Old English Vowel

8/12/2019 Old English Vowel

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24 The OE vowel

The development of vowels in Early OE consisted of the modification of separate vowelof the modification of entire sets of vowels. The change begins with growing var pronunciation, which manifests itself in the appearance of numerous allophones: after thincreased variation, some allophones prevail over the others and a replacement takes pla

result in the splitting of phonemes and their numerical growth, which fills in the emptythe system or introduces new distinctive features. It may also lead to the merging of old pas their new prevailing allophones can fall together.The vocalic system in OE included " subsystems: monophthongs, diphthongs. #ll vowels the pairs: , a , e , o , i , u , y y ! ""# $% &' , ((, ) $ %&'( )*+- ( /%0%*1& & '&2/034&: ea ea, eo eo, ie ie * The ma5or factor in OE wacategory of 6uantity vowels. It means, that all OE vowels, including diphthongs, could beand short. It it the system of vowels on the beginning of OE. The new system came wi8a on tribes 9 0*33*;?I@#TOAB =C#@DE8.

+* -.lue-/e o. 0he -e10 /o- o-a-0 3 5ea6i-7 diph thongi ation< 8hort vowel were diphthon before consonant. The short vowels &%, a*8hort vowels and % were diph7ni ed8 0u5- i-0o ea9e.o5e /o:9i-a0io- 5 ; , l ; , h ; , a-< 9e.o5e h o- 0he e-< o. a wo5


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N*/(V % /r/. /0/ )(+( 0' ]s] Z(+(N ] ] % ]4] 3*NQ%*(/ ; +0/* &NV0V. *W&0%(1;+3QRN* 03- $(+3(+* &NV(3;(/ ; % ]w], 30 &304'* % *341 & '&*1( /* % /+(Z*(/ ; ]N]: s Non q-%&'(1&q. * 03 /0/ WQ1 0/ +Q/ '*/ &V -Z(3QV *+10V $(+3(+0V. +*2&Z()0N& &F V0 30 &N0W+*N&/ /* : (1(%0R7 7 &1&: 7 7 041. (1(%0R. N%03Z)+0& 0'&10 % )0N& &&: 7 7 (1(%0R .

Xe:i-a0io- le-70he-i-7 o. /o- o-) before Y The process along with i7mutation, after a sylible.Z i:ila0io- 3 k,g dental into h,t. 9pyncan7puhte


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words, otherwise, it is an e6uivalent of the letter i, e.g. >E !et G5etH,kn!ght Gkni JtH. The lettersthand s indicate voiced sounds between vowels, and voiceless sounds S initially, finally another voiceless consonants, e.g. >Eworth! Gwur+iH. To determine the sound value of o one cup the origin of the sound in OE or the pronunciation of the word in @E: the sound Gchange in the transition from OE to >E 9the OE for some was sumE words which contain GH today,

indicates GoH.

\ HE E dialects are called on the basis of their geographical p @orthumbrian now refers to northern 9@orthernercian7 central 9>idland< is divide>idland and East >idlandY - ( &R 7 98outhern, 8outh7Kestern


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+4 OE y-0a1

The syntactic structure of OE was determined by two ma5or conditions: the natumorphology and the relations between the spoken and the written forms of the languagelargely a synthetic languageY it possessed a system of grammatical forms which could iconnection between words. It was primarily a spoken language, conse6uently, the syntsentence was relatively simple.The =h5a e* `ou-, Zost noun modifiers agreed with the noun in genderand case, e.g.on *+m *rum *r m daum in those other three daysJ S zat. pl >asc.#n ad5ective pattern could include adverbs, nouns or pronouns in one of the cases9 0 %(33QR< with or without prepositions, and infinitives, e.g.him ws manna *ear he wasin need of manJ.erb patterns included a great variety of dependant components: nouns and pronouns incases with or without prepositions, adverbs, infinitives and participles, e.g.brin *- * n bringthose thingsJ.]o5< o5


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members: singular and plural There were five ma5or cases: nominative, genitive, dative, and instrumental.The nominative case indicated the sub5ect of the sentence. It was also usdirect address.The accusative indicated the direct ob5ect of the sentence. It was never distinin the plural, or in a neuter noun.The genitive case indicated possession. It also indicated partnouns. The meanings of the Den. case were very comple and can only be grouped uheadings 8ub5ective! and Ob5ective! Den. 8ub5ective Den. is associated with the

meaning and the meaning of origin. Ob5ective Den. is associated with what is termedmeaning! .The dative case indicated the indirect ob5ect of the sentence. was the chief case us prepositions, e.g. on morNenne in the morningJThe instrumental case indicated an instrument usto achieve something. zuring the Old English period, the instrumental was falling out of ulargely merged with the dative. Only pronouns and strong ad5ectives retained separate foinstrumental.

Ho5@holo7i/al /la i.i/a0io- o. -ou- * Le/le- io- Cistorically, the OE system of declensiwas based on a number of distinctions: the stem7suffi , the gender of nouns, the phoneticof the word, phonetic changes in the final syllables. 8tem7suffi es could consist of vowelstems, e.g. a7stems, i7 stemsasc. S OE fiscere.>asculineandneuter words generally share their endings.[emininewords have their own subset of endings. The plural does not distinguish between gendivision into genders was in a certain way connected with the division into stems, thoughno direct correspondence between them: some stems were represented by nouns of one gender, e.g. 7stems were always [em., others embraced nouns of two or three genderreasons accounting for the division into declensions were structural and phonetic: monnouns had certain peculiarities as compared to polysyllabicY monosyllables with a long rdiffered in some forms from nouns with a short syllable. The ma5ority of OE nouns belona7stems, 7stems and n7stems.

Old English nouns are divided as eitherstrong or weak . Keak nouns have their own endingsgeneral, weak nouns are easier than strong nouns, since they had begun to lose their desystem. 8trong 9a,o,i,u Sstem


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numbers. The category of case in ad5ectives differed from that of nouns: in addition to theof nouns they had one more case, Instr. It was used when the ad5ective served as an attnoun in the zat. case e pressing an instrumental meaning.#d5ectives can be declined either strong]weak.Cistorically ad5ective is a younger class of words as compared to noun itha borrowed maninflections from nouns pronouns. zeclensions 9unlike nouns ad5ectives could be decli

ways


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prototype of this. They were declined like ad5ectives according to a five7case system: @zat., #cc., and Instr. zemonstrative pronouns were fre6uently used as noun determinthrough agreement with the noun indicated its number, gender and case " types: the st with thedemonstrative meaning considerably weakened. #nd have 7th case SInstrumental 9/%0+"nd S with a clear demonstr.meaning..

=o e ive @5o-* In the basic form coincided with D.=ase.Xersonal pron. but they were perc @om case.. 7" person declined by strong declinations 9 +.+- my, yourasc. and [em., and hw^t, @eut., 7 had a four7case paradigm whatood was constituteIndicative, Imperative and 8ub5unctive. The category of Tense in OE consisted of two cforms, Xresent and Xast. The use of 8ub5. forms conveyed a very general meaning of usupposition. In addition to its use in conditional sentences and other volitional, con5e

hypothetical conte ts 8ub5. was common in other types of construction: in clauses of timof result and in clauses presenting reported speech. The meanings of the tense forms weregeneral, as compared with later ages and with present7day English. The forms of the Xrwere used to indicate present and future actions. The Xast tense was used in a most generindicate various events in the past. In addition to >ood and Tense we must mention #soice. In OE the category of aspect was e pressed by the regular contrast of verbs with andthe prefi Ne7Y verbs with the prefi had a perfective meaning while the same verbs w prefi indicated a non7completed action, e.g. feohtan S Nefeohtan fightJ S gain by fight been shown that the prefi Ne7 in OE can hardly be regarded as a marker of aspect, it cothe aspective meaning of the verb by making it perfective, but it could also change imeaning, e.g. beran S Neberan carryJ S bear a childJ. It follows that the prefi Ne7 shou

regarded as an element of word7building, a derivational prefi of vague general meaning, ties with certain shades of aspective meaning are obvious. It is important to note that inthere were also other means of e pressing aspective meanings: the Xast or Xresent Xarti phrases with Xarticiple I were used to describe a prolonged state or action, the phrXarticiple II indicated a state resulting from a previous, completed action. The category OE is another debatable issue. The passive meaning was fre6uently indicated with thXarticiple II of transitive verbs used as predicatives with the verbs be n beJ and weor+anX5a::a0i/al /a0e7o5ie o. 0he e59al


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In OE there were two non7finite forms of the verb: the Infinitive and the Xarticiple. Thhad no verbal grammatical categories. ?eing a verbal noun by origin, it had a sort of redusystem: two forms which roughly corresponded to the @om. and the zat. cases of nounsuninflected Infinitive 9@om.! case< t berenne or t beranne S inflected Infinitive 9zike the zat. case of nouns the inflected Infinitive with the preposition t could be used to the direction or purpose of an action. The uninflected Infinitive was used in verb phrases w

verbs or other verbs of incomplete predication.The Xarticiple was a kind of verbal ad5ective which was characteri ed not only by nomin by certain verbal features. Xarticiple I 9Xresent Xarticiple< was opposed to XarticiXarticiple< through voice and tense distinctions: it was active and e pressed present or sim processes and 6ualities, while Xarticiple II e pressed states and 6ualities resulting from pand was contrasted to Xarticiple I as passive to active, if the verb was transitive. Xartiintransitive verbs had an active meaningY it indicated a past action and was opposed to only through tense. Xarticiples were employed predicatively and attributively like ad5eshared their grammatical categories: they were declined as weak and strong and agreed win number, gender and case.

[ OE ^05o-7 ve59

The ma5ority of OE verbs fell into two great divisions: the strong verbs and the weak verthese two main groups there were a few verbs which could be put together as minor! grmain difference between the strong and weak verbs lay in the means of forming the princor stems! of the verb. The strong verbs formed their stems by means of ablaut and bcertain suffi esY in some verbs ablaut was accompanied by consonant interchanges. The sthad four stems, as they distinguished two stems in the Xast Tense S one for the st and }rd>ood, the other S for the other Xast tense forms, Ind. and 8ub5. the weak verbs derivedtense stem and the stem of Xarticiple II from the Xresent tense stem with the help of the d7d7 or 7t7Y normally they did not interchange their root vowel, but in some verbs suf

accompanied by a vowel interchange. >inor groups of verbs differed from the weak anverbs. 8ome of them combined certain features of the strong and weak verbs in a pec9preterite7present! verbs


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K.v. form their Xreterit and Xarticiple" by addition of a dental suffi 9d]t< Slove, loved. Kform the ma5ority of Old English verbs. There are three ma5or classes of weak verbs in OThe first class displays i7mutation in the root. The verbs of =lass I usually were i7stemscontained the element G7i]75H between the root and the endings. The verbs of =lass II wthe help of the stem7suffi 7 , or 7 5 and are known as 7stems. =lass III was made upsurvivals of the XD third and fourth classes of weak verbs, mostly 757stems.

Each Kv. is characteri ed by } basic forms: infinitive, Xreterit and a participle ".+ 0 /la 5e7ula5 ve59 are formed either from noun, or from other verbs. In regular verbs the rovowel in all forms sub5ected to mutation under the influenceGi in suffi . . The verbs with long rovowels 7i disappears irrespective of which consonant stood before it* dLman7dLmde7dLmedThe st class formally with 5a in the present and i in the past. Its root vowel is mutated 9an} forms, because Xl sg distinguished only the inflection. There are irregular verbs in cTheir irregularity consist that they have suffi only in form 7 the infinitive and present tenmeans, that umlaut was only in 7st form, that is the st form distinguished from the seconthird by 6uality of the root vowel. 9sellan, sealed, seald7to give


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Bha-7e o. vowel i- HE

There are 6ualitative and 6uantitative changes of vowel in >E.ua-0i0a0ive vowel /ha-7eGIn ater OE and in Early >E vowel length began to depend on phonetic conditions. The e positional 6uantitative changes was the read5ustment of 6uantity before some consonant fe-70he-i-7 7 >E 7 in 7 century. 8hort vowels were lengthened before two consosonorant and a plosive. #ll vowels occurring in this position became long, e.g. OE wild SGwi:ldH S @E wild.^ho50e-i-7 G occurred at long vowels before two consonants. #ll vowels in this position beremained short, e.g. OE cLpte >E kepte GkeptH S @E kept.}) ^ho50 vowel 9e/a:e lo-7 in open syllables, e.g. OE nama >E name Gna:mH S @EThis lengtheninginitially affected the more open of the short vowels GeH, GaH and GoH } cent.u- 05e e< vo/ali :8 There was a reduction of unaccented syllables in a final position, andis lost. #t [irst there was weakening, and then loss of a unstressed syllable.uali0a0ive vowel /ha-7e *

#fter @orman invasion continued to develop the dialect: @orthern dialect9WQ%j&R @East7>idland9>ercianercian


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diphthongs were also contracted to monophthongs: the long Gea:H coalesced 9united< wof OE G:H S >E G:HY the short GeaH ceased to be distinguished from OE G H and bethe diphthongs Geo:H, GeoH S as well as their dialectal variants Gio:H, GioH S fell monophthongs Ge:H, GeH, Gi:H, GiH. #s a result of these changes the vowel systemdiphthongs, long and short. In the meantime anew set of diphthongs developed frse6uences of vowels and consonants due to the vocali ation of OE G5H and G H, that is t

into vowels. In Early >E the sounds G5H and G H between and after vowels changed inand formed diphthongs together with the preceding vowels, e.g. OE d N >E day Gdachanges gave rise to two sets of diphthongs: with i7glides and u7glides. The samediphthongs appeared also from other sources: the glide 7u developed from OE GwH as which became >E snow GsnouH, and before G H and GlH as in ate >E smaul and taughte

4 The 75ea0 vowel ^hi.0Include >E long vowels which were monophtongoni ed. Deneral case:i8 j ai N5i8


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Go:H7GuH 7 >oonGu:H7GauH 7 >ous S mouseGauH7Go:H 7 cause

42 The evolu0io- o. a-aly0i/al .o5: *

In OE therewere no analytical formsY they appeared in >E in all Dermanic langs and constwo elementsY < a verb of broad semantics 9to be, to have< and high fre6uencyY "< no9inf., XI]II


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%. zo * % )0V.41*401 0 +*3&1 ; 1&j /*V, 4'( 03 )01-Z*1 '0).4+*VV.N3*Z(3&(: 0W+*N0%*3&; 0/+& .20+VQ 41*401* "< '1; 0W+*N0%*3&; %0)+0 &/.20+VQ 40W+*N0%*3&; V2*/&Z( 0R 20+VQ 41*401*.

44 The evolu0io- o. y-0a1*OE

The synta of Old English was much more fle ible than modern English because of the deof the nouns. The case endings told the function of the word in the sentence,so word order was novery important. ?ut as the stress began to move to the first syllable of words, the endings w pronounced as clearly and began to diminish from the language. 8o in modern English, wis very important because we no longer have declensions to show case distinctions. Inste prepositions. The general word order wasu9Ye/0 G ve59 G o9Ye/0, but it did vary in a feinstances: . Khen an ob5ect is a pronoun, it often precedes the verb. ". Khen a sentencwith an adverb, the sub5ect often follows the verb. }. The verb often comes at thesubordinate clause.>E 7 8ynta was stricter and more prepositions were used. @ew compound tenses were uas the perfect tenses, and there was more use of the progressive and passive voice. The use

negation also increased as did impersonal constructions. The use of the verbs will and shfuture tense was first used too. [ormerly, will meant want and shall meant obliged to.The most obvious difference between OE syntaa-< the synta of the >E and @E periods is tthe word order became more strict and the use of prepositions more e tensive.In >E is used the direct word order. ?ut in the sentences which began with 90W /0;/(1 /%(330(< word, it was indirect word order. The synthetical word order gdisappears. The word order in >E is not so fi ed, as in @E, but has important meaningdirect word order becomes obligatory. The indirect word order begins to be used in 6uesau iliary word do is entered, which was fi ed in 6uestions and negations.^e-0e-/e *In OE is distinguished part of the sentence, as in the modern language: the main and mino

In >E The word order from a rhetorical category becomes syntactic. # sub5ect is abobligatory member of the sentence. If it is absent there is a formal sub5ect. The model wisub5ect there! is traced already in OE.In Earlu@E the simple sentence develops basically on a way of ordering of all rules connan arrangement of all members, 6uestions and negation.

4M The evolu0io- o. Xe5u-E verbs of =lass Iending(de in the past without an intermediate vowel before the dental suffi and the endi(edin the Xast Xarticiple.8everal groups of modern non7standard verbs have developed from the weak verbs of =erbs like OE sellan and tE and @E they preserved troot7vowel interchange, though some of the vowels were altered due to regular 6uanti6ualitative vowel changes: >E sellen = solde >E Iqso:ldH @E sold GsouldH


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article 7 an 9 one


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The alternation of root7vowels in Early @E survived in the ad5ectiveold, elder, eldest, where thedifference in meaning fromolder, oldest, made the formal distinction essential.

4 The evolu0io- o. /o- o-a-0 English consonants were on whole far more stable than vowels. # large number of consonants have probably runchanged through all historical periods. Thus we can assume that the sonorants Gm, n,

Gp,b, t, dH and also Gk, gH in most positions have not been sub5ected to any noticeablemost important developments in the history of English consonants were the growth of nsounds, 7 affricates and sibilants.X5ow0h o. i9ila-0 a-< a..5i/a0eIn OE there were no affricates and no sibilants, e cept Gs, H. the new type of consonantsfrom OE palatal plosives GkJ, gJH, which had split from the corresponding velar plosiveand also from the consonant cluster GskJH. The three new phonemes which arose from twere Gt~H, GdNH and G~H. In Early >E they began to be indicated by special letters andcame into use mainly under the influence of the [rench scribal tradition S ch, tch, g, dg, sh#s a result of these changes S and also as a result of the vocali ation of G H S the consonin ate >E was in some respects different from the OE system.Xalatal sonsonant finished palatali ation: k7g, sk7~ 7sh. #ll palatal consonants disappewas some dropping9 0Z(/*3&(< of consonants in initial position before sonorant. Clof7lord. In 8outhern dialect Sf7 in initial position turn into Sv7. ocali ation of 7N7 in the init before front vowel. N7 formed new diphthong after front vowels. N S 5 Sinitial, N S I S fiGaiH, weN S wei GeiH, f Ner Sfair GaiH Smiddle positionE division, it bto the 8outhwestern dialect group. ater records indicate that the speech of ondon was bemore mi ed, with East >idland features gradually prevailing over the 8outhern featuremiddle of the th c. ondon was practically depopulated during the ?lack zeath 9 }ost of the new arrivals came East >idlands. #s a result the speech of ondoners was brought much closer to the East >dialect.The .lou5i hi-7 o. li0e5a0u5e, whi/h :a56 0he e/o-< hal. o. 0he +40h /* This period of literarflorescence is known as the age of =haucer, the greatest name in English literatur8hakespeare. x40 )+0&N%('(3&; =anterbury Tales, # egend of Dood Komen. Of grlinguistic conse6uence was the activity of ohn Kyclif 9 }" }


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I %. )+(' /*%1(3 /& 0/%0+(3&;V& '*V* %&Y %/0+*; )010%&3* )+0&N% (22+& 0 (+*, 03* *- +* & 03* & 1&2*.

++ OE wo5


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OE scribes used two kinds of letters: the runes and the letters of the atin alphabet. The buOE material is written in the atin script. The use of atin letters in English differed in somfrom their use in atin, for the scribes made certain modifications and additions in order toOE sounds. The most interesting peculiarity of OE writing was the use of some runic chathe first place, the rune called thorn! which was employed alongside the crossed d, tGthH and GH. In the manuscripts one more rune was regularly used S wynn! for the so

any alphabetic writing, OE writing was based on a phonetic principle: every letter inseparate sound. This principle, however, was not always observed, even at the earliest phonetic spelling. 8ome OE letters indicated two or more sounds, even distinct phoneletters could indicate short and long sounds. In reading OE te ts one should observe the rules for letters indicating more than one sound. The letters f, s and GthH, GH stanfricatives between vowels and also between a vowel and a voiced consonantY otherwise thcorresponding voiceless fricatives. The letter N stands for GgH initially before back vo before and after front vowels, for G H between back vowels and for GgJH mostly when pOE daN G5HThe letter h stands for G H between a back vowel and a consonant and also initiaconsonants and for G JH ne t to front vowels: OE niht G JHThe letter n stands for GnH in all positions e cept when followed by GkH or GgHY in thisGH: OE sinNan.

+ :o5@holo7i/al /la i.i/a0io- o. 0he ve59 i- OEThe ma5ority of OE verbs fell into two great divisions: the strong verbs and the weak verthese two main groups there were a few verbs which could be put together as minor! grmain difference between the strong and weak verbs lay in the means of forming the princor stems! of the verb. The strong verbs formed their stems by means of ablaut and bcertain suffi esY in some verbs ablaut was accompanied by consonant interchanges. The sthad four stems, as they distinguished two stems in the Xast Tense S one for the st and }rd>ood, the other S for the other Xast tense forms, Ind. and 8ub5. the weak verbs derivedtense stem and the stem of Xarticiple II from the Xresent tense stem with the help of the d7d7 or 7t7Y normally they did not interchange their root vowel, but in some verbs sufaccompanied by a vowel interchange. >inor groups of verbs differed from the weak anverbs. 8ome of them combined certain features of the strong and weak verbs in a pec9preterite7present! verbs


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forms. ater these forms ac6uired a present meaning but preserved many formal features otense. >ost of these verbs had new Xast Tense forms built with the help of the dental sufof them also ac6uired the forms of the verbals: Xarticiples and Infinitives. In OE there w preterite7present verbs. 8i of them have survived in >od E: OE MNY cunnanY cannY dscealY maNan, m NY m t 9@E owe, oughtY canY dareY shallY mayY mustost prenot indicate actions, but e pressed a kind of attitude to an action denoted by another

Infinitive which followed the preterite7present. In other words they were used like modaleventually developed into modern modal verbs.

+M, ++ po5ei7- ele:e-0 i- 0he OE vo/a9ula5yThe OE vocabulary was almost purely DermanicY e cept for a small number of borrconsisted of native words inherited from XD or formed from native roots and affi es.`a0ive wo5< @ative OE words can be subdivided into a number of etymological layers from differen periods. The three main layers in the native OE words are:a< common IE wordsY b< common Dermanic wordsYc< specifically OE words.Kords belonging to the common IE layer constitute the oldest part of the OE vocabularythese words we find names of some natural phenomena, plants and animals, agricultunames of parts of the human body, terms of kinship, etc.Y this layer includes perdemonstrative pronouns and most numerals. erbs belonging to this layer denote the basic of manY ad5ectives indicate the most essential 6ualities.

The common Dermanic layer includes words which are shared by most Dermanic languagnot occur outside the group. ?eing specifically Dermanic, these words constitute an idistinctive mark of the Dermanic languages at the le ical level. This layer is certainly smthe layer of common IE words. 8emantically these words are connected with nature, wiand everyday life.

The third etymological layer of native words can be defined as specifically OE, that is wodo not occur in other Dermanic or non7Dermanic languages. These words are few, if where only the words whose roots have not been found outside English: OE clipian callJ9@E bird< and several others. Cowever, they are far more numerous if we include in thcompounds and derived words formed from Dermanic roots in England, e.g. OE w\fman o9@E woman< consists of two roots which occurred as separate words in other OD lanformed a compound only in OE.po5ei7- ele:e-0 i- 0he OE vo/a9ula5y#lthough borrowed words constituted only a small portion of the OE vocabulary S all insi hundred words, 7 they are of great interest for linguistic and historical study. OE bocome from two sources: =eltic and atin.o55owi-7 .5o: Bel0i/There are very few =eltic loan7words in the OE vocabulary, for there must have bintermi ture between the Dermanic settlers and the =eltic in ?ritain. Though in some parisland the =elts population was not e terminated during the KD invasion, linguistic evi=eltic influence is meager. #bundant borrowing from =eltic is to be found only in place7naOE kingdoms {ent, zeira and ?ernicia derive their names from the names of =eltic tribname of Bork, the zowns and perhaps ondon have been traced to =eltic sources. arious


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designations of riverJ and waterJ were understood by the Dermanic invaders as propOuse, Esk, E e, #vonY Thames, 8tour, zover also come from =eltic. >any place7names wielements are hybridsY the =eltic component, combined with a atin or a Dermanic comakes a compound place7name, e.g.: =eltic plus atin: >an7chester, Kin7chester, an7caste plus Dermanic: Bork7shire, =orn7wall, zevon7shire, =anter7bury.fa0i- i-.lue-/e o- 0he OE vo/a9ula5y

atin words entered the English language at different stages of OE history. =hronologically be devided into several layers.The earliest layer comprises words which the KD tribes brought from the continent when to settle in ?ritain. =ontact with the Aoman civili ation began a long time before the #nglinvasion. Early OE borrowings from atin indicate the new things and concepts which thehad learnt from the Aomans. They pertain to war, trade, agriculture, building and home lithe atin loan7words adopted in ?ritain were some place7names made of atin and Dcomponents, e.g. Xortsmouth, Dreenport, Dreenwich. The ne t period of atin influence ovocabulary began with the introduction of =hristianity in the late th c. and lasted to the en @umerous atin words which found their way into the English language during these fivyears clearly fall into two main groups:< words pertaining to religion"< words connected with learning.The atin impact on the OE vocabulary was not restricted to borrowing of words. There wother aspects of influence. The most important of them is the appearance of the translation7loans! S words and phrases created on the pattern of atin words as thetranslations. The earliest instances of translation7loans are names of the days of the weekonly in OE but also in other Old Dermanic languages. OE > nan7d N 9>onday< day of th unae dies.

+d -05o


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In #merican indle5 >arre5 has published grammar English Drammar ! whichenormous authority. The first dictionaries 9 %.< were bilingual english dictionaries, but iare dictionaries of difficult words 7 Aobert {odriqs dictionaries, * +*V*, etc. Theyarchaisms and latin little7used loans.The first e planatory dictionary has been made by @atanielem ?ailey 9 " 4< the Petymological dictionary !. It is very important publishing of the dictionary zictiona

English language ! 8em5uel5a ohnson 9 4odified8tandard displaced it in other funct Ons. #s elsewhere the local dialect was transformesocial local dialect used by the lower classes.zespite the attempts to revive the =eltic tongue Daelic or Irish 9which was one of the main the vigorousstruggle for home rule in the th c < , by z a variety of English with a strong rish acas the brogue, had become the main lanfuage of the population8ome authorities regard #nglo7Irish as a separate geographical variant of English possindependent national 8tandard, others treat it as a locadialect. #nglo7Irish is the official la @orthern Ireland and Eire and also the language of literature, school and universities.

2[ Xeo75a@hi/al E1@a- io- o. 0he E-7li hEnglandqs colonial e pansion to the @ew Korld began in the late th c. when her first were set up in @ewfoundland 9 }any immigrDreat ?ritainsettled in the Kest Indies, which,became a part of the ?ritish Empire in the th c.qThe colonists spoke different dialects of English. In @orth #merica those dialects graduainto a new type of the language, #merican EnglishY contacts with other languages, 8panish in the 8outh and [rench in =anada, have played a certain role in its development.The e pansion of English to #sia is mainly connected with the occupation of India. India wthe main issues in the colonial

struggle of European powers in the th c. In the first half of the th c. India becamecolony and ?ritain ac6uired other possessions in #sia, turning them into colonies, domi protectorates. Thus the English language e tended to many areas in #sia, as the languagstate and writing.#ustralia was a place of deportation of ?ritish convicts since the late th c. # flow of immwere attracted to #ustralia, atfirst by the free grants of land, later by the discovery of gold.?ritish penetration into #frica was a lengthy affair that e tended over the th c. In conse6financial dependence on ?ritish capital, 8udan and Egypt fell under ?ritish political control


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2+ ]5i00e- qe/o5< i- fa0e Hi


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use, but their application in >E was rather contradictory. [or instance, both ou and ow wfor Gu:H and GoulY double stood for the open and close long Go:H and G:H alongG:H were shown indiscriminately by ie, double e and the single letter e. The conventionof spelling was later reinforced by the fi ation of the written form of the word in printine tensive sound changes. The phoneticians and spereformers of the th c. strove to restrict the freedom of variation and to improve

orthography by a more consistent use of letters and digraphs, and by the introductiosymbols. They insisted upon a strict distinction between u when used to indicate a vowel and a consonant: GuH and GvH, e.g. Early @E loue, sunshaken later spelt as love, selves, unripe, unshakenY They introduced new digraphs tdifference between some open and close vowels, namely the digraph ea for G: H as dfrom e, ee, and ie used for the closed Ge: H, and the digraph oa alongside in open syllas contrasted to showing a long closed G:H. The use of double consonants became cept in traditional spellings like kiss, sell, but double letters were sometimes employedthat the preceding vowel was short] . The activities oscholars in the period of normalisation late th and the th c. had a stabilising effect odevelopment of English spelling. The dictionaries and grammars fi ed the written formwords as obligatory standards. Only a few innovations were madenew digraphs were adopted with borrowed words, such as ph, ps @E photograph, psych @E chemistry, scheme and machine, g genre. In the th c. the sound chaslowed down. 8tandard pronunciation 9later known as AX Aeceived Xronunciation< anspelling were firmly established,

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Old English Vowel