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INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL ENGINEERING ENGINEERING
CHE121CHE121FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERINGFACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
UiTM SARAWAKUiTM SARAWAK
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL ENGINEERING ENGINEERING
CHE121CHE121FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERINGFACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
UiTM SARAWAKUiTM SARAWAK
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Oil palm – treeOil palm – treePalm oil – obtained from fruits of oil Palm oil – obtained from fruits of oil palmpalm
NurseryNurserypollination procpollination proc
oil palmoil palm 8” height8” heightplantationsplantations
(area wt plenty rainfall and good (area wt plenty rainfall and good drainage system)drainage system)
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Structure of oil palm fruitStructure of oil palm fruit
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Uses of palm oils and biomass in Uses of palm oils and biomass in food and manufacturing industriesfood and manufacturing industries
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Extraction of crude palm oilExtraction of crude palm oil
1.1. Bunch receptionBunch reception- Bunches transported to mill by road Bunches transported to mill by road
trucks or lorries or cages running on trucks or lorries or cages running on specially built railway systemspecially built railway system
- Fruits graded as unripe (10 loose Fruits graded as unripe (10 loose fruitlets), ripe (10 or > loose fruitlets), fruitlets), ripe (10 or > loose fruitlets), overripe ( excessive loose fruits), rotten overripe ( excessive loose fruits), rotten (loose fruits detached)(loose fruits detached)
- Fruits carried to loading ramps once Fruits carried to loading ramps once grading report approvedgrading report approved
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2.2. Loading rampLoading ramp- FFB unloaded into ramp hopper FFB unloaded into ramp hopper
then fruit cages pushed by then fruit cages pushed by locomotive or skid loader to locomotive or skid loader to sterilizer yardsterilizer yard
- Old fruits taken out for processing Old fruits taken out for processing to avoid accumulation of old fruits to avoid accumulation of old fruits that rot and creating high FFA that rot and creating high FFA problem (< 5%)problem (< 5%)
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3.3. SterilizationSterilization- Fruits charged into steriliser usg saturated Fruits charged into steriliser usg saturated
steam 40 psigsteam 40 psig- 5 functions of sterilising:5 functions of sterilising:
a. prevention of further rise of FFAa. prevention of further rise of FFAb. facilitation of mechanical strippingb. facilitation of mechanical strippingc. preparation of fruit pericarpc. preparation of fruit pericarpd. preconditioning of nuts to minimise kernel d. preconditioning of nuts to minimise kernel breakagebreakagee. coagulation of protein material & hydrolysis of e. coagulation of protein material & hydrolysis of mucilaginous material mucilaginous material
- Inefficient sterilising causes:Inefficient sterilising causes:a. fruits not loosened enougha. fruits not loosened enoughb. pericarp is not softened enoughb. pericarp is not softened enoughc. nuts cracking & broken kernels – diff. to c. nuts cracking & broken kernels – diff. to separate laterseparate laterd. poor oil recoveryd. poor oil recovery
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4.4. Threshing/strippingThreshing/stripping- To separate sterilised fruits from bunch To separate sterilised fruits from bunch
stalksstalks- Consist of 2 parts: thresher hopper & Consist of 2 parts: thresher hopper &
drumdrum- Thresher hopper: sterilised bunch can Thresher hopper: sterilised bunch can
slide freely down hopper slide freely down hopper - Drum: rotary cyclinder of small section Drum: rotary cyclinder of small section
channel bars at equal intervalschannel bars at equal intervals- Drum discharges 2 important items: Drum discharges 2 important items:
empty bunches fed to incinerator yielding empty bunches fed to incinerator yielding ash rich in potash (fertiliser) and ash rich in potash (fertiliser) and sterilised fruits fed to digestersterilised fruits fed to digester
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5.5. DigestionDigestion- Sterilised fruits reheated and pericarp Sterilised fruits reheated and pericarp
loosened from nuts for pressingloosened from nuts for pressing- Carried out in steam heated vessels wt Carried out in steam heated vessels wt
stirring arms – digesters or kettlesstirring arms – digesters or kettles- ~ 100~ 100ooC, arms stir n rub fruit loosening C, arms stir n rub fruit loosening
pericarp from nuts and breaking open oil pericarp from nuts and breaking open oil cells as many as possiblecells as many as possible
- Digester converts stripped fruits into Digester converts stripped fruits into homogenous mashhomogenous mash
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6.6. Oil extractionOil extraction- By pressing usg screw press consist of By pressing usg screw press consist of
perforated cage runs in single or double perforated cage runs in single or double screw screw
- Screw press made from tough & wear Screw press made from tough & wear resistant steel resistant steel
- Press cages from SSPress cages from SS- Discharge fr screw press consists of Discharge fr screw press consists of
crude oil liquor & a matte of oily crude oil liquor & a matte of oily fibre&nutsfibre&nuts
- Crude oil to vibrating screens to be Crude oil to vibrating screens to be separated from solids for clarificationseparated from solids for clarification
- Fibre&nuts carried by steam jacketed Fibre&nuts carried by steam jacketed conveyor before splitting separate waysconveyor before splitting separate ways
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7.7. Clarification & purification of CPOClarification & purification of CPO- Crude oil prod. by pressing contains water & Crude oil prod. by pressing contains water &
impurities impurities - 66% oil, 24% water and balance as non-oily 66% oil, 24% water and balance as non-oily
solidssolids- Clarification: water & impurities removed to Clarification: water & impurities removed to
give clear stable prodt of acceptable give clear stable prodt of acceptable appearanceappearance
- Water removed by gravity settling or Water removed by gravity settling or centrifuging centrifuging
- Crude oil diluted first wt hot water to reduce Crude oil diluted first wt hot water to reduce viscosity, screened to remove coarse fibrous viscosity, screened to remove coarse fibrous material material
- Then heated to 90-95oC, pumped to continuous Then heated to 90-95oC, pumped to continuous settling tanksettling tank
- Retention in tank enable oil to rise to surface Retention in tank enable oil to rise to surface and overflow into reception tankand overflow into reception tank
- Further purified by centrifuging reduces dirt to Further purified by centrifuging reduces dirt to 0.01% or <0.01% or <
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- Moisture still exist in oil removed by Moisture still exist in oil removed by evaporation in dehydrator with or without evaporation in dehydrator with or without vacuumvacuum
- In practice, some moisture retain to avoid In practice, some moisture retain to avoid oxidation in oiloxidation in oil
- Underflow from settling tank: sludge Underflow from settling tank: sludge containing some oil which can be containing some oil which can be recovered by centrifugingrecovered by centrifuging
- Rest of sludge sent to effluent treatment Rest of sludge sent to effluent treatment plt. plt.
- Anaerobic digestion of POME produces Anaerobic digestion of POME produces methane used to generate in-house methane used to generate in-house electricityelectricity
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8.8. Nut & kernel stationNut & kernel station- Nuts & fibres separated in Nuts & fibres separated in
depericarper station depericarper station - Fibres act as fuel to boilerFibres act as fuel to boiler- Wet nuts elevated to nut bin (60-Wet nuts elevated to nut bin (60-
77oC) 77oC) - Dry nuts separated from shells usg Dry nuts separated from shells usg
nut cracking machinesnut cracking machines- Shells as fuel for boilerShells as fuel for boiler- Kernels stored in siloKernels stored in silo
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Processing of Palm Oil and Palm Kernel OilProcessing of Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil Palm Oil and palm kernel oil - two different Palm Oil and palm kernel oil - two different
oils or fats which can be extracted from the oils or fats which can be extracted from the fruit of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)fruit of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)
semi-solid at room temperaturesemi-solid at room temperature fractionated into solid and liquid fractions fractionated into solid and liquid fractions
known as stearins and oleins respectivelyknown as stearins and oleins respectively processed through physical or chemical processed through physical or chemical
refining to yield either refined, bleached and refining to yield either refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) or neutralized, bleached deodorized (RBD) or neutralized, bleached and deodorized (NBD) palm oil and palm and deodorized (NBD) palm oil and palm kernel oilkernel oil
Combinations of these processes lead to Combinations of these processes lead to various types of palm oil and palm kernel oil various types of palm oil and palm kernel oil products (see figure 1)products (see figure 1)
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Refining of crude palm oilRefining of crude palm oil
Composition of palm oil: fatty acids namely Composition of palm oil: fatty acids namely palmitic (45%), stearic, oleic, linoleic, free palmitic (45%), stearic, oleic, linoleic, free fatty acids, mono & diglycerides and fatty acids, mono & diglycerides and impurities ( trace metals n oxidation prodts)impurities ( trace metals n oxidation prodts)
Objective of Purification or refining Objective of Purification or refining processes – to reduce contaminants that processes – to reduce contaminants that affect the quality of end prodt n retain affect the quality of end prodt n retain antioxidants of the prodtantioxidants of the prodt
Two methods of refining: physical n Two methods of refining: physical n chemical chemical
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1.1. DegummingDegumming- Process to remove gums containing calcium n Process to remove gums containing calcium n
magnesium that give oil inferior quality n magnesium that give oil inferior quality n shorter shelf-lifeshorter shelf-life
- Concentrated phosphoric acid 0.1% wt is Concentrated phosphoric acid 0.1% wt is sufficient to remove phosphatidessufficient to remove phosphatides
2.2. NeutralisationNeutralisation- Oil is neutralised by NaOH resulting in Oil is neutralised by NaOH resulting in
soapstock n separated usg centrifuge n washing soapstock n separated usg centrifuge n washing with waterwith water
- Any soap retained removed by adding citric or Any soap retained removed by adding citric or phosphoric acid to final wash prior to oil dryingphosphoric acid to final wash prior to oil drying
- Losses occur normally attributed to the Losses occur normally attributed to the followings:followings:a. FFAa. FFAb. mucillage, colouring matter n impuritiesb. mucillage, colouring matter n impuritiesc. saponification of neutral oil c. saponification of neutral oil
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3.3. DryingDrying- Reduce moisture content <0.06% usg vacuum Reduce moisture content <0.06% usg vacuum
dryerdryer- Why?? Moisture cause FFA rise due to Why?? Moisture cause FFA rise due to
autocatalytic hydrolysisautocatalytic hydrolysis
4.4. Bleaching n filteration Bleaching n filteration - Purpose of bleaching:Purpose of bleaching:
a. to obtain the lightest colour possiblea. to obtain the lightest colour possibleb. to remove traces of soaps present b. to remove traces of soaps present c. to remove traces of nickel c. to remove traces of nickel
- Bleaching carried out usg adsorbent clay or Bleaching carried out usg adsorbent clay or carbon in absence of O2 under steam, N2 carbon in absence of O2 under steam, N2 blanket or vacuumblanket or vacuum
- 0.5 - 2% bleaching agent quantity0.5 - 2% bleaching agent quantity- 80 – 180 80 – 180 ooC temperatureC temperature- Once bleaching complete, oil pumped thru a Once bleaching complete, oil pumped thru a
filter n recycle until filter cake formed, then filter n recycle until filter cake formed, then transferred to continuous deodorisertransferred to continuous deodoriser
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5.5. DeodorisationDeodorisation- Final stage of oil refiningFinal stage of oil refining- To reduce oil to odourless n tasteless by To reduce oil to odourless n tasteless by
removing volatile odiferous n flavoured removing volatile odiferous n flavoured substances (aldehydes, ketones n FFA)substances (aldehydes, ketones n FFA)
- Steam distillation under vacuumSteam distillation under vacuum- Process x reduce trace metals or Process x reduce trace metals or
phosphatide levelsphosphatide levels- Oil cooled to 55Oil cooled to 55ooC exiting deodoriserC exiting deodoriser
6.6. PolishingPolishing- Oil pumped thru polishing filter giving Oil pumped thru polishing filter giving
finished oil its final sparklefinished oil its final sparkle
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Physical refiningPhysical refining- Actually combining neutralization n Actually combining neutralization n
deodorisation usg steam distillation under deodorisation usg steam distillation under vacuumvacuum
- Operation cost > than chemical refining Operation cost > than chemical refining but less hassle wt byprodts hence but less hassle wt byprodts hence preferablepreferable
- Suitable for high quality vegetable oil wt Suitable for high quality vegetable oil wt low FFAlow FFA
- Better quality oil (FFA distill to 95%)Better quality oil (FFA distill to 95%)- Proc also removed tocopherols hence Proc also removed tocopherols hence
special precaustions taken drg storage special precaustions taken drg storage (short time only) n shipping (antioxidant (short time only) n shipping (antioxidant control)control)
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Fractionation flowschemeFractionation flowscheme
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FractionationFractionation- A thermomechanical process by which raw A thermomechanical process by which raw
material is separated into two or more portionsmaterial is separated into two or more portions- Normally usg distillation n crystallizationNormally usg distillation n crystallization- But distillation not suitable for triglycerides But distillation not suitable for triglycerides
mixtures becoz low vap pressure n low stability at mixtures becoz low vap pressure n low stability at high Thigh T
- Oil composition crystallized by controlled cooling Oil composition crystallized by controlled cooling followed by separation yielding liquid 30-40% followed by separation yielding liquid 30-40% olein n solid 60-70% stearinolein n solid 60-70% stearin
- Also, minor component of original oil became Also, minor component of original oil became concentrated n give effect on oxidative stability concentrated n give effect on oxidative stability of fractionsof fractions
- Constant monitoring of proc n prodts to ensure Constant monitoring of proc n prodts to ensure prodt qualityprodt quality
- 3 methods for fractionation of palm oil3 methods for fractionation of palm oil
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1.1. Dry processDry process- Oil crystallized and separated usg Oil crystallized and separated usg
filtrationfiltration- Oil first heated 70-75 Oil first heated 70-75 ooC to melt all C to melt all
crystal nuclei n passed to crystal nuclei n passed to crystalisercrystaliser
- Crystallization proceeds by initially Crystallization proceeds by initially cooling to 45cooling to 45ooC in 45 mins C in 45 mins
- Further cooling 18-20 Further cooling 18-20 ooC abt 4-8 C abt 4-8 hrs before pump to filterhrs before pump to filter
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2.2. Detergent processDetergent process- Oil crystallized but separated by employing Oil crystallized but separated by employing
aqueous detergent solution n centrifugeaqueous detergent solution n centrifuge- Similar crystallization step to dry processSimilar crystallization step to dry process- A continuous supply of slurry mixed wt A continuous supply of slurry mixed wt
detergent soln (sodium lauryl sulphate) pumped detergent soln (sodium lauryl sulphate) pumped to crystallizerto crystallizer
- Solution displaced oil fr stearin crystal surface Solution displaced oil fr stearin crystal surface - On centrifuge, olein discharged as oil phase n On centrifuge, olein discharged as oil phase n
stearin forms part of aqueous phasestearin forms part of aqueous phase- Aqueous phase heated 90-110 Aqueous phase heated 90-110 ooC to break away C to break away
stearin from emulsionstearin from emulsion- Cooled n centrifuged to recover stearinCooled n centrifuged to recover stearin- Detergent recycled to plantDetergent recycled to plant
3.3. Solvent processSolvent process- Employs crystallization n filtration but least Employs crystallization n filtration but least
preferred in industries hence not quite preferred in industries hence not quite establishedestablished
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OleochemicalsOleochemicals chemicals derived from oils and fatschemicals derived from oils and fats analogous to petrochemicals which are analogous to petrochemicals which are
chemicals derived from petroleumchemicals derived from petroleum based on C12-C14 and C16-C18 chain based on C12-C14 and C16-C18 chain
lengths have a variety of useslengths have a variety of uses Tallow and coconut oil have been the Tallow and coconut oil have been the
traditional raw materials used for the traditional raw materials used for the production of C16-C18 and C12-C14 chain production of C16-C18 and C12-C14 chain lengths respectivelylengths respectively
The hydrolysis or alcoholysis of oils and fats The hydrolysis or alcoholysis of oils and fats formed the basis of the oleochemicals formed the basis of the oleochemicals industryindustry
The five basic oleochemicals are fatty acids, The five basic oleochemicals are fatty acids, fatty Methyl esters, fatty alcohol, fatty fatty Methyl esters, fatty alcohol, fatty nitrogen compounds and glycerin.nitrogen compounds and glycerin.
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1.1. Fatty AcidsFatty Acids High temperature and high pressure splitting of Palm Oil or Palm kernel High temperature and high pressure splitting of Palm Oil or Palm kernel
Oil to produce crude fatty acids and glycerin as a by product Oil to produce crude fatty acids and glycerin as a by product Distillation of the crude fatty acids to produce distilled or fractionated Distillation of the crude fatty acids to produce distilled or fractionated
fatty acids which is a high purity fatty acidsfatty acids which is a high purity fatty acids
2.2. Fatty Methyl EsterFatty Methyl Ester Transesterification of Palm oil or Palm Kernel Oil with Methanol to Transesterification of Palm oil or Palm Kernel Oil with Methanol to
produce crude methyl ester and glycerin as a by productproduce crude methyl ester and glycerin as a by product Distillation of the methyl ester to produce distilled or fractionated fatty Distillation of the methyl ester to produce distilled or fractionated fatty
methyl estermethyl ester
3.3. Fatty AlcoholFatty Alcohol Hydrogenation of distilled or fractionated methyl ester at high Hydrogenation of distilled or fractionated methyl ester at high
temperature and pressure in the presence of catalyst to produce crude temperature and pressure in the presence of catalyst to produce crude fatty alcoholfatty alcohol
Distillation to produce distilled fatty alcoholDistillation to produce distilled fatty alcohol
4.4. Fatty Nitrogen CompoundsFatty Nitrogen Compounds The most common fatty nitrogen compounds are fatty amides, nitriles, The most common fatty nitrogen compounds are fatty amides, nitriles,
amines and quartenary ammonium compounds amines and quartenary ammonium compounds The most important of these compound is quartenary ammonium The most important of these compound is quartenary ammonium
compounds colloquially known as ¡¥quats¡¦ which is used in softenerscompounds colloquially known as ¡¥quats¡¦ which is used in softeners
5.5. GlycerinGlycerin Glycerin is a valuable co-product of the oleochemicals industry. Glycerin is a valuable co-product of the oleochemicals industry. It has many applications such as in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics It has many applications such as in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics
industry. industry.
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1. 1. What is biodiesel?What is biodiesel?Biodiesel is a substitute for fuel, for diesel engines made from renewable Biodiesel is a substitute for fuel, for diesel engines made from renewable fats and oils such as palm oil, soybean and rapeseed oil. Biodiesel contains fats and oils such as palm oil, soybean and rapeseed oil. Biodiesel contains no added sulfur and burns much cleaner than diesel fuel from petroleum no added sulfur and burns much cleaner than diesel fuel from petroleum based product. Biodiesel can be used in existing diesel engines with little based product. Biodiesel can be used in existing diesel engines with little or no modification. or no modification.
2. Is biodiesel used as a pure or is it blended with petroleum diesel?2. Is biodiesel used as a pure or is it blended with petroleum diesel?Biodiesel can be effectively used as a pure fuel or blended with fossil fuel Biodiesel can be effectively used as a pure fuel or blended with fossil fuel in any percentage.in any percentage.
3. How is biodiesel made?3. How is biodiesel made?
Biodiesel is made through a chemical process called transesterification Biodiesel is made through a chemical process called transesterification whereby glycerin is separated from the fat or vegetable oil. whereby glycerin is separated from the fat or vegetable oil. Transesterificaton chemically break the molecule into two products which Transesterificaton chemically break the molecule into two products which is Methyl Ester (the chemical name for biodiesel) and glycerin (a valuable is Methyl Ester (the chemical name for biodiesel) and glycerin (a valuable byproduct usually sold to be used in soaps and other products)byproduct usually sold to be used in soaps and other products)
4. Why should I use biodiesel?4. Why should I use biodiesel?Biodiesel is better for the environment because it is made from renewable Biodiesel is better for the environment because it is made from renewable resources and has lower emissions compared to petroleum diesel.resources and has lower emissions compared to petroleum diesel.
5.5. What are the environmental benefits of using biodiesel as a fuel?What are the environmental benefits of using biodiesel as a fuel? reduce poisonous carbon monoxide emissions reduce poisonous carbon monoxide emissions reduce ozone forming hydrocarbon emissions reduce ozone forming hydrocarbon emissions reduce hazardous particulate emissions reduce hazardous particulate emissions reduce acid-rain causing sulfur dioxide emissions.reduce acid-rain causing sulfur dioxide emissions.
BiodieselBiodiesel
