Journal uf Experienlial Education • 2005. Volume 28, No. 2 pp, 123-146

Outcomes from the Components ofan Outward Bound ExperienceMarni Goldenberg, Leo McAvoy, and David B. Klenosky

Means-end theory provides a useful approach for characterizing the rela-tionship among the attribates or components of an experiential educationcourse (the "means"), the benefits, or the outcomes associated with theseattributes/course components, and the personal values (the "ends") theseoutcomes help to reinforce for course participants. The purpose of thisarticle is to show how this "means-end" perspective can enhance ourunderstanding of the outcomes associated with outdoor adventure pro-gramming. A self-administered questionnaire designed to identify thelinkages among program attributes (i.e.. course components), course out-comes, and personal values was administered to a sample of 216 OutwardBound course participants. Analysis of the data provided useful insightsinto the outcomes associated with Outward Bound course experiencesand with specific course components. The results can assist experientialeducators in linking outdoor adventure course outcomes to course com-ponents, and in marketing course programs to potential clients.

Keywords: Outdoor Adventure, Outward Bound, Course Components,Means-End Theory

Marni Coldcnberg. Ph.D.. is an Assisttmt Professor at California PolytechnicState University, San Luis Obispo. She has worked in the field of outdoor/experi-ential education for the past 12 years. E-mail: mguldenb@calpuly.edu

Leo McAvoy. Professor, School of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota,Minneapolis. E-mail: mcavo001@umn.edu

Dr David R. Klenoskv is an Associate Professor of Recreation and SportManagement at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana. His e-mail addressis: klenosky@purdue.edu

124 Juurna! of Experiential Education

Researchers have heen particularly interested in exploring the hene-fits and outcomes associated with participating in outdoor activi-ties (Driver, Nash, & Haas, 1987: Roggenbuck & Driver, 2000) and

outdoor adventure education programs (Ewert & McAvoy, 2000). The pres-ent research builds on this base by examining the outcomes of outdooradventure education programs using an approach known as means-endanalysis. Moans-end theory provides a framework and methodology foridentifying the important attributes of a particular product or service, theconsequences (i.e.. benefits and outcomes) associated with those attrib-utes, and the personal values those consequences help reinforce for theindividual (Cutman, 1982; Klonosky, Cengler, & Mulvey, 1993).

Applications of means-end theory have typically focused on explor-ing the decision-making behavior of consumers. For instance, means-endstudies were conducted to investigate the factors involved in purchasing agreeting card (Walker & Olson, 1991), selecting a ski destination (Klenoskyet al., 1993), choosing among interpretive services and programs(Klenosky. Frauman. Norman, & Gengler, 1998), and exploring the factorsinfluencing greenway/trail use (Frauman & Cunningham, 2001).

Means-end analysis was recently applied to examine the benefitsand outcomes associated with ropes course programming (Goldenherg,Klenosky, O'Leary, & Templin, 2000), This study was unique because itwas the first to apply means-end theory to examine the factors associatedwith participation in a recreation activity, as opposed to those involved inproduct or service decision-making. It was also the first means-end studyinvolving both an experiential education activity and an outdoor adven-ture education setting. Although the Goidenberg et al. study provided use-ful insights about the means-end relationships among the outcomes andvalues associated with completing a ropes course program, the adventureeducation setting involved in the study was narrow in both scope andduration. Most of the respondents in the Goldenberg et al. study partici-pated in a half-day program involving a portable low-elements ropescourse, while other respondents participated in a similar, but full-day pro-gram, that also included a small number of high-elements. Both courseswere conducted in university-hased, non-wilderness settings.Consequently, researchers have yet to apply the means-end approach toexamine the outcomes associated with a more comprehensive multi-dayoutdoor adventure experience conducted in a wilderness setting, such asan Outward Bound course.

2005. Volume 28, No. 2 125

In sum, the present research builds on the foundation provided bythe earlier ropes course study (Goldenberg et al., 2000) by examining abroader experiential education experience. The specific research objectivewas to use the means-end approach to better understand the outcomes andrelated meanings asso[:iated with completing an Outward Bound course,as well as to explore differences in the outcomes and means-end linkagesfor five key course components: rock climbing, interactions, expedition-ing, campcraft skills, and the solo experience.

This article begins by providing background on the Outward Boundprogram, a review of prior research examining the outcomes of outdooradventure education programming, and an overview of the means-endapproach. Next, the findings from the present study are described. Thefinal section summarizes the study's contributions to the experiential edu-cation literature, discusses implications lor experiential education practi-tioners, and outlines future research directions.

BackgroundOutward Bound

Founded in 1941, Outward Boimd was designed for men to gainphysical fitness, craftsmanship, self-reliance, and compassion. These fourcore values are still pillars of Outward Bound programs today. Hattie,Marsh, Neill, and Richards (1997) reported that in 1994 over 40,000 indi-viduals participated in Outward Bound programs worldwide. Over theyears. Outward Bound has offered courses for women, youth, co-edgroups, and a variety of specialized groups. Outward Bound has played akey role in the outdoor education movement in North America, and hashelped set standards for adventure programming in terms of safety, pro-gram design, and leadership (Hirsch. 1999).

Previous Research on Outdoor Adventure Experiences

Prior research confirms that outdoor adventure experiences typical-ly involve elements of uncertainty, perceived risk, excitement, interactionwith nature, and effort (Bunting, 1990: Fwert, 1989; Priest. 1990: Raiola &O'Keele, 1999). Research has also illustrated that outdoor adventure pro-grams influence participants' awareness of themselves and others (Hattieet al., 1997). Other research has examined issues related to group dynam-ics and development, and found that outdoor adventure programs havepositive effects on groups (Ewert & Heywood, 1991: Fielding & Hogg,1997). Sibthorp's (2003) study included an analysis of the learning thatwas transferable from the program outcomes for 18 adolest:ents who com-pleted a wilderness-based course. He concluded that students did learn"both hard and life skills by watching others succeed and fail, and from

126 lournal of Experiential Education

verbal feedback by staff and peers" (Sibthorp, p. 154). Todd, Anderson,Young, and Anderson (2002) examined the changes in motivations for out-door adventure recreation activities over time for participants with vary-ing levels of development. They concluded that, "beginners struggle toachieve, intermediates are drawn more by excitement and risk, advancedparticipants focus on self-actualization, and experts seek new challengesto stay involved" (Todd et al., p. 2). Neill and Richards (1998) did a sum-mar\' of three different meta-analyses that represented over 12,000 partic-ipants. Their study showed that outdoor education programs did have asmall to medium impact on outcomes that are typically measured, such aslocus of control, self-confidence, and self-concept.

Hattie et al. (1997) examined the effects of adventure programs,specifically Outward Bound, and concluded that Outward Bound pro-grams can have a positive effect on participants' self-esteem. Mtutin (2001)indicated that the main outcomes for participants, relative to the courseobjectives of an Outward Bound course, were personal and interpersonaldevelopment, specially improved self-confidence, and better interperson-al relationships. In one of the few investigations relating specific OutwardBound course components to program outcomes, Estes (1994) askedOutward Bound course instructors and participants to indicate the con-gruence between course components and eleven core values or principles.Her results showed that some course components (specifically those asso-ciated with daily activities, such as food preparation, setting up camp,etc., as well as group expeditions, and final expedition) were useful forconveying all eleven principles, while other components (rock climbing,rappelling, and ropes courses) tended to emphasize a more specific subsetof principles. While Estes' study provides a usefid foundation, severalhave noted that additional research is needed to refine our understandingabout how and why program elements contribute towards specific pro-gram outcomes (Ewert, 1987; Hattie et ai., 1997). As noted by Ewert,research is needed to provide "an understanding as to why (specific out-comes) happened and how (these outcomes) can be made to happenagain" (p. 5). The means-end approach, outlined in the following section,has proven useful for examining the "how and why" issues in the contextof outdoor adventure programming.

Means-End Theory, Concepts and RelationshipsMeans-end theory was originally developed to better understand

how consumers or participants feel about a particular product or service(Gutman. 1982: Reynolds & Gutman, 1988), The theory focuses on theinterrelationship among product-meaning at three levels of abstraction:attributes, consequences, and values (Goldenberg et al., 2000). Attributes,

2005, Volume 28, No. 2 127

which refer to the characteristics or features of the product, object or activ-ity in question, are viewed as being relatively concrete. Examples of key"product" attributes for an outdoor adventure experience would includethe length of the course, location of the course, activities done while oncourse, the instructor(s), and the number and nature of individuals in thegroup. Consequences, which refer to outcomes associated with particularattributes, are viewed as being more abstract. Gonsequences can refer todesired outcomes, more commonly called benefits, and also to undesir-able outcomes, such as costs and perceived risks. Some examples of posi-tive consequences/benefits for participants completing an outdoor adven-ture experience may include learning to work together with others in agroup, acquiring skills needed to function in outdoor settings, or learningone's limitations and strengths as an individual or group member. Valuessummarize desired end-states of heing and are viewed as being highlyabstract (Goldenberg et al,. 2000). Examples of values for participating inan outdoor adventure experience include transference, self-esteem, warmrelationships with others, and a sense of accomplishment.

Instead of treating the three elements (attributes, consequences, andvalues) independent of each other, means-end theory views them as fim-damentally interrelated. According to the theory, product/service attrib-utes represent the "means" hy which consumers obtain desired conse-quences/benefits (as well as avoid undesired consequences/costs) andachieve important personal values or "ends" (Gutman, 1982). Thissequence of relationships linking attributes with consequences, and con-sequences with personal values, is summarized in the form of a set of asso-ciated meanings called a "means-end chain." As an example, a means-endchain in an outdoor adventure experience might link the attribute orcourse component "whitewater canoeing" (canoeing), to the conse-quence/outcome "learn important communication skills" (communica-tion), and this consequence to the value, "now that I learned how to com-municate better, I can get my point across" (self-awareness).

Methodology

Measuring and Collecting Means-End Data

This study uses means-end anaiysis to examine the attributes, con-sequences, and values associated with participating in an Outward Boundcourse. Means-end data is usually collected using a qualitative researchtechnique known as "laddering" (Reynolds & Gutman, 1988), Ladderinginvolves asking a series of open-ended Cjuestions that first ask the respon-dent to identify the attributes of a produi:t, or as in the present case, theoutcomes that were important to them that they feel they received from

128 lournal of Experiential Education

participating in a given activity. The respondent is then asked why aparticular outcome was important. The response given, which will typi-cally refer to another, more abstract consequence will then be the focus ofthe next, "Why is that important?" question. This process of asking. "Whyis that important?" continues for each response given until the respondentcan no longer provide a meaningful answer (e.g., the response is "I don'tknow," or "It just is.,."). The procedure is called laddering because itforces the respondent up the "ladder of abstraction." hridging relativelyconcrete concepts at the outcome or benefit level to more abstract con-cepts at the value level (Klenosky et al., 1993).

While the use of interviews, either conducted in person (Hofstede.Audenaert, Steenkamp, & Wedel, 1998: Klenosky, 2002; Klenosky,Templin, & Troutman 2001: Reynolds & Rochon, 1991: Roth. 1994) or viaphone (Bagozzi & Dobholkar, 1994), has remained the preferred and mostpopular approach to collecting means-end data, a number of other studieshave demonstrated that means-end data can also be collected using self-administered questionnaires (Frauman & Cunningham, 2001: Goldenberget a l , 2000; Pieters, Bottschen, & Thelen, 199H: Walker & Olson, 1991). Theuse of questionnaires is particularly helpful when working with largesample sizes and has proven to be a useful, cost-effective approach forcollecting laddering data.

Regardless of whether data are collected using interviews or qnes-tionnaires, the analysis of laddering data involves several basic steps (fur-ther details about the steps and considerations involved in analyzing lad-dering data can be found in Klenosky et aL, 1993, and Reynolds andGutman, 1988). In the first step, the data are reviewed by the researcher(s),and content codes are developed based on participants' responses to theladdering process. The coded ladder elements are aggregated and used todevelop an implication matrix—i.e.. an asymmetric matrix that summa-rizes the number of times each concept was associated with each of theother concepts in respondents' ladders (Klenosky et al., 1998). Based onthe relationships identified in the implication matrix, a hierarchical valuemap (HVM) is created. The HVM provides a graphical summary of thelinkages that emerged across participants' ladders. Depending on thestudy's objectives, the results of a means-end investigation may be sum-marized in a single HVM for the entire sample of respondents, or in aseries of HVMs focusing on specific study f:oncepts. The present studyshows the utility of this latter approach by describing the means-end rela-tions associated with selected Outward Bound course componentsthrough a series of HVMs.

Study Setting

Participants for this research study attended an Outward Bound pro-gram conducted at the North Carolina Outward Bound School (NCOBS)

2005. Volume 28, No. 2 129

during the summer of 2001. The NCOBS courses were based at three dif-ferent base camps. The courses offered during the time period of the pres-ent study included rock skills courses, a rafting course, an educatorcourse, a Girl Scout course, and public courses. Of the 30 courses offeredduring the study period, most (27) were public courses, while the remain-ing three were contract courses (courses designed for a specific group).Each contract course was customized to emphasize certain skills. Forexample, the rock skills courses focused on rock climbing, whereas therafting courses specifically worked on the skills needed to raft on white-water rivers.

Each study participant completed specific course components, suchas backpacking, canoeing, rock climbing, solo, service project, and a per-sonal challenge event. Most NCOBS courses included backpacking as onecourse component. Backpacking included basic campcraft skiils (such astarp set-up, cooking, and leave-no-trace techniques) and navigation skills(using a map and compass). Ganoeing was conducted on fast-flowing.Class I-III. white-water rivers and was taught in a three-day progression toparticipants on courses lasting at least 21 days. Rock climbing was a one-to eight-day course component. Participants learned a range of rock climb-ing skills that included tying knots, belaying (supporting the climber witha safety rope), movement on rock, rappelling, and anchor placement. Solowas a part ol most courses and was anywhere from a few hours to threedays. It was designed to give participants a time to reflect, spend timealone, and relax during the course. Service was incorporated into allcourses, but a formal service project was not necessarily included. Someformal service projects included working with a trail group to help main-tain a trail, or huilding a bridge over a small river. A personal challengeevent (PCE) was the event, usually at the end of a course, where individ-uals had the opportunity to challenge themselves physically and mental-ly. PGEs included a run, a high-impact rappel, or a navigationally chal-lenging obstacle course.

Data Collection Procedures

The self-administered questionnaire adopted from Goldenberg et al.(2000), Walker and Olson (1991), Botschen and Hemetsberger (1998). andPieters et al. (1998) was used to collect data from the study participants inthe summer of 2001. This method was used to obtain a larger sample sizethan could have been achieved from interviews, and there is indication inthe literature that the self-administered approach can be used effectively.The instrument consisted of two sections. The first section gathered dataon participant demographics and program experiences, and the secondsection operationalized the laddering procedure. In the second section,participants were asked to list the key outcomes they obtained from the

130 lournal of Experientidl Education

Outward Bound course they had just completed. Specifically, they wereasked to "think about the things you learned and the outcomes youreceived from participating in this course," and to list these outcomes inthe space provided. They were then instructed to select their most impor-tant outcome and explain why that outcome was important to them. Theywrote their response in a box to the right of that outcome. They were thenasked to explain why that response was important ("and this is importantto you because,..") and instructed to enter their response in the next box.This process was continued one more time. As a final step, participantswere asked to indicate which part(s) of the course led them to learn thisspecific outcome. The series of responses linking a particular course com-ponent (attribute) to one or more outcomes (consequences), and these out-comes to one or more personal values represented a means-end chain, orladder, of associated meanings.

Questionnaires were distributed at the conclusion of each NGOBScourse by the study's lead researcher. Participants completed the ques-tionnaires individually in a group setting. No incentives for respondentswere used. A total of 294 questionnaires were distributed, and of these,207 were returned, representing a response rate of 70.4%. To explore thepotential impact of non-response bias, phone interviews were conductedwith nine non-respondents. No significant differences were foxnidbetween respondents and non-respondents regarding demographic char-acteristics, course satisfaction ratings, and the number and types of out-comes obtained. The data from these nine respondents were combinedwith the respondent data yielding a final sample of 216 study participants.

Analysis and Results

Participant Demographics

Study participants ranged in age from 14-66 years old, with themajority (90.3%) between 14 and 17 years old. Participants completedcourses ranging in length from 4 to 21 days, with half (54.6%) lasting 21days. The majority were male (57.4%), white (84.3%), and high schoolstudents (90.3%). One-fourth (25%) received some sort of scholarship toattend NGOBS.

Outcome Analysis

Study participants were asked to list the outcomes they felt theyreceived from their Outward Bound experience. A total of 799 outcomeswere listed by the 21fi participants, with a mean of 3.7 outcomes perrespondent. Of these outcomes, those listed most frequently includedphysical fitness (listed by 34.7% of the study participants), followed byrelationships with others (20.8%). self-confidence (19.9%). self-reliance

2005, Volumo 28, No, 2 131

(16.7%), appreciation (16.7%), teamwork/cooperation (15.7%), personalgrowth/challenges (15.7%), and knowledge/awareness (15.3%).

Analysis of Ladders Obtained

The 216 study participants completed a total of 711 ladders, repre-senting a mean of 3.3 ladders each. These ladders consisted of a total of2,645 concepts or links, with a mean of 3.7 concepts. The concepts mak-ing up the respondents' ladders were coded by the researcher and aresearch assistant, and entered into LadderMap (Gengler & Reynolds,1995) computer program to facilitate data coding and analysis. As the con-cepts were entered into the program, "content codes" were developedbased on phrases and key words that emerged from the data. Thisapproach is similar to the "cut-up-and-put-in-folders" approach (Bogdan& Bilken, 1982) which has been used successfully in prior recreation(Hultsman. 1996), and means-end research (Goldenberg et al., 2000). Thecontent codes were developed first by two researchers working together,then by an independent coder who agreed on approximately 7O'K» of theoriginal coding assignments. This level of intercoder agreement is similarto that obtained in prior means-end research (Goldenberg et al. 2000:Klenosky et al.. 1993). Coding disagreements were resolved based on dis-cussions with two other researchers.

Table 1 summarizes the 36 content codes that were generated usingthis process. These codes consisted of 14 attributes, 14 consequences, and8 personal values. The attributes that were mentioned most often acrossrespondents' ladders included course overall (mentioned by 44.9% of thestudy participants and accounting for 5.9% of the concepts mentioned inparticipants' ladders), as well as more specific course components includ-ing: interactions (mentioned by 22.2%), rock climbing (20.8%), expedi-tioning (19.4%), campcraft (13.4%), and the solo experience (13.0%).interactions included any time a participant mentioned some type of inter-action with another individual. These interactions included crew con-flicts, crew interactions, meals, crew tasks, free time, etc. Expeditioningincluded navigational skills, hiking, and backpacking. Expeditioningoccurred any time a group moved from one area to another, and almostalways involved backpacking.

The consequences/outcomes mentioned most frequently in partici-pants' ladders included: relationships with others/teamwork (mentionedby 51.9%), knowledge/awareness (63.0%). personal growth/challenges(48.6%), and determination/perseverance (26.9%). Relationships withothers/teamwork was a very large category and included components suchas building relationships, working as a team, communicating with others,compassion, cooperation, encouragement, being positive, friendships,respect, teaching, and trust. Knowledge/awareness included gaining

132 lournal of Experiential Education

knowledge in general, learning about outdoor and backcountry survivalskills, and learning about oneself. Personal growth/challenges inckideddeveloping abilities, new opportunities, personal challenges, personalgrowth, and problem-solving. Determination/perseverance included over-coming fears, getting motivated, and developing endurance.

Finally, of the eight values identified, those mentioned most fre-quently included transference (mentioned hy 58.3°/)). self-awareness/improvement/fulfillment (49.5%), achievement of a personal goal/value(39.8%), and self-confidence/esteem (34.3%). Transference referred totransferring the skills and knowledge obtained through their experience towork, school, other activitios, and to life in general. Any time an individ-ual referred to being able to apply a skill to one or more areas outside oftheir Outward Bound experience, it was coded as a form of transference.The other values mentioned were fairly self-explanatory.

Means-End Relations

In order to summarize the moans-end relations among the attributes,consequences, and values identified, a set of implication matrices and hier-archical value maps (HVMs) were developed. The HVMs were createdbased on the approach recommended by Gengler, Klenosky, and Mulvey(1995). Using this approach, the concepts in the HVM are represented ascircles. The size of the circle is set proportionally to the number of timesthe concept was mentioned by study participants in the implicationsmatrix, and the thickness of the lines connecting circles proportional to thenumber of times concepts were linked together. Value-level concepts arerepresented using hlack circles located near tho top of the HVM andlabeled using all upper-case letters. As noted by Klenosky et al. (1998). thisapproach reflects the highly abstract role that values play in defining themeaning of the other, more concrete consequences/outcomes and attributeconcepts. Consequences are represented as grey circles positioned in themiddle of the map and labeled using initial capitals only. Attributes/coursecomponents are represented as white circles positioned at the bottom of themap and labeled in all lower-case letters.

Figure 1 summarizes the concepts and associations generated fromall the respondents who participated in this study (n = 216). To simplifyinterpretation, only those associations mentioned by at least nine respon-dents are represented in this summary HVM. The predominant attrib-utes/course components illustrated on this map included the course over-all. roc;k chmbing, expeditioning, and interactions. Other representedcourse components included campcraft, solo. PCE. leadership opportuni-ties, and instruction. The consequences that were mentioned most fre-quently included knowledge/awareness, jjersonal growth/challenges, andrelationships with others/teamwork. Other notable outcomes included

2005, Vohime 28, No. 2 133

Table 1.Number of Times Concepts Mentioned in Respondents' Ladders

Niiin ber of RnspnndfjnisMentioning Cono^p!

ATTRIHUTllS MHNTIONED

Course OverallInteractionsRock ClimhingExpeditioningCampcraftSoloCourse ChallengesInstructionNew ExperiencesPCELeadership OpportunitiesCanoeingCourso Begimiing/C^ompletion

Environment

CONSEQtJENCES MENTIONED

Know lodge/Aw ai'en ess

Ml L(!iist O n c n

97

484542

29

28

17

15

14

13

11

10

8

8

136

Relationships with Others/Teamwork 112Personal Crowth/ChallengesDetermination/PerseverancePhvsical FitnessAppreciationindependenceNature AppreciationLeadershipEfficientAchievementketlectionSurvivalPatience

VALUES MENTIONED

Transference

lO.'J58

52

38

36

28

26

17

1616

1512

126

Self-Awarenes.s/Improvement/Fulfillment 107Achievement of a Personal GoalSelt-Confidence/EsteemFun and Enjovmenl of LifeA Sense of AccomplishmentSo If-RelianceWarm Relalioiishlps with Others

86

74

64

57

4030

Ftjrcent of RespondentsMentioning Concfipl

at Least Onc:o

44.922,220,819,413,413.0

7.9

6 .9

6,56,0

5,1

4,6

3.7

3.7

63.051.948.626.924.117,616,713.012.0

7.9

7.4

7.4

6.9

5,B

58,349.539.834.329.626.418.513.9

Note, n = 216.

134 Joumal of Experiential Education

determination/perseverance and physical fitness. The value mentionedmost frequently was transference. Additional values included sclf-aware-ness/improvement/fulfillment, achievement of a personal goal/value, self-confidence/esteem, and sense of accomplishment. It is notable that severalparticipants linked the overall course with physical fitness, relationshipswith others/teamwork, and nature appreciation.

Several concepts were associated with, or linked to, the conse-quence of relationships with others/teamwork. The attrihutes involved inthese linkages were the overall course experience, expeditioning, rockclimhing, and interactions. Rock climbing was linked to relationshipswith others/teamwork and also to determination/perseverance.Relationships with others/teamwork linked to the outcome increasedknowledge/awareness and to the value warm relationships with others.This suggests that working with others tliroughout the course, expedition-ing, rock climbing, and interactions, help participants learn to work as ateam. This helped them get along and develop "warm" relationships withothers. Another strong link ohserved in the HVM involved the linksbetween personal growth/challenge and self-confidence/esteem, andbetween self-confidence/esteem and a sense of accomplishment. This setof relations suggested that as individuals challenged themselves and grew,they felt better about themselves, which was associated with the feeling ofaccomplishment in life. Participants also appeared to appreciate the lead-ership opportunities they experienced on the course, that they apparentlyviewed as a skill that could potentially he transferred to other aspects oftheir lives. Finally, the links involving the solo experience (i.e., beingalone outdoors for a given length of time) led the participants to feel moreindependent and self-reliant, which was associated with gaining knowl-edge and enhancing personal awareness.

In addition to the snmmary HVM shown in Figure 1, separate HVMswere developed to provide a more refined view of the outcomes associat-ed with five key Outward Bonnd conrse components: rock climbing, inter-actions, expeditioning, campcraft, and the solo experience. These HVMscan be found in Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 respectively. To simplify inter-pretation, only those associations mentioned by at least two respondentsare represented in these HVMs.

The HVM for rock climbing, shown in Figure 2. had several associ-ations that stood out. Determination/perseverance and relationships withothers/teamwork were the strongest associations directly associated withrock climhing. This makes sense, as rock climbing leads to individualsworking together, as well as individuals pushing themselves and showinghoth determination and perseverance while climbing. Other consequenceslinked either directly or indirectly to rock climbing included knowl-edge/awareness, personal growth/challenge, physical fitness, independ-

2005, Volume 28, No. 2 135

ACHIEVKMFNT OF APERSONAI,

(iOAIA'Al.liE

Fl!N ANDENIOYMENT

OF LIFE

VALUE

Consequence

attribute

WARMRKI.ATIONSH1PSWrrH OTHERS

SELF AWARENKSS/IMPROVFMKNT/

nJLFIl.I.MENT

leadershipopportunitie).

Figure 1. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course partici-pants: All respondents (n ~ 216).

ence, appreciation, and achievement. The values that linked with theseoutcomes, most frequently included self-awareness/improvement/fulfiU-ment, self-confidence/esteem, and transference. Taken together, the out-comes and values associated with rock climbing are consistent with theview of rock climbing as being primarily an individual or personalgrowth-oriented form of experiential education.

As would be expected, in the HVM for interactions shown in Figure3, the most frequently mentioned concept was the consequence relation-ships with others/teamwork. Other consequences linked with interactions

136 lournal of Expf>riential Education

included knowledge/awareness, personal growth/challenges, reflection,patience, appreciation, and leadership. Notable values that linked withthese outcomes included self-awareness/improvement/fulfillment, transfer-ence, fun and enjoyment in life, and warm relationships with others. Theinterrelationships involving these c:oncepts suggest that the interactionsexperienced while on an Outward Bound course help participants learn towork with others to get tasks accomplished, as well as appreciate and developrelationships with others that will extend heyond the course itself.

The HVM for expeditioning. shown in Figure 4. showed thatenhanced physical fitness and leadership skills had the strongest directlinks for this course component. Other notable outcomes for expedition-ing included appreciation, survival, independence, and patience.Transference was the most frequently mentioned value in this HVM. Theoutcomes and values depicted in this HVM differ considerably from thoseshown in the rock climbing HVM, suggesting that expeditioning and rockclimhing provide different types of experiences for Outward Bound courseparticipants.

In the HVM for campcraft, shown in Figure 5, the most prominentconsequence was knowledge/awareness. This consequence was linked tocampcraft through the outcomes efficient and nature appreciation. Themost frequently mentioned value in this HVM was transference. The pat-tern of interrelationships depicted indicates that learning how to camp andsurvive in the outdoors was useful information that participants appreciated,and wanted to use and share with others after the course was over.

Finally, in the HVM for the solo experience, shown in Figure 6. thestrongest association was between solo and independence. This linkmakes sense, because when participants wore on solo, they were on theirown and needed to take care of their basic needs independently. Otherconsequences directly associated with solo included survival, natureappreciation, reflection, determination/perseverance, relationships withothers/teamwork, and physical fitness. The consequence—relationshipswith others/teamwork, and the value—warm relationships with others,seemed unlikely to he associated with the solo, but they did appear on thisHVM. This suggests that the opportunity to he alone and on one's own innature leads one to appreciate working with, and being with other people.Other values mentioned most frequently in this HVM depic:ted transfer-ence, self-reliance, and self-awareness. This set of outcomes and relatedmeanings appears to reflect the intended role of the solo experience in theOutward Bound program.

DiscussionThe overall goal of this research was to develop a better under-

standing of the outcomes associated with completing a multi-day Outward

2005, Volume 28, No. 2 137

AflHIEVEMENTOF A PERSONAL

Consequence

attribute

SKI.F-AWARI:M:SS/IMPKOVKMI:NI7FDLFII.LMKVr

SELF-RELIANCE

Figure 2. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo-nent: Rock climbing (n = 78).

Bound course. Using means-end theory and a self-administered ladderingapproach, data collected from a sample of Outward Bound conrse partici-pants provided useful insight into the outcomes associated with this formof experiential education programming; and the means-end linkages thathelped explain how and why these outcomes obtain their meaning in anOutward Bound course.

An analysis of the data across all respondents revealed a number ofkey outcomes and personal values that appear to be consistent with those

13B Journal of Experiential Education

reported in prior investigations in the outdoor adventure and experiential

educat ion literature. For instance, Hattie et ai. (1997) reported that out-

door adventure programs have an impact on par t ic ipants ' awareness of

themselves and others. Solf-awareness/ improvement/fulf i l lment was the

second most frequently ment ioned value in the present study. Hattie et al.

also stated that par t ic ipants ' awareness of others increased whi le they

were involved with an outdoor adventure activity. Other researchers

(Ewert & Heywood, 1991; Fielding & Hogg, 1997) have found that outdoor

adventure programs have posit ive impacts on group dynamics and devel-

opment . These findings were suppor ted in this s tudy as well , in that,

developing re la t ionships wi th others and working as a team emerged as

one of the most commonly ment ioned consequences ; and appeared to play

a key role w h e n par t ic ipants interacted and worked together to rock cl imh,

canoe, or expedi t ion during the course. Prior research by Ptixton and

McAvoy (2000) examined h o w self-efficacy from part icipat ing in an out-

door adventure activity is transferred to par t ic ipants ' daily lives. In the

current study, transference (i.e., the transference of skills and knowledge

to work, school, and life) was the most frequently men t ioned value, tmd

was frequently l inked to other values related to feelings of self-confidence,

accompl i shment , and self-fulfillment.

The results of this research complement the findings reported hy

Estes (1994), w h o examined whe the r the core values or pr inciples

espoused by Outward Bound were conveyed in general , as well as th rough

specific course componen ts . Al though the course componen t s examined

differed he tween the two studies , the findings of both s tudies had some

interesting similarit ies. For instance, consistent wi th the Estes findings,

the HVMs for general or frequently occurring course e lements , such as the

course overall, interactions, and expedi t ioning, tended to involve a larger

number of concepts and l inks compared to the HVMs for more specific

conrse componen t s , such as rock cl imbing and campcraft. In addi t ion, the

items rated as among the most important by course par t ic ipants in Estes'

s tudy involved the pr inciples cooperat ion, compass ion , and self-discov-

ery. Similar concepts that emerged as central in the present s tudy includ-

ed outcomes and values, specifically the consequence re la t ionships wi th

others / teamwork, and the values warm relat ionships and self-aware-

ness / improvement , that reflect s imilar under ly ing pr inciples .

In sum, Ewert and McAvoy (2000) encouraged researchers to look at

the "how and w h y " of programming, versus only looking at the "what and

w h e n " of the program. The present s tudy provided some of the answers

that address how and why specific ou tcomes occur for indiv iduals from

comple t ing an outdoor adventure experience. It also provided insight into

h o w outdoor professionals can facilitate these outcomes by incorporat ing

specific conrse elements or exper iences into the programs they design.

2005, Volume 28, No, 2 139

VALUE

Consequence

attribute

FUN AND ENJOYMENTOF LIFE

SELF-AWARENKSS/IMPROVEMENT/FILKILLMENT

WARM RtLATiONSHIPSW i n i OIHEKS

Figure 3. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo-nent: Interactions (n = 73).

140 lournal of Experiential Education

o

VALUE

Consequence

attribute

A SKNSE OFACCOMPLISHMENT

SELF-AWARI-:\'ESS/IMPROVEMENT/F111.FILLMHNT

WARM RELATIONSHIPSWITH OTHERS

Fl N ANDliNJOYMENT

OF I.IFK

ACHIEVEMENT OF APERSONAI.

(.OAIA'ALL'E

Figure 4. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo-nent: Expeditioning {n = 69j.

2005, Volume 28, No. 2 141

VALUE

Consequence

attribute

SELF AWARENESS/IMPROVEMENT/FULFILLMENT

Figure 5. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo-nent: Campcraft [n = 44).

142 Journal of Experiential Education

ACHIEVEMENT OF APERSONAL GOALA'ALUE

Consequence

attribute

WARMRfXATIONSIllPSWiriimilKRS

Figure 6. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo-nent: Solo (il = 37).

2005, Volume 28, No. 2 143

ImplicationsThe results of this study present several implications for practice in

Outward Bonnd and similar outdoor adventnre programs. Chief amongthese is using knowledge of the outcomes associated with specific courseelements during program design. Course components that are likely tolead to specific outcomes and personal values can be targeted for a specif-ic clientele.

Knowledge of potential course component outcomes can also heused to market or "sell" a certain typo of program. The ontnomes obtainedfrom conrse participation can bo printed on marketing matorial and sharedwith potential participants as they learn about an outdoor adventure expe-rience they may pursue in the future. Moreover, managers of OntwardBonnd and similar types of advontnre programs can also nso tho resultsfrom this stndy to better obtain grant funding and donations. Fundingsources ofton seek research results to document or evaluate program out-comes and conrse effectiveness. The data generated from this study couldbe nsed to provide such evidence. Finally, the results from this study canalso help with the training of staff who instruct outdoor adventure pro-grams. Part of the training for instructors should inclnde developing anawareness of the potential outcomes that participants may receive frombeing part of a program, or from particular program elements. This knowl-edge could be used hy instructors to design and shape program elementsto meet specific outcomes.

In Hildition to these practical implications, thoro aro several inter-esting implications for future research in outdoor adventure programming.Some of theso diroctly relate to the limitations of this research, while oth-ers expand the application of means-end analysis in the outdoor adven-ture field. One key concern rolatos to the sample nsed for this stndy. Mostof the study participants were studonts botwoen 14-18 years old who wereprimarily Caucasian. Future research could be conducted using differentage groups, males compared to females, and different demographic popu-lations. Specific subgroups to explore may include yonth-at-risk, physicalor mental health patients, corporate groups, and young professionals inthe ontdoor field. Ontward Bonnd also rnns courses for individuals thatknow each other, such as school groups, parent/child courses, or couplecourses versus open-enrollment courses where individuals do not knoweach other. It wonld bo interesting to see if results from these pre-formedgronps would be similar to tho results from the current stndy.

A follow-np study of multi-day experiences after a given length oftime is recommended. This research was collected immediately followingthe participant's course and it would be interesting to compare theseresults with perceived outcomes within a five- to ten-year time period fol-

144 Journal of Exporiential Education

lowing participation in an outdoor adventnre program. For example,future research could be conducted to explore the issne of whether trans-ference, one of the major values noted by participants in the present stndy,did in fact occur.

Tbe outcomes of other outdoor advontnre activities could also beexamined nsing moans-end analysis. Fxamples of these activitios includecanoeing, kayaking, rafting, mountain hiking, winter camping, or down-hill skiing. The outcomes from these various outdoor adventnre activitiesmay vary from this current study, and this would be a useful contributionto the outdoor adventure literature.

In conclusion, this research revealed that outdoor adventnre educa-tion programs make an immediate impact in the lives of participants.Through this study, it was possible to bettor nnderstand tho outcomes pro-vided by Outward Bonnd outdoor adventure experiences, and appreciatehow these outcomes contribute to tho dovelopment and roinforcomont ofimportant personal values. These values are helieved to positively impactparticipants' lives long after tho outdoor advontnre experience is over.Additional studies aro noeded to tako this research to tho noxt level andexamine the nature and significance of these longer term outcomes.

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