released during the attack.

While US intelligence is asserting that it was the work of the current government, President Assad is denying all responsibility and instead blaming the rebels for the attack. Independent inspectors sent in by the United Nations are currently assessing the situation and should have a report soon. Meanwhile, the alleged attack has started a worldwide debate about whether it may be time to intervene and help protect innocent Syrians against further such atrocities.

US President, Barack Obama and British Prime Minister, David Cameron, are leaning toward conducting limited strikes by firing cruise missiles from naval ships at the government's

military command centers. The leaders of Russia and China are completely against the idea. The British Parliament's initial reaction has also been negative.

What happens next is as of now, up in the air. Will the US Congress agree and the British Parliament reconsiders its stance to help the rebels? And even if they do, will air strikes be enough or will the countries then be forced to send in ground troops? This is a touchy subject for both nations given the ongoing war in Iraq. 

The escalating violence in Syria is having catastrophic consequences on the country's

children and families. More than 4 million children are now affected by the brutal conflict,

which is entering its third year.

With winter approaching and temperatures dropping, many Syrian children will soon be in a

desperate situation. Temperatures in the region can plummet below freezing, and snowfall is

not uncommon. UNICEF is distributing blankets, installing heaters and water boilers in

refugee camps. Children still need warm winter clothes, and UNICEF is preparing kits with

winter jackets, boots, gloves and hats to keep them warm.

Within Syria, 3.1 million children are at risk. The situation within the country is rapidly deteriorating as the war crushes Syria's infrastructure. Power cuts and supply shortages are creating a critical situation for 600,000 people in Damascus and its outlying districts. Essential services, like clean water, are disappearing. Refugee camps in the countries bordering Syria are overflowing. There are now more than one million child refugees from Syria.

Syria snipers targeting pregnant women and children in "death game"

Among the grim anecdotes of the civil war playing out in Syria comes perhaps the most sobering report of all - that bored snipers are playing a "death game" and their targets include children and pregnant women.

"One day we'd have pregnant women being brought in with gunshot wounds to the uterus.

Not just one or two, but seven or eight, which meant to me they (the snipers) must be

targeting pregnant women," the doctor told ITV.

More than 100,000 people have been killed in the two and half years since the Syria conflict

escalated into a full-blown civil war. According to United Nations, thousands of those victims

are children.

Children would also starve for days ‘‘We used up all our supplies of food - I could only give my children one or two mouthfuls of rice to keep them going.’’Even a trip to the local supermarket is an exercise in fear, another woman, Amjad, said.‘‘The shelling happened every day ... it was not always day or night, you never knew when it would happen. The clashes between the armed groups would happen all the time, too; shoot everywhere. It was impossible to go and find food.’’

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