Occupation of Poland (1939–45)

“Occupation of Poland” redirects here. For other uses,see Occupation of Poland (disambiguation).For general history of Poland during that period, seeHistory of Poland (1939–1945).The occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the

Fourth Partition of Poland—aftermath of the Nazi-Soviet Pact;division of Polish territories in the years 1939–1941

Beginning of Lebensraum, the Nazi German expulsion of Polesfrom central Poland, 1939

Operation Tannenberg, 20 October 1939, mass murder of Polishtownsmen in western Poland

Changes in administration of Polish territories following theGerman invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. The map showsthe state in 1944.

Soviet Union during the SecondWorldWar (1939–1945)began with the invasion of Poland in September 1939,and formally concluded with the defeat of Nazism by theAllies in May 1945. Throughout the entire course of for-eign occupation, the territory of Poland was divided be-tween Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union (USSR). Insummer-autumn of 1941 the lands annexed by the Sovi-

1

2 2 TREATMENT OF POLISH CITIZENS UNDER NAZI GERMAN OCCUPATION

ets were overrun by Nazi Germany in the course of theinitially successful German attack on the USSR. After afew years of fighting, the Red Army was able to repel theinvaders and drive the Nazi forces out of the USSR andacross Poland from the rest of Eastern and Central Eu-rope.Both occupying powers were equally hostile to the exis-tence of sovereign Poland, Polish culture and the Polishpeople, aiming at their destruction.[1] Before OperationBarbarossa, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union coor-dinated their Poland-related policies, most visibly in thefour Gestapo-NKVD Conferences, where the occupantsdiscussed plans for dealing with the Polish resistancemovement and future destruction of Poland.[2]

About 6 million Polish citizens—nearly 21.4% ofPoland’s population—died between 1939 and 1945 as aresult of the occupation,[3][4][5] half of whom were PolishJews. Over 90% of the death toll came through non-military losses, as most of the civilians were targeted byvarious deliberate actions by Germans and the Soviets.[3]Overall, during German occupation of pre-war Polish ter-ritory, 1939–1945, the Germans murdered 5,470,000–5,670,000 Poles, including nearly 3,000,000 Jews.[4][5]

1 Administration

Main article: Administrative division of Polish territoriesduring World War II

In September 1939 Poland was invaded and occupied bytwo powers: Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, actingin accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.[6] Ger-many acquired 48.4% of the former Polish territory.[7]Under the terms of two decrees by Hitler, with Stalin'sagreement (8 and 12 October 1939), large areas ofwestern Poland were annexed by Germany.[8] The sizeof these annexed territories was approximately 92,500square kilometres (35,700 sq mi) with approximately10.5 million inhabitants.[7] The remaining block of terri-tory was placed under a German administration, of aboutthe same size and inhabited by about 11.5 millions,[7]were called the General Government (in German: Gener-algouvernement für die besetzten polnischen Gebiete), withits capital at Kraków. A German lawyer and prominentNazi, Hans Frank, was appointed Governor-General ofthis occupied area on 12 October 1939.[9][10] Most ofthe administration outside strictly local level was replacedby German officials.[10][11] Non-German population onthe occupied lands were subject to forced resettlement,Germanization, economic exploitation, and slow but pro-gressing extermination.[10][11][12]

A small strip of land, about 700 square kilometres (270sq mi) with 2000,000 inhabitants[7] that was part ofCzechoslovakia before 1938 was also returned by Ger-many to its ally, Slovakia.[13]

After Germany and the Soviet Union] had partitionedPoland in 1939, most of the ethnically Polish territoryended up under the control of Germany while the areasannexed by the Soviet Union contained ethnically diversepeoples, with the territory split into bilingual provinces,some of which had a significant non-Polish majority(Ukrainians in the south and Belarusians in the north).[14]Many of them welcomed the Soviets, alienated in theinterwar Poland. Nonetheless Poles comprised the largestsingle ethnic group in all territories annexed by the SovietUnion.[15]

By the end of the invasion the Soviet Union had takenover 51.6% of the territory of Poland (about 201,000square kilometres (78,000 sq mi)), with over 13,200,000people.[7] The ethnic composition of these areas were asfollows: 38% Poles (~5.1 million people), 37% Ukraini-ans, 14.5% Belarusians, 8.4% Jews, 0.9% Russians and0.6% Germans. There were also 336,000 refugees whofled from areas occupied by Germany, most of themJews (198,000).[15] All territory invaded by the RedArmy was annexed to the Soviet Union (after a riggedelection),[16][17] split between the Belarusian SSR andthe Ukrainian SSR, with the exception of the Wilnoarea, which was transferred to sovereign Lithuania (whichwould soon be annexed by the Soviet Union as well in theform of the Lithuanian SSR).[7][18] Following German in-vasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, most of the Polishterritories annexed by the Soviets was attached to the en-larged General Government.[19] Following the end of thewar, borders of Poland were significantly shifted west-wards.[20]

2 Treatment of Polish citizens un-der Nazi German occupation

2.1 Generalplan Ost, Lebensraum and ex-pulsion of Poles

Ethnic cleansing of western Poland, with Poles led to the trainsunder German army escort, 1939.

See also: Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles and Holocaust

2.1 Generalplan Ost, Lebensraum and expulsion of Poles 3

in Poland

For months prior to the beginning of World War II in1939, German newspapers and leaders had carried outa national and international propaganda campaign accus-ing Polish authorities of organizing or tolerating violentethnic cleansing of ethnic Germans living in Poland.[21]British ambassador Sir H. Kennard sent four statementsin August 1939 to Viscount Halifax regarding Hitler’sclaims about the treatment Germans were receiving inPoland; he came to the conclusion all the claims byHitler and the Nazis were complete exaggerations or falseclaims.[22]

From the beginning, the invasion of Poland by Nazi Ger-many was intended as fulfilment of the future plan ofthe German Reich described by Adolf Hitler in his bookMein Kampf as Lebensraum (“living space”) for the Ger-mans in Eastern Europe.[9] The occupation goal was toturn former Poland into ethnically German “living space”,by deporting or exterminating non-German populace,or relegating it to the position of slave labour.[23][24][25]The goal of German state under Nazi leadership duringthe war was to destroy the Polish nation completely[26]and their fate, as well as many other Slavs, was out-lined in genocidal[27][28] Generalplan Ost (General Planfor the East) and a related Generalsiedlungsplan (Gen-eral Plan for Settlement).[29] Over 30 years, approxi-mately 12.5 million Germans were to be resettled intothe Slavic areas, including Poland; with some versionsplanning for a movement of at least 100 millions Ger-mans over a century.[29] The Slavic inhabitants of thoselands were to be eliminated by genocidal policies;[27][28]and the survivors resettled further east, into less hos-pitable parts of Euroasia beyond the Ural Mountains,such as Siberia in Russia.[29] At the plan’s fulfillment,there would be no Slavs or Jews remaining in EasternEurope.[29] Generalplan Ost, essentially a grand plan forethnic cleansing, was divided into two parts, the KleinePlanung (“Small Plan”), which covered actions whichwere to be taken during the war, and the Grosse Planung(“Big Plan”), which covered actions to be undertaken af-ter the war was won.[30][31][32] The plan envisaged differ-ing percentages of the various conquered nations under-going Germanisation, expulsion into the depths of Russia,and other gruesome fates, including purposeful starvationand murder, the net effect of which would be to ensurethat the conquered territories would take on an irrevoca-bly German character.[32][33] Over a longer period, onlyabout 3–4million Poles, suitable for Germanization, weresupposed to be left residing in the former Poland.[34]

Those plans began to be implemented almost im-mediately after the German troops took control ofPoland. As early as October 1939, many Poleswere expelled from the annexed lands to make roomfor German settlers.[9][35] Only those Poles selectedfor Germanization, approximately 1.7 million includingthousands of children who had been taken from their

parents, were permitted to remain,[36] and if they re-sisted it, they were to be sent to concentration camps,because “German blood must not be utilized in the in-terest of a foreign nation”.[37] By the end of 1940,at least325,000 Poles from annexed lands were forcibly resettledin the General Government, forced to abandon most oftheir property.[9] There were numerous fatalities amongthe very young and elderly, who perished en route or inmakeshift transit camps such as those in the towns ofPotulice, Smukal, and Toruń.[9] The expulsions contin-ued in 1941, with another 45,000 Poles forced to moveeastwards, but following German invasion of the SovietUnion, the expulsions slowed down, as more and moretrains were diverted for military logistics, rather than be-ing made available for population transfers.[9] Nonethe-less, in late 1942 and in 1943, large scale expulsionsalso took place in the General Government, affectingat least 110,000 Poles in the Zamość–Lublin region.[9]Tens of thousands of the expelled, with no place to go,were simply imprisoned in theAuschwitz (Oświęcim) andMajdanek concentration camps.[9] By 1942, the numberof new German arrivals in pre-war Poland had alreadyreached two million.[38]

The Nazi plans called for the Poland’s 3.3 million Jewsto be exterminated as first group of victims, the non-Jewish majority’s extermination was planned in the longterm and initiated through the mass murder of its polit-ical, religious, and intellectual elites at first, which wasmeant to make the formation of any organized top-downresistance more difficult. Further, the populace of oc-cupied territories was to be relegated to the role of anunskilled labor-force for German-controlled industry andagriculture.[9][39] This was in spite of racial theory that re-garded most Polish leaders as actually being of Germanblood,[40] and partly because of it, on the grounds thatGerman blood must not be used in the service of a for-eign nation.[39]

2.1.1 German People’s List

Main article: Deutsche Volksliste

The German People’s List (Deutsche Volksliste) classifiedthe willing Polish citizens into four groups of people withethnic German heritage.[41]

1. Group 1 included so-called ethnic Germans who hadtaken an active part in the struggle for the German-ization of Poland;

2. Group 2 included those ethnic Germans who had nottaken such an active part, but had “preserved” theirGerman characteristics;

3. Group 3 included individuals of alleged Germanstock who had become “Polonized”, but whom itwas believed, could be won back to Germany. This

4 2 TREATMENT OF POLISH CITIZENS UNDER NAZI GERMAN OCCUPATION

group also included persons of non-German de-scent married to Germans or members of non-Polishgroups who were considered desirable for their po-litical attitude and racial characteristics;

4. Group 4 consisted of persons of German stock whohad become politically merged with the Poles.

After registration in the List, individuals from Groups1 and 2 automatically became German citizens. Thosefrom Group 3 acquired German citizenship subject torevocation. Those from Group 4 received German cit-izenship through naturalization proceedings; resistanceto Germanization constituted treason because “Germanblood must not be utilized in the interest of a for-eign nation,” and such people were sent to concentrationcamps.[41] Persons ineligible for the List were classified asstateless, and all Poles from the occupied territory, thatis from the Government General of Poland, as distinctfrom the incorporated territory, were classified as non-protected.[41]

2.2 Encouraging ethnic strife

According to the 1931 Polish census, out of prewar pop-ulation of 35 million, 66% spoke Polish language as theirmother tongue, and most of the Polish native speakerswere Roman Catholics. With regards to the remain-der, 15%were Ukrainians, 8.5% Jews, 4.7% Belarusians,and 2.2% Germans.[9][42] Germans intended to exploitthe fact that the Second Polish Republic was an ethni-cally diverse territory, and their policy aimed to "divideand conquer" the ethnically diverse population of theoccupied Polish territory, to prevent any unified resis-tance from forming.[9] One of the attempts to divide thePolish nation was a creation of a new ethnicity called"Goralenvolk".[9] Someminorities, like Kashubians, wereforcefully enrolled of into the Deutsche Volksliste, as ameasure to compensate for the losses in the Wehrmacht(unlike Poles, Deutsche Volksliste members were eligiblefor military conscription).[9][43]

In a top-secret memorandum, “The Treatment of RacialAliens in the East”, dated 25 May 1940, Heinrich Himm-ler, head of the SS, wrote: “We need to divide the East’sdifferent ethnic groups up into as many parts and splin-ter groups as possible”.[44] Historians, J. Grabowski andZ.R. Grabowski wrote in 2004:

The Germanisation of Polish territoriesoccurred by deporting and exterminating theJews and Poles, depriving Poles and Jews oftheir rights and supporting the local Germansand the ethnic Germans resettled from theEast. The German minority living in this eth-nically mixed region was required to adhereto strict codes of behaviour and was held ac-countable for all unauthorised contacts with

their Polish and, even more so, their Jewishneighbours. The system of control and repres-sion strove to isolate the various ethnic (‘racial’)groups, encouraging denunciations and thus in-stilling fear in the populace.[45]

2.3 Forced labor

Further information: Forced labor in Germany duringWorld War II

Almost immediately after the invasion, Germans be-gan forcibly conscripting laborers. Jews were draftedto repair war damage as early as October, with womenand children 12 or older required to work; shifts couldtake half a day and with little compensation.[46] Thelaborers, Jews, Poles, and others, were employed inSS-owned enterprises (such as the German ArmamentWorks, Deutsche Ausrustungswerke, DAW), but also inmany private German firms – such as Messerschmitt,Junkers, Siemens, and IG Farben.[46][47]

Forced laborers were subject to harsh discriminatorymeasures. Announced on the 8 March 1940 was thePolish decrees which were used as a legal basis for for-eign laborers in Germany.[48] The decrees required Polesto wear identifying purple P’s on their clothing, madethem subject to a curfew, and banned them from usingpublic transportation as well as many German “culturallife” centers and “places of amusement” (this includedchurches and restaurants).[9][48] Sexual relations betweenGermans and Poles was forbidden asRassenschande (racedefilement) under penalty of death.[9][48] To keep themsegregated from the German population, they were oftenhoused in segregated barracks behind barbed wire.[9]

Labor shortages in the German war economy becamecritical especially after German defeat in the battle ofStalingrad in 1942–1943. This led to the increased useof prisoners as forced laborers in German industries.[49]Following the German invasion and occupation of Pol-ish territory, at least 1.5 million Polish citizens, includingteenagers, became laborers in Germany, few by choice.[9]A total of 2.3 million Polish citizens, including 300,000POWs, were deported to Germany as forced laborers.[50]They tended to have to work longer hours for lower wagesthan their German counterparts.[9]

• Young Polish girl wearing Letter “P” patch.

• Polish-forced-workers’ badge

• Poster in German and Polish listing the Polish de-crees obligations

• Identity card for a Polish forced worker in Germany

• German notice of death penalty for Poles refusing towork during the harvest

2.5 The Holocaust 5

2.4 Concentration and exterminationcamps

The Polish Franciscan St Maximillian Kolbe volunteered to die atAuschwitz in place of a condemned prisoner.

Further information: German camps in occupied Polandduring World War II

A network of Nazi concentration camps were establishedon German-controlled territories, many of them in occu-pied Poland, including one of the largest and most infa-mous, Auschwitz (Oświęcim).[51] Those camps were of-ficially designed as labor camps, and many displayed themotto Arbeit macht frei (“Work brings freedom”).[47][51]Only high-ranking officials knew the that one of the pur-poses of some of the camps, known as exterminationcamps (or death camps), was mass murder of the unde-sirable minorities, primarily the Jews;[51][52][53] officiallythe prisoners were used in enterprises such as productionof synthetic rubber, as was the case of a plant ownedby IG Farben, whose laborers came from AuschwitzIII camp, or Monowitz.[46] Laborers from concentrationcamps were literally worked to death. in what was knownas extermination through labor.[46][54]

Auschwitz received the first contingent of 728 Poles on14 June 1940, transferred from an overcrowded prisonat Tarnów. Within a year the Polish inmate populationwas in thousands, and begun to be exterminated, includ-ing in the first gassing experiment in September 1941.[9]According to Polish historian Franciszek Piper, approxi-mately 140,000–150,000 Poles went through Auschwitz,with about half of them perishing there due to executions,

medical experiments, or due to starvation and disease.[9]About 100,000 Poles were imprisoned in Majdanekcamp, with similar fatality rate. About 30,000 Polesdied at Mauthausen, 20,000 at Sachsenhausen and Gross-Rosen each, 17,000 at Neuengamme and Ravensbrueckeach, 10,000 at Dachau, and tens of thousands perishedin other camps and prisons.[9]

2.5 The Holocaust

Announcement in 1941 of death penalty for Jews captured out-side the Ghetto and for Poles helping Jews

Further information: Jewish ghettos in German-occupiedPoland and The Holocaust in Poland

Following the invasion of Poland in 1939 most of theapproximately 3.5 million Polish Jews were rounded upand put into newly established ghettos by Nazi Ger-many. The ghetto system was unsustainable, as by theend of 1941 the Jews had no savings left to pay theSS for food deliveries and no chance to earn their ownkeep.[55] At the 20 January 1942 Wannsee Conference,held near Berlin, new plans were outlined for the to-tal genocide of the Jews, known as the “Final Solu-tion of the Jewish Question".[55] The extermination pro-gram was codenamed Operation Reinhard.[56] Three se-cret extermination camps set up specifically for Oper-ation Reinhard; Treblinka, Belzec and Sobibor.[57] Inaddition to the Reinhard camps, mass killing facilitiessuch as gas chambers using Zyklon B were added to the

6 2 TREATMENT OF POLISH CITIZENS UNDER NAZI GERMAN OCCUPATION

Majdanek concentration camp in March 1942[57] and atAuschwitz and Chełmno.[53]

2.6 Cultural genocide

Main article: Polish culture during World War II

Nazi Germany engaged in a concentrated effort to destroyPolish culture. To that end, numerous cultural and educa-tional institutions were closed or destroyed, from schoolsand universities, through monuments and libraries, to lab-oratories and museums. Many employees of said institu-tions were arrested and executed as part wider persecu-tions of Polish intellectual elite. Schooling of Polish chil-dren was curtailed to a few years of elementary educa-tion, as outlined by Himmler’s May 1940 memorandum:“The sole goal of this schooling is to teach them simplearithmetic, nothing above the number 500; writing one’sname; and the doctrine that it is divine law to obey theGermans. . . . I do not think that reading is desirable”.[9]

2.6.1 Extermination of elites

Proscription lists (Sonderfahndungsbuch Polen), pre-pared before thee war started, identified more than61,000 Polish elite and intelligentsia leaders deemed asunfriendly towards Germany.[58] Already during the 1939German invasion, dedicated units of SS and police (theEinsatzgruppen) were tasked with arresting or outrightkilling of those resisting the Germans.[9][59] They wereaided by some regular German army units and “self-defense” forces composed of members of German mi-nority in Poland, the Volksdeutsche.[9] The Nazi regime'spolicy ofmurdering or suppressing the ethnic Polish eliteswas known as Operation Tannenberg".[60] This includednot only those resisting actively, but also those simply ca-pable of doing so by the virtue of their social status.[9]As a result, tens of thousands of people found “guilty”of being educated (members of the intelligentsia, fromclergymen to government officials, doctors, teachers andjournalists) or wealthy (landowners, business owners, andso on) were either executed on spot, sometimes in massexecutions, or imprisoned, some destined for the con-centration camps.[9] Some of the mass executions werereprisal actions for actions of the Polish resistance, withGerman officials adhering to the collective guilt princi-ple and holding entire communities responsible for theactions of unidentified perpetrators.[9]

One of the most infamous German operations wasthe Außerordentliche Befriedungsaktion (AB-Aktion inshort, German for Special Pacification), a German cam-paign during World War II aimed at Polish leaders andthe intelligentsia, including many university professors,teachers and priests.[61][62] In the spring and summer of1940, more than 30,000 Poles were arrested by the Ger-man authorities of German-occupied Poland.[9][61] Sev-

eral thousands were executed outside Warsaw, in theKampinos forest near Palmiry, and inside the city at thePawiak prison.[9][62] Most of the remainder were sent tovarious German concentration camps.[61]

Public execution of Polish priests and civilians in Bydgoszcz’s OldMarket Square on 9 September 1939.

The Nazis also persecuted the Catholic Church in Polandand other, smaller religions.Nazi policy towards the Church was at its most severein the territories it annexed to Greater Germany, wherethey set about systematically dismantling the Church -arresting its leaders, exiling its clergymen, closing itschurches, monasteries and convents. Many clergymenand nuns were murdered or sent to concentration and la-bor camps.[9][63] Already in 1939, 80% of the Catholicclergy of theWarthegau region had been deported to con-centration camps.[64] Primate of Poland, Cardinal AugustHlond, submitted an official account of the persecutionsof the Polish Church to the Vatican.[65] In his final obser-vations for Pope Pius XII, Hlond wrote: “Hitlerism aimsat the systematic and total destruction of the CatholicChurch in the... territories of Poland which have beenincorporated into the Reich...”.[64][65] The smaller Evan-gelical churches of Poland also suffered. Entirety ofthe Protestant clergy of the Cieszyn region of Silesiawere arrested and deported to concentration camps atMauthausen, Buchenwald, Dachau and Oranienburg.[64]Protestant clergy leaders who perished in those purgesincluded charity activist Karol Kulisz, theology profes-sor Edmund Bursche, and Bishop of the EvangelicalChurch of the Augsburg Confession in Poland, JuliuszBursche.[64]

2.6.2 Germanization

Main articles: Polish areas annexed byNazi Germany andExpulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany (1939-1944)See also: GermanizationIn the territories annexed to Nazi Germany, in par-ticular with regards to the in westernmost incorporatedterritories—the so-calledWartheland— the Nazis’ aimedfor a complete "Germanization", i.e. full cultural, politi-cal, economic and social assimilation.[9] Polish language

2.7 Resistance 7

Nur für Deutsche in the Kraków tram line 8.

was prohibited to be taught even in elementary schools;landmarks from streets to cities were renamed en masse(Łódź became Litzmannstadt, and so on).[9] All mannerof Polish enterprises, up to small shops, were taken over,with prior owners rarely compensated.[9] Signs postedin public places prohibited non-Germans from enteringthese places warning: “Entrance is forbidden to Poles,Jews, and dogs.”, or Nur für Deutsche (“Only for Ger-mans”), commonly found on many public utilities andplaces such as trams, parks, cafes, cinemas, theaters, andothers.[9][66][67]

Further information: Kidnapping of Polish children byNazi Germany and Kinder KZThe Nazis kept an eye out for Polish children whopossessed Nordic racial characteristics.[68] An estimatedtotal of 50,000 children, majority taken from orphan-ages and foster homes in the annexed lands, but someseparated from their parents, were taken into a specialGermanization program.[9][41] Polish women deported toGermany as forced laborers and who bore children werea common victim of this policy, with their infants regu-larly taken.[9][69] If the child passed the battery of racial,physical and psychological tests, they were sent on toGermany for “Germanization”.[70] At least 4,454 chil-dren were given new German names,[71] forbidden to usePolish language,[72] and reeducated Nazi institutions.[9]Few were ever reunited with their original families.[9]Those deemed as unsuitable for Germanization for be-ing “not Aryan enough” were sent to orphanages or evento concentration camps like Auschwitz, where many per-

Roll-call for boys at the main children’s concentration camp inŁódź, to which KZ Dzierżązna for Polish girls as young as eight,belonged to as a sub-camp

ished, often killed by intercardiac injections of phenol.[9]For Polish forced laborers, in some cases if an exam-ination of the parents suggested that the child mightnot be “racially valuable”, the mother was compelled tohave an abortion.[9][69] Infants who did not pass musterwould be removed to a state orphanage (Ausländerkinder-Pflegestätte), where many died from the lack of food.[73]

2.7 Resistance

Main article: Polish resistance movement in World WarIIDespite the military defeat of the Polish Army in

First partisan unit of the World War II under command ofHenryk Dobrzański “Hubal” – winter 1939

September 1939, the Polish government itself never sur-rendered, instead evacuating West, where it formed thePolish government in Exile.[9] The government in exilewas represented in the occupied Poland by the Govern-ment Delegation for Poland, headed by the GovernmentDelegate for Poland.[74] The main role of the civilianbranch of the Underground State was to preserve the con-tinuity of the Polish state as a whole, including its institu-tions. These institutions included the police, the courts,and schools.[75] By the final years of the war, the civil-ian structure of the Underground State included an un-

8 2 TREATMENT OF POLISH CITIZENS UNDER NAZI GERMAN OCCUPATION

Captured German Panther tank during Warsaw Uprising 1944 –armored platoon of batalion Zośka under command of WacławMicuta

Walling-off Świętokrzyska Street (seen from MarszałkowskaStreet on the “Aryan side”)

derground parliament, administration, judiciary (courtsand police), secondary and higher level education, andsupported various cultural activities such as publishing ofnewspapers and books, underground theatres, lectures,exhibitions, concerts and safeguarded various works ofart.[74][76] It also dealt with providing social services,including to the destitute Jewish population (throughthe Council to Aid Jews, or Żegota).[74] Through theDirectorate of Civil Resistance (1941–1943) the civilarm was also involved in lesser acts of resistance, suchas minor sabotage, although in 1943 this department wasmerged with the Directorate of Covert Resistance, form-ing the Directorate of Underground Resistance, subordi-nate to Polish Home Army (Armia Krajowa).[76]

In response to the occupation, Poles formed one of thelargest underground movements in Europe.[9][77] Resis-tance to the Nazi German occupation began almost atonce. The Home Army (in Polish Armia Krajowa orAK), loyal to the Polish government in exile in Londonand a military arm of the Polish Underground State, wasformed from a number of smaller groups in 1942.[78]There was also the People’s Army (Polish Armia Ludowa

or AL), backed by the Soviet Union and controlled by thePolishWorkers’ Party (Polish Polska Partia Robotnicza orPPR), through signicantly less numerous than the HomeArmy.[9][79] In February 1942, when AK was formed, itnumbered about 100,000 members.[80] In the beginningof 1943, it had reached a strength of about 200,000.[80]In the summer of 1944 when Operation Tempest begunAK reached its highest membership numbers.[80] Esti-mates of AK membership in the first half of 1944 andsummer that year vary, through about 400,000 estimateis common.[80] When the imminent arrival of the Sovietarmy, the AK launched an uprising inWarsaw against theGerman army on 1 August 1944. The uprising, receiv-ing little assistance from the nearby Soviet forces, eventu-ally failed, significantly reducing the HomeArmy’s powerand position.[9] About 200,000 Poles, most of them civil-ians, lost their lives in the Uprising.[81]

2.8 Impact on the Polish population

The Polish civilian population suffered under German oc-cupation in several ways. Large numbers were expelledfrom land intended for German colonisation, and forcedto resettle in the General-Government area. Hundreds ofthousands of Poles were deported to Germany for forcedlabour in industry and agriculture, where many thousandsdied. Poles were also conscripted for labour in Poland,and were held in labour camps all over the country, againwith a high death rate. There was a general shortage offood, fuel for heating and medical supplies, and there wasa high death rate among the Polish population as a re-sult. Finally, thousands of Poles were killed as reprisalsfor resistance attacks on German forces or for other rea-sons. In all, about 3 million (non-Jewish) Poles died asa result of the German occupation, more than 10% ofthe pre-war population. When this is added to the 3 mil-lion Polish Jews who were killed as a matter of policy bythe Germans, Poland lost about 22% of its population,the highest proportion of any European country in WorldWar II.[82][83]

Poland had a large Jewish population, and accordingto Davies, more Jews were both killed and rescued inPoland, than in any other nation: the rescue figure usu-ally being put at between 100-150,000.[84] Thousandsof Poles have been honoured as Righteous Among theNations - constituting the largest national contingent.[85]When AK Home Army Intelligence discovered the truefate of transports leaving the Jewish Ghetto, the Coun-cil to Aid Jews (Zegota) was established in late 1942,in cooperation with church groups. The organisationsaved thousands. Emphasis was placed on protecting chil-dren, as it was nearly impossible to intervene directlyagainst the heavily guarded transports. The Germans im-plemented several different laws to separate Poles andJews in the ghettos with Poles living on the “Aryan Side”and the Jews living on the “Jewish Side”, despite therisk of death many Poles risked their lives by forging

9

“Aryan Papers” for Jews to make them appear as non-Jewish Poles so they could live on the Aryan side andavoid Nazi persecution.[86] Another law implemented bythe Germans was that Poles were forbidden from buy-ing from Jewish shops in which, if they did, they weresubject to execution.[87] Jewish children were also dis-tributed among safe houses and church networks.[88] Jew-ish children were often placed in church orphanages andconvents.[89]

Some three million non-Jewish Polish citizens perishedduring the course of the war, over two million ofwhom were ethnic Poles (the remainder being mostlyUkrainians and Belarusians). The vast majority of thosekilled were civilians, mostly killed by the actions of NaziGermany.[90][91]

Rather than being sent to concentration camps, mostnon-Jewish Poles died through in mass executions, star-vation, singled out murder cases, ill health and forcedlabour. Apart from Auschwitz, the main six “extermina-tion camps” in Poland were used almost exclusively to killJews. Stutthof concentration camp was used for mass ex-termination of Poles. A number of civilian labour camps(Gemeinschaftslager) for Poles (Polenlager) were estab-lished inside Polish territory. Many Poles died in Germancamps. The first non-German prisoners at Auschwitzwere Poles, who were the majority of inmates there un-til 1942, when the systematic killing of the Jews began.The first killing by poison gas at Auschwitz involved 300Poles and 700 Soviet prisoners of war, among them ethnicUkrainians, Russians and others. Many Poles and otherEastern Europeans were also sent to concentration campsin Germany: over 35,000 to Dachau, 33,000 to the campfor women at Ravensbrück, 30,000 to Mauthausen and20,000 to Sachsenhausen, for example.The population in the General Government’s territorywas initially about 12 million in an area of 94,000 squarekilometres, but this increased as about 860,000 Poles andJews were expelled from the German-annexed areas and“resettled” in the General Government. Offsetting thiswas the German campaign of extermination of the Polishintelligentsia and other elements thought likely to resist(e.g. Operation Tannenberg). From 1941, disease andhunger also began to reduce the population. Poles weredeported in large numbers to work as forced labour inGermany: eventually about a million were deported, andmany died in Germany.

3 Treatment of Polish citizens un-der Soviet occupation

Main article: Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)Further information: Soviet annexation of Eastern Gali-cia, Volhynia and Northern BukovinaBy the end of Polish Defensive War the Soviet Union

A Soviet propaganda poster depicting the Red Army’s advanceinto Poland as a liberation of the Ukrainians. The Ukrainian textreads: “We stretched our hand to our brothers so that they couldstraighten their backs and throw off the despised rule of the whipsthat lasted for centuries.” The person thrown off the peasants’backs, shown wearing a Polish military uniform and holding thewhip, could be interpreted as a caricature of Piłsudski.

took over 52.1% of territory of Poland (~200,000 km²),with over 13,700,000 people. The estimates vary; Prof.Elżbieta Trela-Mazur gives the following numbers in re-gards to the ethnic composition of these areas: 38% Poles(ca. 5,1 million people), 37% Ukrainians, 14,5% Be-larusians, 8,4% Jews, 0,9% Russians and 0,6% Germans.There were also 336,000 refugees from areas occupiedby Germany, most of them Jews (198,000).[15] Areas oc-cupied by the USSR were annexed to Soviet territory,with the exception of the Wilno area, which was trans-ferred to Lithuania, although soon attached to USSR,when Lithuania became a Soviet republic.Initially the Soviet occupation gained support amongsome members of the linguistic minorities who hadchafed under the nationalist policies of the SecondPolish Republic. Much of the Ukrainian popula-tion initially welcomed the unification with the SovietUkraine because twenty years earlier their attempt at self-determination failed during both the Polish–UkrainianWar and the Ukrainian–Soviet War.[93]

There were large groups of prewar Polish citizens, notablyJewish youth and, to a lesser extent, the Ukrainian peas-

10 3 TREATMENT OF POLISH CITIZENS UNDER SOVIET OCCUPATION

Residents of a town in Eastern Poland (now West Belarus) as-sembled to greet the arrival of the Red Army during the Sovietinvasion of Poland in 1939. The Russian text reads “Long Livethe great theory of Marx, Engels, Lenin-Stalin” and containsa spelling error. Such welcomings were organized by the ac-tivists of the Communist Party of West Belarus affiliated withthe Communist Party of Poland, delegalized in both countries by1938.[92]

ants, who saw the Soviet power as an opportunity to startpolitical or social activity outside of their traditional eth-nic or cultural groups. Their enthusiasm however fadedwith time as it became clear that the Soviet repressionswere aimed at all groups equally, regardless of their po-litical stance.[94]

British historian Simon Sebag Montefiore states that So-viet terror in the occupied eastern Polish lands was ascruel and tragic as Nazi in the west. Soviet authoritiesbrutally treated those who might oppose their rule, de-porting by 10 November 1940, around 10% of total pop-ulation of Kresy, with 30% of those deported dead by1941.[95] They arrested and imprisoned about 500,000Poles during 1939–1941, including former officials, offi-cers, and natural “enemies of the people”, like the clergy,but also noblemen and intellectuals. The Soviets also ex-ecuted about 65,000 Poles. Soldiers of the RedArmy andtheir officers behaved like conquerors, looting and steal-ing Polish treasures. When Stalin was told about it, heanswered: “If there is no ill will, they [the soldiers] canbe pardoned”.[96]

In one notorious massacre, the NKVD-the Soviet secretpolice—systematically executed 21,768 Poles, amongthem 14,471 former Polish officers, including politicalleaders, government officials, and intellectuals. Some4,254 of these were uncovered in mass graves in KatynForest by the Nazis in 1943, who then invited an inter-national group of neutral representatives and doctors tostudy the corpses and confirm Soviet guilt, but the find-ings from the study were denounced by theAllies as “Nazipropaganda”.The Soviet Union had ceased to recognise the Polish stateat the start of the invasion.[97][98] As a result, the two gov-ernments never officially declared war on each other. TheSoviets therefore did not classify Polish military prisonersas prisoners of war but as rebels against the new legal gov-

Sovietization propaganda poster addressed towards the “WesternUkrainian” population. The Ukrainian text reads “Electors ofthe working people! Vote for joining of Western Ukraine into theSoviet Ukraine, for the united, free and thriving Ukrainian So-viet Socialist Republic. Let’s forever eliminate the border betweenWestern and Soviet Ukraine. Long Live the Ukrainian Soviet So-cialist Republic!"

ernment of Western Ukraine and Western Byelorussia.[n]The Soviets killed tens of thousands of Polish prisonersof war. Some, like General Józef Olszyna-Wilczyński,who was captured, interrogated and shot on 22 Septem-ber, were executed during the campaign itself.[99][100] On24 September, the Soviets killed 42 staff and patientsof a Polish military hospital in the village of Grabowiec,near Zamość.[101] The Soviets also executed all the Pol-ish officers they captured after the Battle of Szack, on28 September.[102] Over 20,000 Polish military person-nel and civilians perished in the Katyn massacre.[103][104]

The Poles and the Soviets re-established diplomatic rela-tions in 1941, following the Sikorski-Mayski Agreement;but the Soviets broke them off again in 1943 after the Pol-ish government demanded an independent examinationof the recently discovered Katyn burial pits.[105] The So-viets then lobbied theWesternAllies to recognize the pro-Soviet Polish puppet government of Wanda Wasilewskain Moscow.[106]

On 28 September 1939, the Soviet Union and Germanyhad changed the secret terms of the Molotov-RibbentropPact. They moved Lithuania into the Soviet sphere of in-fluence and shifted the border in Poland to the east, givingGermany more territory.[107] By this arrangement, often

3.3 Rule of Terror 11

described as a fourth partition of Poland,[104] the SovietUnion secured almost all Polish territory east of the lineof the rivers Pisa, Narew, Western Bug and San. Thisamounted to about 200,000 square kilometres of land,inhabited by 13.5 million Polish citizens.[14]

The Red Army had originally sowed confusion amongthe locals by claiming that they were arriving to savePoland from the Nazis.[108] Their advance surprised Pol-ish communities and their leaders, who had not been ad-vised how to respond to a Bolshevik invasion. Polishand Jewish citizens may at first have preferred a Sovietregime to a German one,[109] but the Soviets soon provedas hostile and destructive towards the Polish people andtheir culture as the Nazis.[110][111] They began confiscat-ing, nationalising and redistributing all private and state-owned Polish property.[112] During the two years follow-ing the annexation, they arrested approximately 100,000Polish citizens[113] and deported between 350,000 and1,500,000, of whom between 150,000 and 1,000,000died, mostly civilians.[b][4][5][114]

3.1 Land reform and collectivisation

The Soviet base of support was strengthened by a landreform program initiated by the Soviets in which most ofthe owners of large lots of land were labeled "kulaks" anddispossessed of their land which was then divided amongpoorer peasants.However, the Soviet authorities then started a campaignof forced collectivisation, which largely nullified the ear-lier gains from the land reform as the peasants generallydid not want to join the Kolkhoz farms, nor to give awaytheir crops for free to fulfill the state-imposed quotas.

3.2 Restructuring of Polish governmentaland social institutions

While Germans enforced their policies based on racism,the Soviet administration justified their Stalinist policiesby appealing to the Soviet ideology,[115] which in realitymeant the thorough Sovietization of the area. Immedi-ately after their conquest of eastern Poland, the Sovietauthorities started a campaign of Sovietization[116][117] ofthe newly acquired areas. No later than several weeks af-ter the last Polish units surrendered, on 22 October 1939,the Soviets organized staged elections to the Moscow-controlled Supreme Soviets (legislative body) of West-ern Byelorussia andWestern Ukraine.[17] The result of thestaged voting was to become a legitimization of Sovietannexation of eastern Poland.[118]

Subsequently, all institutions of the dismantled Polishstate were closed down and reopened under the Sovietappointed supervisors. Lwow University and many otherschools were reopened soon but they were restarted anewas Soviet institutions rather than continuing their old

legacy. Lwow University was reorganized in accordancewith the Statute Books for Soviet Higher Schools. Thetuition, that along with the institution’s Polonophile tra-ditions, kept the university inaccessible to most of therural Ukrainophone population, was abolished and sev-eral new chairs were opened, particularly the chairs ofRussian language and literature. The chairs of Marxism-Leninism, Dialectical and Historical Materialism aimedat strengthening of the Soviet ideology were opened aswell.[15] Polish literature and language studies ware dis-solved by Soviet authorities. Forty-five new faculty mem-bers were assigned to it and transferred from other insti-tutions of Soviet Ukraine, mainly the Kharkiv and Kievuniversities. On 15 January 1940 the Lviv University wasreopened and started to teach in accordance with Sovietcurricula.[119]

Simultaneously, Soviet authorities attempted to removethe traces of Polish history of the area by eliminatingmuch of what had any connection to the Polish state oreven Polish culture in general.[15] On 21 December 1939,the Polish currency was withdrawn from circulation with-out any exchange to the newly introduced rouble, whichmeant that the entire population of the area lost all of theirlife savings overnight.[120]

All the media became controlled by Moscow. Sovietauthorities implemented a political regime similar to apolice state,[121][122][123][124] based on terror. All Pol-ish parties and organizations were disbanded. Only theCommunist Party was allowed to exist along with organi-zations subordinated to it.All organized religions were persecuted. All enterpriseswere taken over by the state, while agriculture was madecollective.[125]

3.3 Rule of Terror

An inherent part of the Sovietization was a rule of terrorstarted by the NKVD and other Soviet agencies. The firstvictims of the new order were approximately 250,000Polish prisoners of war captured by the USSR duringand after the Polish Defensive War (see Polish prisonersof war in Soviet Union (after 1939)).[126] As the SovietUnion did not sign any international convention on rulesof war, they were denied the status of prisoners of warand instead almost all of the captured officers and a largenumber of ordinary soldiers[127] were then murdered (seeKatyn massacre) or sent to Gulag.[128] Thousands of oth-ers would fall victim to NKVD massacres of prisoners inmid-1941, after Germany invaded the Soviet Union.Similar policies were applied to the civilian population aswell. The Soviet authorities regarded service for the pre-war Polish state as a “crime against revolution”[129] and“counter-revolutionary activity”,[130] and subsequentlystarted arresting large numbers of Polish intelligentsia,politicians, civil servants and scientists, but also ordi-nary people suspected of posing a threat to the Soviet

12 4 CASUALTIES

rule. Among the arrested members of the Polish intel-ligentsia were former prime ministers Leon Kozłowskiand Aleksander Prystor, as well as Stanisław Grabski,Stanisław Głąbiński and the Baczewski family. Initiallyaimed primarily at possible political opponents, by Jan-uary 1940 the NKVD aimed its campaign also at its po-tential allies, including the Polish communists and social-ists. Among the arrested were Władysław Broniewski,Aleksander Wat, Tadeusz Peiper, Leopold Lewin, AnatolStern, Teodor Parnicki, Marian Czuchnowski and manyothers.[131]

3.4 Deportation

During 1942–1945, nearly 30,000 Poles were deported by theSoviet Union to Karachi (then under British rule). This photoshows a memorial to the refugees who died in Karachi and wereburied at the Karachi graveyard.

In 1940 and the first half of 1941, the Soviets deportedmore than 1,200,000 Poles, most in four mass deporta-tions. The first deportation took place 10 February 1940,with more than 220,000 sent to northern European Rus-sia; the second on 13 April 1940, sending 320,000 pri-marily to Kazakhstan; a third wave in June–July 1940totaled more than 240,000; the fourth occurred in June1941, deporting 300,000. Upon resumption of Polish-Soviet diplomatic relations in 1941, it was determinedbased on Soviet information that more than 760,000 ofthe deportees had died – a large part of those deadbeing children, who had comprised about a third ofdeportees.[132]

Approximately 100,000 former Polish citizens were ar-rested during the two years of Soviet occupation.[113] Theprisons soon got severely overcrowded.[94] with detaineessuspected of anti-Soviet activities and the NKVD had toopen dozens of ad-hoc prison sites in almost all townsof the region.[118] The wave of arrests led to forced re-settlement of large categories of people (kulaks, Polishcivil servants, forest workers, university professors orosadniks, for instance) to the Gulag labour camps andexile settlements in remote areas of the Soviet Union.[117]Altogether roughly a million people were sent to the east

in four major waves of deportations.[133] According toNorman Davies,[134] almost half of them were dead bythe time the Sikorski-Mayski Agreement had been signedin 1941.[135]

According to the Soviet law, all residents of the an-nexed area, dubbed by the Soviets as citizens of for-mer Poland,[136] automatically acquired Soviet citizen-ship. However, actual conferral of citizenship still re-quired the individual’s consent and the residents werestrongly pressured for such consent.[137] The refugees whoopted out were threatened with repatriation to Nazi con-trolled territories of Poland.[3][138][139]

3.5 Exploitation of ethnic tensions

In addition, the Soviets exploited past ethnic tension be-tween Poles and other ethnic groups, inciting and en-couraging violence against Poles calling the minoritiesto “rectify the wrongs they had suffered during twentyyears of Polish rule”.[140] Pre-war Poland was portrayedas a capitalist state based on exploitation of the workingpeople and ethnic minorities. Soviet propaganda claimedthat unfair treatment of non-Poles by the Second PolishRepublic was a justification of its dismemberment. So-viet officials openly incited mobs to perform killings androbberies[141] The death toll of the initial Soviet-inspiredterror campaign remains unknown.

3.6 Restoration of Soviet control

While formal Polish sovereignty was almost immediatelyrestored when the forces of Nazi Germany were expelledin 1945, in reality the country remained under firm So-viet control as it remained occupied by the Soviet ArmyNorthern Group of Forces until 1956. To this day theevents of those and the following years are one of thestumbling blocks in Polish-Russian foreign relations. Pol-ish requests for the return of property looted during thewar or any demand for an apology for Soviet-era crimesare either ignored or prompt a brusque restatement of his-tory as seen by the Kremlin, along the lines of “we freedyou from Nazism: be grateful.”[142]

4 Casualties

Main article: World War II casualties of PolandOver 6 million Polish citizens – nearly 21.4% of the pre-war population of the Second Polish Republic — diedbetween 1939 and 1945.[143] Over 90% of the death tollinvolved non-military losses, as most civilians were tar-gets of various deliberate actions by the Germans andSoviets.[143]

Both occupiers wanted not only to gain Polish territory,but also to destroy Polish culture and the Polish nation as

13

Monument to the Fallen and Murdered in the East, Warsaw

a whole.[1]

Tadeusz Piotrowski, Professor of Sociology at theUniversity of New Hampshire has provided a reassess-ment of Poland’s losses in World War II. Polish war deadinclude 5,150,000 victims of Nazi crimes against ethnicPoles and the Holocaust, the treatment of Polish citizensby occupiers included 350,000 deaths during the Sovietoccupation in 1940–41 and about 100,000 Poles killedin 1943–44 in the Ukraine. Of the 100,000 Poles killedin the Ukraine, 80,000 perished during the massacres ofPoles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia by the UkrainianInsurgent Army. Losses by ethnic group were 3,100,000Jews; 2,000,000 ethnic Poles; 500,000 Ukrainians andBelarusians.[90]

The official Polish government report prepared in 1947listed 6,028,000 war deaths out of a population of27,007,000 ethnic Poles and Jews; this report excludedethnic Ukrainian and Belarusian losses. However somehistorians in Poland now believe that Polish war losseswere at least 2 million ethnic Poles and 3 million Jews asa result of the war.[144]

Another assessment, Poles as Victims of the Nazi Era, pre-pared by USHMM, lists 1.8 to 1.9 million ethnic Polishdead in addition to 3 million Polish Jews.[9]

POW deaths totaled 250,000; in Germany (120,000) andin the USSR (130,000).[145]

The genocide of Romani people (porajmos) was35,000 persons.[146] Jewish Holocaust victims totaled3,000,000[147]

5 See also• Polish resistance movement in World War II

• Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany (1939-1944)

• Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany

• Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union

• Polish minority in Germany

• Polish minority in the Soviet Union

• World War II crimes in Poland

6 References[1] “The prisons, ghettos, internment, transit, labor and exter-

mination camps, roundups, mass deportations, public ex-ecutions, mobile killing units, death marches, deprivation,hunger, disease, and exposure all testify to the 'inhumanpolicies of both Hitler and Stalin' and 'were clearly aimedat the total extermination of Polish citizens, both Jews andChristians. Both regimes endorsed a systematic programof genocide.'" Judith Olsak-Glass, Review of Piotrowski’sPoland’s Holocaust in Sarmatian Review, January 1999.

[2] “Terminal horror suffered by so manymillions of innocentJewish, Slavic, and other European peoples as a result ofthis meeting of evil minds is an indelible stain on the his-tory and integrity of Western civilization, with all of itshumanitarian pretensions” (Note: “this meeting” refers tothe most famous third (Zakopane) conference).Conquest, Robert (1991). “Stalin: Breaker of Nations”.New York, N.Y.: Viking. ISBN 0-670-84089-0

[3] Tadeusz Piotrowski (1997). Poland’s Holocaust: EthnicStrife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Geno-cide... McFarland & Company. p. 295. ISBN 0-7864-0371-3. See also review

[4] AFP/Expatica, Polish experts lower nation’s WWII deathtoll, expatica.com, 30 August 2009

[5] Polska 1939–1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji poddwiema okupacjami, ed. Tomasz Szarota and WojciechMaterski, Warszawa, IPN 2009, ISBN 978-83-7629-067-6 (Introduction reproduced here)

[6] Kirsten Sellars (28 February 2013). 'Crimes AgainstPeace' and International Law. Cambridge UniversityPress. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-107-02884-5.

[7] Piotr Eberhardt, http://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf POLITICAL MI-GRATIONS ON POLISH TERRITORIES (1939–1950),POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES STANISŁAWLESZCZYCKI INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY ANDSPATIAL ORGANIZATION MONOGRAPHIES, 12.Pagea 25

[8] Piotr Eberhardt, http://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf POLITICAL MI-GRATIONS ON POLISH TERRITORIES (1939–1950),POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES STANISŁAWLESZCZYCKI INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY ANDSPATIAL ORGANIZATION MONOGRAPHIES, 12.Pages 27-29

[9] “Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era”. United States Holo-caust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on27 March 2010. Retrieved 1 July 2015.

[10] R. F. Leslie (1980). The History of Poland Since 1863.Cambridge University Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-521-27501-9.

14 6 REFERENCES

[11] Roy A. Prete; A. Hamish Ion (1984). Armies of Occupa-tion. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. pp. 135–138. ISBN978-0-88920-156-9.

[12] Jerzy Jan Lerski (1996). Historical Dictionary of Poland,966-1945. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 158. ISBN978-0-313-26007-0.

[13] Mikuláš Teich; Dušan Kováč; Martin D. Brown (3 Febru-ary 2011). Slovakia in History. Cambridge UniversityPress. p. 195. ISBN 978-1-139-49494-6.

[14] Jan Tomasz Gross, Revolution from Abroad, pp. 4, 5,Princeton, 2005, ISBN 0-691-09603-1. Quote: “The east-ern half of Poland could be divided into three zones northto south. A clear Ukrainian majority resided in the south,except in some areas where the number of Poles moreor less equaled their Ukrainian neighbors; in the centralpart, in Polesie and Wołyń, a small Polish minority (14and 16% respectively) faced a mostly Orthodox peasantry(Ukrainian to the south, then “local” and finally, on thenorthern fringe increasingly Belarusian); and in the north-ern part, in Białystok, Wilno and Nowogródek voivod-ships, Poles were in majority, confronted by a numericallystrong Belarusian minority. Jews constituted the principalminority in urban areas”

[15] (Polish)"Among the population of Eastern territories werecirca 38% Poles, 37% Ukrainians, 14.5% Belarusians,8.4% Jewish, 0.9% Russians and 0.6% Germans”Elżbieta Trela-Mazur (1997). Włodzimierz Bonusiak,Stanisław Jan Ciesielski, Zygmunt Mańkowski, MikołajIwanow, ed. Sowietyzacja oświaty w Małopolsce Wschod-niej pod radziecką okupacją 1939–1941 (Sovietization ofeducation in eastern Lesser Poland during the Soviet occu-pation 1939–1941). Kielce: Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogicznaim. Jana Kochanowskiego. p. 294. ISBN 978-83-7133-100-8.

[16] George Sanford (7 May 2007). Katyn and the Soviet Mas-sacre of 1940: Truth, Justice and Memory. Routledge. p.47. ISBN 978-1-134-30299-4.

[17] Bartłomiej Kozłowski (2005). ""Wybory” do Zgro-madzeń Ludowych Zachodniej Ukrainy i Zachodniej Bi-ałorusi”. Polska.pl (in Polish). NASK. Retrieved March13, 2006.

[18] Elazar Barkan; Elizabeth A. Cole; Kai Struve (2007).Shared History, Divided Memory: Jews and Others inSoviet-occupied Poland, 1939-1941. Leipziger Univer-sitätsverlag. p. 155. ISBN 978-3-86583-240-5.

[19] Piotr Eberhardt, http://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf POLITICAL MI-GRATIONS ON POLISH TERRITORIES (1939–1950),POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES STANISŁAWLESZCZYCKI INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY ANDSPATIAL ORGANIZATION MONOGRAPHIES, 12.Pages 30-31

[20] Piotr Eberhardt, http://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf POLITICAL MI-GRATIONS ON POLISH TERRITORIES (1939–1950),POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES STANISŁAWLESZCZYCKI INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY AND

SPATIAL ORGANIZATION MONOGRAPHIES, 12.Pages 32-34

[21] “German newspaper editor outlining the claims of Pol-ish atrocities against minorities”. Nizkor.org. Retrieved 9February 2013.

[22] http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/blbkmenu.asp

[23] Jon Huer (26 October 2012). Call From the Cave: OurCruel Nature and Quest for Power. Hamilton Books. p.166. ISBN 978-0-7618-6016-7.

[24] Stefan Wolff (2003). The German Question Since 1919:An Analysis with Key Documents. Greenwood PublishingGroup. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-0-275-97269-1.

[25] Donald L. Niewyk; Francis R. Nicosia (13 August 2013).The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia Univer-sity Press. p. 276. ISBN 978-0-231-52878-8.

[26] https://web.archive.org/web/20120413024247/http://www.atsweb.neu.edu/holocaust/Hitlers_Plans.htmHITLER'S PLANS FOR EASTERN EUROPE Selec-tions from Janusz Gumkowski andKazimierz LeszczynskiPOLAND UNDER NAZI OCCUPATION The ultimatepurpose of Nazi policy was to destroy the Polish nationon the whole of Polish soil ,whether that annexed by theReich or that of the Government General

[27] Lucjan Dobroszycki; Jeffrey S. Gurock (1 January 1993).The Holocaust in the Soviet Union: Studies and Sources onthe Destruction of the Jews in the Nazi-Occupied Territoriesof the Ussr, 1941-1945. M.E. Sharpe. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-56324-173-4. General Plan Ost, which provided for theliquidation of the Slav peoples

[28] Stephen G. Fritz (13 September 2011). Ostkrieg: Hitler’sWar of Extermination in the East. University Press of Ken-tucky. p. 158. ISBN 0-8131-4050-1. Since the ultimatedestination of those displaced remained unclear, “naturalwastage” on a vast scale must have been assumed, so geno-cide was implicit in Generalplan Ost from the beginning

[29] Michael Geyer (2009). Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinismand Nazism Compared. Cambridge University Press. pp.152–153. ISBN 978-0-521-89796-9.

[30] Joseph Poprzeczny (19 February 2004). Odilo Globocnik,Hitler’s Man in the East. McFarland. pp. 186–187. ISBN978-0-7864-8146-0.

[31] Joseph Poprzeczny (19 February 2004). Odilo Globocnik,Hitler’s Man in the East. McFarland. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7864-8146-0.

[32] Prit Buttar (21 May 2013). Between Giants: The Battlefor the Baltics in World War II. Osprey Publishing. pp.59–60. ISBN 978-1-4728-0288-0.

[33] Geoff Eley (29 May 2013). Nazism as Fascism: Violence,Ideology, and the Ground of Consent in Germany 1930-1945. Routledge. p. 189. ISBN 1-135-04481-3.

[34] https://web.archive.org/web/20120413024247/http://www.atsweb.neu.edu/holocaust/Hitlers_Plans.htmHITLER'S PLANS FOR EASTERN EUROPE Se-lections from Janusz Gumkowski and Kazimierz

15

Leszczynski POLAND UNDER NAZI OCCUPATIONThe provisions of the Plan were that 80-85 per cent ofthe Poles would have to be deported from the Germansettlement area - to regions in the East. This, accordingto German calculations, would involve about 20 millionpeople. About 3-4 million - all of them peasants -suitable for Germanization as far as “racial values” wereconcerned - would be allowed to remain. They would bedistributed among German majorities and Germanizedwithin a single generation(...)

[35] Lynn H. Nicholas, Cruel World: The Children of Europein the Nazi Web p. 204 ISBN 0-679-77663-X

[36] Pierre Ayçoberry. The Social History of the Third Re-ich: 1933-1945year=2000. NEW PRESS (NY). p. 228.ISBN 978-1-56584-635-7.

[37] "Chapter 13. Chapter XIII – GERMANIZATION ANDSPOLIATION"

[38] William J. Duiker, Jackson J. Spielvogel, World History,1997. Page 794: By 1942, two million ethnic Germanshad been settled in Poland.

[39] "Chapter XIII – GERMANIZATION AND SPOLIA-TION"

[40] Richard C. Lukas, Did the Children Cry? Hitler’s Waragainst Jewish and Polish Children, 1939–1945. Hip-pocrene Books, New York, 2001.

[41] Nazi Conspiracy & Aggression Volume I Chapter XIII Ger-manization & Spoliation

[42] Powszechny Spis Ludnosci r. 1921

[43] Diemut Majer, United States Holocaust Memorial Mu-seum, “Non-Germans” Under the Third Reich: The NaziJudicial and Administrative System in Germany and Oc-cupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to OccupiedPoland, 1939–1945 Von Diemut Majer, United StatesHolocaust Memorial Museum, JHU Press, 2003, p.240,ISBN 0-8018-6493-3.

[44] See: Helmut Heiber, “Denkschrift Himmler Uber dieBehandlung der Fremdvolkischen im Osten”, Viertel-jahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 1957, No. 2. (In) MichaelBurleigh; Wolfgang Wippermann (1991). The racialstate: Germany, 1933–1945. Cambridge UniversityPress. pp. (337–). ISBN 978-0-521-39802-2. Retrieved22 April 2011.

[45] Jan Grabowski and Zbigniew R. Grabowski (2004). Ger-mans in the Eyes of the Gestapo: The Ciechanów District,1939–1945. Cambridge University Press: ContemporaryEuropean History, No 13. pp. 21–43.

[46] http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007732

[47] Benjamin B. Ferencz (2002). Less Than Slaves: JewishForced Labor and the Quest for Compensation. IndianaUniversity Press. pp. 24–25. ISBN 0-253-21530-7.

[48] Ulrich Herbert, William Templer, Hitler’s foreign work-ers: enforced foreign labor in Germany under the ThirdReich, Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-521-47000-5,Google Print, p.71-73

[49] Ulrich Merten (15 August 2013). Forgotten Voices: TheExpulsion of the Germans from Eastern Europe afterWorld War II. Transaction Publishers. pp. 85–86. ISBN978-1-4128-5258-6.

[50] Tadeusz Piotrowski (1998). Poland’s Holocaust: EthnicStrife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocidein the Second Republic, 1918-1947. McFarland. p. 22.ISBN 978-0-7864-0371-4.

[51] Richard L. Rubenstein; John K. Roth (2003). Approachesto Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy. WestminsterJohn Knox Press. pp. 195–196. ISBN 978-0-664-22353-3.

[52] Thomas F. X. Noble; Barry Strauss; Duane Osheim;Kristen Neuschel; Elinor Accampo (12 January 2007).Western Civilization: Beyond Boundaries, Volume II: Since1560. Cengage Learning. p. 880. ISBN 1-111-80948-8.

[53] Elaine Saphier Fox (31 August 2013). Out of Chaos: Hid-den Children Remember the Holocaust. NorthwesternUni-versity Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-8101-6661-5.

[54] http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007720

[55] Vogelsang, Peter; Larsen, Brian B.M., The Ghettos ofPoland, Holocaust and Genocide Studies

[56] CFCA (2013). “Holocaust”. The Coordination Forumfor Countering Antisemitism. Retrieved 27 December2013. From diary of Reich Propaganda Minister JosephGoebbels, dated 12 December 1941.

[57] Yad Vashem (2013). “Aktion Reinhard” (PDF file, directdownload 33.1 KB). Shoah Resource Center, The Interna-tional School for Holocaust Studies. Retrieved 31October2013.

[58] Piotr Eberhardt, http://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf POLITICAL MI-GRATIONS ON POLISH TERRITORIES (1939–1950),POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES STANISŁAWLESZCZYCKI INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY ANDSPATIAL ORGANIZATION MONOGRAPHIES, 12.Page 46

[59] Stephan Lehnstaedt, Jochen Böhler (editors): Die Berichteder Einsatzgruppen aus Polen 1939. Vollständige Edi-tion (translated: the reports of the Einsatzgruppen fromPoland 1939. Complete edition), 2013, ISBN 978-3863311384. Jürgen Matthäus, Jochen Böhler, Klaus-Michael Mallmann: War, Pacification, and Mass Murder,1939: The Einsatzgruppen in Poland. Rowman & Little-field Publishers 2014, ISBN 978-1442231412.

[60] Michał Rapta, Wojciech Tupta, Grzegorz Moskal (2009).Mroczne sekrety willi “Tereska": 1939-1945. HistoriaRabki. p. 104. ISBN 978-83-60817-33-9.

[61] Jan S. Prybyla (2010). When Angels Wept: The RebirthandDismemberment of Poland andHer People in the EarlyDecades of the Twentieth Century. Wheatmark, Inc. pp.133–136. ISBN 978-1-60494-325-2.

16 6 REFERENCES

[62] Dr Robert Rozett; Dr Shmuel Spector (26 November2013). Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. Routledge. p. 101.ISBN 978-1-135-96950-9.

[63] Libionka, Dariusz (2004). “The Catholic Church inPoland and the Holocaust, 1939-1945” (PDF). In CarolRittner, Stephen D. Smith, Irena Steinfeldt. The Holo-caust And The Christian World: Reflections On The PastChallenges For The Future. New Leaf Press. pp. 74–78.ISBN 978-0-89221-591-1.

[64] https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=472

[65] The Nazi War Against the Catholic Church; NationalCatholic Welfare Conference; Washington D.C.; 1942;pp. 34-51

[66] Polish Western Affairs. Instytut Zachodni. 1989. p. 48.

[67] AlmaMater (in Polish). AlmaMater, Issue 64. November2004. p. 46.

[68] Lebensraum, Aryanization, Germanization and Judenrein,Judenfrei: concepts in the holocaust or shoah

[69] HITLER'S PLANS FOR EASTERN EUROPE

[70] Lynn H. Nicholas, Cruel World: The Children of Europein the Nazi Web p 250 ISBN 0-679-77663-X

[71] Lynn H. Nicholas, Cruel World: The Children of Europein the Nazi Web p. 249 ISBN 0-679-77663-X

[72] Melissa Eddy (8 May 2007). “Stolen: The Story of aPolish Child 'Germanized' by the Nazis”. StarNewsOn-line (Wilmington, NC). Associated Press. Retrieved 16September 2008. If they met racial guidelines, they weretaken; one girl got back home.

[73] Lynn H. Nicholas, Cruel World: The Children of Europein the Nazi Web p. 400-1 ISBN 0-679-77663-X

[74] Grzegorz Ostasz, The Polish Government-in-Exile’s HomeDelegature. Article on the pages of the London Branch ofthe Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. Re-trieved 4 April 2011.

[75] Stanisław Salmonowicz (1994). Polskie PaństwoPodziemne: z dziejów walki cywilnej, 1939–45.Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne. ISBN 978-83-02-05500-3. Retrieved 2 January 2012., p. 37-46.

[76] Józef Garliński (April 1975). “The Polish Under-ground State 1939–1945”. Journal of ContemporaryHistory (Sage Publications, Ltd.) 10 (2): 219–259.doi:10.1177/002200947501000202. JSTOR 260146., p.220-223

[77] Zamoyski, Adam.The Polish Way. New York: Hip-pocrene Books, 1987

[78] Marek Ney-Krwawicz, The Polish Underground State andThe Home Army (1939–45). Translated from Polish byAntoni Bohdanowicz. Article on the pages of the LondonBranch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Asso-ciation. Retrieved 14 March 2008.

[79] (Polish) Armia Ludowa. Encyklopedia PWN. Retrieved21 December 2006.

[80] (Polish) Armia Krajowa. EncyklopediaWIEM. Retrieved2 April 2008.

[81] Borowiec, Andrew (2001). DestroyWarsaw! Hitler’s pun-ishment, Stalin’s revenge. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.ISBN 0-275-97005-1. p. 179.

[82] Adam Jones (27 September 2006). Genocide: A Compre-hensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-134-25980-9.

[83] Tadeusz Piotrowski (1998). Poland’s Holocaust: EthnicStrife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocidein the Second Republic, 1918-1947. McFarland. pp. 305–. ISBN 978-0-7864-0371-4.

[84] Norman Davies; Rising '44: the Battle for Warsaw;Viking; 2003; p.200

[85] Norman Davies; Rising '44: the Battle for Warsaw; Viki-ing; 2003; p594

[86] Donald L. Niewyk, Francis R. Nicosia (2000). TheColumbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia UniversityPress. p. 114–. ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0.

[87] Iwo Pogonowski, Jews in Poland, Hippocrene, 1998.ISBN 0-7818-0604-6. Page 99.

[88] Norman Davies; Rising '44: the Battle for Warsaw; Viki-ing; 2003; p.200

[89] https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/Zegota.html

[90] Piotrowski, Tadeusz (2005). “Project InPosterum: PolandWorld War II Casualties”. Retrieved 15 March 2007.

[91] Łuczak, Czesław (1994). “Szanse i trudności bilansu de-mograficcznego Polski w latach 1939–1945”. Dzieje Na-jnowsze (1994/2).

[92] (Polish) Marek Wierzbicki, Stosunki polsko-białoruskie pod okupacją sowiecką (1939–1941).„Białoruskie Zeszyty Historyczne” (НА СТАРОНКАХКАМУНІКАТУ, Biełaruski histaryczny zbornik) 20(2003), p. 186–188. Retrieved 16 July 2007.

[93] Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1988). “Ukrainian Collaborators”.Poland’s Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Oc-cupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic,1918–1947. McFarland. pp. 177–259. ISBN 0-7864-0371-3. How are we ... to explain the phenomenon ofUkrainians rejoicing and collaborating with the Soviets?Who were these Ukrainians? That they were Ukraini-ans is certain, but were they communists, Nationalists,unattached peasants? The Answer is “yes” – they wereall three

[94] Militargeschichtliches Forschungsamt; GottfriedSchramm (1997). Bernd Wegner, ed. From Peace toWar: Germany, Soviet Russia and the World, 1939–1941.Berghahn Books. pp. 47–79. ISBN 1-57181-882-0.

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[95] [Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin. The Court of the RedTsar, page 313. Vintage Books, New York 2003. VintageISBN 1-4000-7678-1]

[96] [Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin. The Court of the RedTsar, page 312. Vintage Books, New York 2003. VintageISBN 1-4000-7678-1]

[97] Telegrams sent by Schulenburg, German ambassador tothe Soviet Union, from Moscow to the German ForeignOffice: No. 317 of 10 September 1939, No. 371 of 16September 1939, No. 372 of 17 September 1939. TheAvalon Project, Yale Law School. Retrieved 14 Novem-ber 2006.

[98] (Polish) 1939 wrzesień 17, Moskwa Nota rządu sowieck-iego nie przyjęta przez ambasadora Wacława Grzy-bowskiego (Note of the Soviet government to the Polishgovernment on 17 September 1939, refused by Polish am-bassador Wacław Grzybowski). Retrieved 15 November2006.

[99] Sanford, p. 23; (Polish) Olszyna-Wilczyński Józef Kon-stanty, Encyklopedia PWN. Retrieved 14 November2006.

[100] (Polish) Śledztwo w sprawie zabójstwa w dniu 22 września1939 r. w okolicach miejscowości Sopoćkinie generałabrygady Wojska Polskiego Józefa Olszyny-Wilczyńskiegoi jego adiutanta kapitanaMieczysława Strzemskiego przezżołnierzy b. Związku Radzieckiego. (S 6/02/Zk) atthe Wayback Machine (archived January 7, 2005) Pol-ish Institute of National Remembrance. Internet Archive,16.10.03. Retrieved 16 July 2007.

[101] (Polish) Rozstrzelany Szpital (Executed Hospital). Tygod-nik Zamojski, 15 September 2004. Retrieved 28 Novem-ber 2006.

[102] (Polish) Szack. Encyklopedia Interia. Retrieved 28November 2006.

[103] Fischer, Benjamin B., "“The Katyn Controversy: Stalin’sKilling Field", Studies in Intelligence, Winter 1999–2000.Retrieved 16 July 2007.

[104] Sanford, p. 20–24.

[105] Soviet note unilaterally severing Soviet-Polish diplomaticrelations, 25 April 1943. English translation of Polishdocument. Retrieved 19 December 2005; Sanford, p.129.

[106] Sanford, p. 127; Martin Dean Collaboration in the Holo-caust. Retrieved 15 July 2007.

[107] (Polish) Kampania wrześniowa 1939 at the Wayback Ma-chine (archived May 9, 2006) (September Campaign1939) from PWN Encyklopedia. Internet Archive, mid-2006. Retrieved 16 July 2007.

[108] Davies, Europe: A History, pp. 1001–1003.

[109] Gross, pp. 24, 32–33.

[110] Stachura, p.132.

[111] Piotrowski, pp. 1, 11–13, 32.

[112] Piotrowski, p.11

[113] (Polish) Represje 1939–41 Aresztowani na KresachWschodnich (Repressions 1939–41. Arrested on theEastern Borderlands.) Ośrodek Karta. Retrieved 15November 2006.

[114] Rieber, pp. 14, 32–37.

[115] Wojciech Roszkowski (1998). Historia Polski 1914–1997(in Polish). Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Naukowe PWN. p.476. ISBN 83-01-12693-0.

[116] various authors (1998). Adam Sudoł, ed. Sowietyza-cja Kresów Wschodnich II Rzeczypospolitej po 17 września1939 (in Polish). Bydgoszcz: Wyższa Szkoła Pedagog-iczna. p. 441. ISBN 83-7096-281-5.

[117] various authors (2001). “Stalinist Forced Relocation Poli-cies”. In Myron Weiner, Sharon Stanton Russell. Demog-raphy and National Security. Berghahn Books. pp. 308–315. ISBN 1-57181-339-X.

[118] Jan Tomasz Gross (2003). Revolution from Abroad.Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 396. ISBN 0-691-09603-1.

[119] “Ivan Franko National University of L'viv”. Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2006. Retrieved 14March 2006.

[120] Karolina Lanckorońska (2001). “I – Lwów”. Wspom-nienia wojenne; 22 IX 1939 – 5 IV 1945 (in Polish).Kraków: ZNAK. p. 364. ISBN 83-240-0077-1.

[121] Craig Thompson-Dutton (1950). “The Police State & ThePolice and the Judiciary”. The Police State: What YouWant to Know about the Soviet Union. Dutton. pp. 88–95.

[122] Michael Parrish (1996). The Lesser Terror: Soviet StateSecurity, 1939–1953. Praeger Publishers. pp. 99–101.ISBN 0-275-95113-8.

[123] Peter Rutland (1992). “Introduction”. The Politics ofEconomic Stagnation in the Soviet Union. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-521-39241-1.

[124] Victor A. Kravchenko (1988). I Chose Justice. Transac-tion Publishers. p. 310. ISBN 0-88738-756-X.

[125] (Polish) Encyklopedia PWN, “OKUPACJASOWIECKAW POLSCE 1939–41”, last accessed on 1 March 2006,online, Polish language

[126] Encyklopedia PWN 'KAMPANIA WRZEŚNIOWA1939', last retrieved on 10 December 2005, Polishlanguage

[127] Out of the original group of Polish prisoners of war sent inlarge number to the labour camps were some 25,000 or-dinary soldiers separated from the rest of their colleaguesand imprisoned in a work camp in Równe, where theywere forced to build a road. See: “Decision to com-mence investigation into Katyn Massacre”. Institute ofNational Remembrance website. Institute of National Re-membrance. 2004. Archived from the original on 19 July2006. Retrieved 15 March 2006.

18 7 EXTERNAL LINKS

[128] Marek Jan Chodakiewicz (2004). Between Nazis and So-viets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947. Lexing-ton Books. ISBN 0-7391-0484-5.

[129] Gustaw Herling-Grudziński (1996). A World Apart: Im-prisonment in a Soviet Labor Camp During World War II.Penguin Books. p. 284. ISBN 0-14-025184-7.

[130] Władysław Anders (1995). Bez ostatniego rozdziału (inPolish). Lublin: Test. p. 540. ISBN 83-7038-168-5.

[131] Jerzy Gizella (10 November 2001). “Lwowskie oku-pacje”. Przegląd polski (in Polish).

[132] Assembly of Captive European Nations, First Session

[133] The actual number of deported in the period of 1939–1941 remains unknown and various estimates varyfrom 350,000 ((Polish) Encyklopedia PWN 'OKUPACJASOWIECKA W POLSCE 1939–41', last retrieved on 14March 2006, Polish language) to over 2 millions (mostlyWorld War II estimates by the underground). The ear-lier number is based on records made by the NKVD anddoes not include roughly 180,000 prisoners of war, alsoin Soviet captivity. Most modern historians estimate thenumber of all people deported from areas taken by So-viet Union during this period at between 800,000 and1,500,000; for example R. J. Rummel gives the numberof 1,200,000 million; Tony Kushner and Katharine Knoxgive 1,500,000 in their Refugees in an Age of Genocide,p.219; in his Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and MassMurder Since 1917, p.132. See also: Marek Wierzbicki,Tadeusz M. Płużański (March 2001). “Wybiórcze trak-towanie źródeł". Tygodnik Solidarność (2 March 2001).and Albin Głowacki (September 2003). “Formy, skalai konsekwencje sowieckich represji wobec Polaków wlatach 1939–1941”. In Piotr Chmielowiec. Okupacjasowiecka ziem polskich 1939–1941 (in Polish). Rzeszów-Warsaw: Instytut Pamięci Narodowej. ISBN 83-89078-78-3. Archived from the original on 2003-10-03.

[134] Norman Davies (1982). God’s Playground. A History ofPoland, Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present. Oxford: Oxford Uni-versity Press. pp. 449–455. ISBN 0-19-925340-4.

[135] Bernd Wegner, From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Rus-sia, and the World, 1939–1941, Bernd Wegner, 1997,ISBN 1-57181-882-0. Google Print, p.78

[136] Stanisław Ciesielski; Wojciech Materski; AndrzejPaczkowski (2002). “Represje 1939–1941”. Indeksrepresjonowanych (in Polish) (2nd ed.). Warsaw:Ośrodek KARTA. ISBN 83-88288-31-8. RetrievedMarch 2006.

[137] Jan Tomasz Gross (2003). Revolution from Abroad.Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 396. ISBN 0-691-09603-1.

[138] Jan T. Gross, op.cit., p.188

[139] Zvi Gitelman (2001). A Century of Ambivalence: TheJews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present.Indiana University Press. p. 116. ISBN 0-253-21418-1.

[140] Jan Tomasz Gross, Revolution from Abroad: The SovietConquest of Poland’s Western Ukraine and Western Be-lorussia, Princeton University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-691-09603-1, p. 35

[141] Gross, op.cit., page 36

[142] “Pretty pictures: Russia’s president makes some surprisingnew friends”. The Economist. March 2, 2006. RetrievedOctober 10, 2012.

[143] Jessica Jager, Review of Piotrowski’s Poland’s Holocaust,UC Santa Barbara

[144] This revision of estimated war losses was the topic of ar-ticles in the Polish academic journal Dzieje Najnowsze #2-1994 by Czesław Łuczak and Krystyna Kersten.

[145] Vadim Erlikman. Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke :spravochnik. Moscow 2004. ISBN 5-93165-107-1

[146] Donald Kendrick, The Destiny of Europe’s Gypsies. BasicBooks 1972 ISBN 0-465-01611-1

[147] Martin Gilbert. Atlas of the Holocaust 1988 ISBN 0-688-12364-3

7 External links• A review of the Piotrowski book Poland’s Holocaust

• Michael Phayer, 'Et Papa tacet': the genocide of Pol-ish Catholics

• Research guide to biographical sources for victimsof World War II in Poland

19

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1 Text• Occupation of Poland (1939–45) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%9345)?oldid=675777096 Contributors: Michael Hardy, IZAK, Moncrief, Altenmann, Halibutt, Lysy, Michael Devore, Piotrus, Catdude, Mzajac, Irpen,Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Vecrumba, Art LaPella, Polylerus, Anthony Appleyard, Logologist, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Ghirlandajo,Woohookitty, Kralizec!, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Amire80, Eubot, Ground Zero, Akhristov, Renata3, Molobo, Gadget850, Wikiferdi, T.Anthony, Appleseed, Victor falk, SmackBot, Selfworm, Bswee, AndreasJS, Srnec, Hmains, The Gnome, Chris the speller, Droll, Xx236,Colonies Chris, SuperDeng, Wizardman, Tesseran, Ohconfucius, Tymek, Zahid Abdassabur, Mathiasrex, Horlo, IronGargoyle, Makyen,Mr Stephen, Waggers, Iridescent, D Hill, ChrisCork, CmdrObot, Gjm5025, JohnCD, Pseudo-Richard, Neelix, Funnyfarmofdoom, Cyde-bot, Poeticbent, Goldfritha, Biruitorul, Faustian, Ludde23, Binarybits, Dogru144, GGreeneVa, Magioladitis, Nyttend, Gullinbursti, BobbyH. Heffley, Halibott, Jniech, CommonsDelinker, Lulo.it, AndreasJSbot, Idioma-bot, Malljaja, Olaunica~enwiki, StillTrill, M0RD00R,Laval, Qworty, SalJyDieBoereKomLei, Romuald Wróblewski, WitRodzin, Moonriddengirl, Duty67, Lankap, Agniem, Danupaw, JL-Bot,Stooge86, Neve Dan, ClueBot, XPTO, Jacurek, Skäpperöd, Pernambuko, Jusdafax, Arjayay, Mtsmallwood, Teutonic Tamer, Ranger757,Asidemes, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Magus732, Yelizandpaul, Sebastian scha., Mnmazur, LinkFA-Bot, Kasjanek21,Lightbot, Greyhood, Не А, Odder, Legobot, Yobot, Dzied Bulbash, BlueSalo, AnomieBOT, Lonio17, Citation bot, Xqbot, Жужжание,Ulf Heinsohn, J04n, Armbrust, Anotherclown, Mark Schierbecker, RibotBOT, Erik9, FrescoBot, PasswordUsername, Citation bot 1,Ozhistory, DocYako, Lightlowemon, Trappist the monk, Diannaa, Ivanevian, MyMoloboaccount, Pranav21391, MAXXX-309, Alfons2,EmausBot, John of Reading, Dewritech, Ovidcaput, EleferenBot, K6ka, ZéroBot, Bongoramsey, Neun-x, Shuipzv3, H3llBot, MorganHauser, Byronjames123, Stawiski, Dreamcatcher25, WorldWarTwoEditor, -revi, DanielPerrine, ClueBot NG, Mansmokingacigar,Laurifindil, Frietjes, NoFroDaBest, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, IRIPE, Waverly303, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Dexbot, Elevatorrailfan,Kp1983, English Patriot Man, DavidLeighEllis, Loverbek, Sanchezhands, Stain Marked For Life, Jess Jenkins, Windows66, Irsyadkhairil,Monkbot, BethNaught, Monopoly31121993, UglowT, Policja, Xx234~enwiki and Anonymous: 81

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License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ?• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1968-034-19A,_Exekution_von_polnischen_Geiseln.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1968-034-19A%2C_Exekution_von_polnischen_Geiseln.jpg License: CC BY-SA3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as partof a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/orpositive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown

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20 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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• File:Sssr_polsha_1939_plakat.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Sssr_polsha_1939_plakat.jpeg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: http://www.fronta.cz/plakat/hlasujte Original artist: Л. Сенишин (see attribution in right-bottom con-ner)

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• File:Warsaw_East_Monument.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Warsaw_East_Monument.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Made on a summer day in Warsaw, Poland Original artist: Halibutt

• File:Warsaw_Uprising_by_Deczkowki_-_Wacek_Platoon_-_15911.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Warsaw_Uprising_by_Deczkowki_-_Wacek_Platoon_-_15911.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

• Tadeusz Sumiński (1959) “Pamiętniki żołnierzy baonu “Zośka”. Powstanie Warszawskie”, Warsaw: Nasza Księgarnia no ISBN Original artist:Juliusz Bogdan Deczkowski

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