Crit Care Nurs Clin N

Nutritional Assessment and Enteral Support of Critically

Ill Children

Erwin Ista, RNT, Koen Joosten, MD, PhD

Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus MC - Sophia Children’s Hospital, P.O. Box 2060, 3000 CB Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Critical illness has a major impact on the nutri-

tional status of children. Nutritional assessment is

required as an integral part of patient care; however,

during an intensive care stay, attention is focused

mostly on the primary medical problem and not on

the child’s nutritional status. When the child stays in

the ICU for longer than 5 to 7 days, the chance of

developing serious nutritional deficiencies increases

significantly [1]. As early as 1980, researchers dem-

onstrated protein-energy malnutrition in 15% to 20%

of children who were admitted to the ICU [2].

A recent study showed a high prevalence (24%) of

acute or chronic malnutrition in critically ill chil-

dren who were admitted to a pediatric ICU (PICU)

[3]. Therefore, nutritional support after initial nutri-

tional assessment should be an essential aspect of

the clinical management of patients in the PICU. The

diversity in clinical presentation and the various age

groups dictate a patient-tailored approach.

Several common hospital practices have been

identified that may cause the deterioration of nutri-

tional status in admitted patients (Box 1). In general,

the development of malnutrition during an ICU stay

can be related to the disease, incomplete nutritional

assessment or determination of the patient’s nutri-

tional needs, or lack of adequate nutritional support.

Widespread ignorance of the physiologic effects

of different feeding routes and the composition

of nutritional products results in the inappropriate

use of routes of administration of enteral and par-

0899-5885/05/$ – see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights

doi:10.1016/j.ccell.2005.07.011

T Corresponding author.

E-mail address: w.ista@erasmusmc.nl (E. Ista).

enteral feeds of uncertain composition or inade-

quate amounts.

Critical care nurses play an important role in the

feeding of critically ill children. Many procedures

and caregiving interventions, such as placement of

feeding tubes, registration of gastric retention, obser-

vation and care of the mouth, and administration of

nutrition (enteral or parenteral), are within the nurs-

ing domain. This article discusses nutritional as-

sessment techniques and enteral nutrition (EN) in

critically ill children.

Nutritional assessment

Definition

Nutritional assessment can be defined as the inter-

pretation of data concerning an individual’s intake

and use of nutrients to determine his or her health

status. Data must be obtained by different means,

and interpreted together to perform a comprehensive

nutritional assessment. These data includes:

� General evaluation (including dietary and medi-

cal history and physical signs)� Severity of illness assessment� Assessment of body composition� Laboratory studies (including the estimation of

energy requirements)

Nutritional assessment is necessary to: (1) identify

patients who have, or who are at risk for developing,

protein-energy malnutrition; (2) establish the degree

of malnutrition and the risk of developing malnu-

Am 17 (2005) 385 – 393

reserved.

ccnursing.theclinics.com

Box 1. Common hospital practices thatmay result in deterioration of nutritionalstatus

Diffusion of responsibility for the nutri-tional care of patients

Lack of interaction between medical,nursing, and dietetic staff

Little emphasis on nutrition educationin nursing and medical schools

Limited availability of methods toassess nutritional status

Failure to record patients’ heightand weight

Failure to observe and record patients’dietary intake

Frequent withholding of food becauseof diagnostic tests

Delay in commencing nutritional sup-port with prolonged use ofglucose administration

Adapted from Corish CA, Kennedy NP.Protein-energy undernutrition in hospitalin-patients. Br J Nutr 2000;83(6):575–91;with permission.

Box 2. Degree of stress

Pathology

Grade 1: mild stress factorDetection of health problemBronchiolitisGastroenteritisMinor surgeryOther minor infection

Grade 2: moderate stress factorCurrent surgeryChronic cardiopathyChronic enteropathySevere infectionCystic fibrosisSickle cell disease

Grade 3: severe stress factorCardiac surgeryDeterioration of chronic diseaseMajor visceral surgeryHemopathySevere depressionSevere sepsis

Adapted from Sermet-Gaudelus I, Poisson-Salomon AS, Colomb V, et al. Simple pe-diatric nutritional risk score to identifychildren at risk of malnutrition. Am J ClinNutr 2000;72(1):64–70;with permission.

ista & joosten386

trition related complications; and (3) evaluate the

effect of nutritional support [4]. Accurate assess-

ment of nutritional status in children is complex

because of ongoing growth, changing energy needs,

varying body composition, and disease [5]. In criti-

cally ill children this phenomenon is more complex

because of weight shifts that are caused by third

spacing of fluid; this can result in inaccurate anthro-

pometric measurements and inaccurate assumptions

of true weight [1].

Techniques

General evaluation

A full medical and dietary history is necessary for

an extensive nutritional assessment. When the criti-

cally ill child has a history of chronic disease, the

initial nutritional status at admission might be poor

and the child may need extra attention. Physical signs

of malnutrition usually do not appear until malnu-

trition had been prolonged and severe; however, the

first impression of the child and subjective assess-

ment of muscle and fat mass can help. Subjective

global assessment is a clinical technique that assesses

nutritional status based on features of the history and

physical examination [6]. On admission, a detailed

history concerning nutrition can be performed by the

nursing staff.

It also is important to be alert for the develop-

ment of malnutrition during admission. A study by

Sermet-Gaudelus and colleagues [7] showed that

79% of hospitalized children lost weight (>2%) dur-

ing admission. Using a pediatric nutritional risk

score, they found that the patients’ degree of stress

(Box 2), food intake, and pain were associated with

weight loss. They developed a pediatric nutritional

risk score that identifies three classes of risk (low,

moderate, and high) and recommendations for nu-

tritional interventions (Table 1).

Anthropometry

Classic anthropometry is a term that describes

the measurement of body weight, body length, and

head circumference. Additional anthropometric mea-

Table 1

Pediatric nutritional risk score and recommendations for nutritional intervention

Risk factors [coefficients]

Score Nutritonal risk Nutritional interventionPathology

Pain [1] Food

intake <50% [1]

Mild (grade 1) [0] None 0 Low None

Mild (grade 1) [0] One 1 Moderate Assess food intake and weight daily

Mild (grade 1) [0] Both 2 Moderate Refer to a dietitian

Moderate (grade 2) [1] None 1 Moderate Start oral nutritional support (NS)

Moderate (grade 2) [1] One 2 Moderate

Moderate (grade 2) [1] Both 3 High Measure ingested food precisely

Severe (grade 3) [3] None 3 High Refer to a nutrition team

Severe (grade 3) [3] One 4 High Consider enteral or parenteral NS

Severe (grade 3) [3] Both 5 High

Adapted from Sermet-Gaudelus I, Poisson-Salomon AS, Colomb V, et al. Simple pediatric nutritional risk score to identify

children at risk of malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72(1):64–70; with permission.

picu nutritional assessment and enteral support 387

surements concern circumferences (mid upper arm,

calf, abdominal), skin fold thickness, and lower leg

length (knemometry).

Weight

Weight is the most important parameter for nu-

tritional assessment of the critically ill child; there-

fore, it is a gold standard [1]. The assessment of

weight in this group is not easy and changes in weight

cannot be ascribed only to growth, because edema

plays an important role. In our practice we propose

assessing weight on admission and daily during the

PICU stay (except in chronically ill children) [3,8].

Length

Body length is difficult to measure and generally

is of limited value as a nutritional assessment tool on

the ICU, because changes in linear growth are hard

to point out over a short period of admission. For

newborn infants and children up to 24 months of

age, the lower leg length measure is a promising

method for measurement of short-term linear growth;

it consists of a heel-to-knee measurement (knemo-

metry) [9]. The tool is hand-held, can be used in-

side an incubator, and is less disruptive than making

length measurements.

Head circumference

Head circumference is another important aspect

of nutritional assessment in young children and

should be included in the initial assessment and

follow-up. In the PICU this parameter is used rarely;

however, on admission it could signal a history of

severe chronic malnutrition. Serial measurements

in neonates can aid in detecting the development

of malnutrition.

Body circumferences and skin fold thickness

Measurements of body circumferences (mid up-

per arm, calf, abdominal) and skin fold thickness

are anthropometric measurements that can provide

information on fat mass and fat-free mass. Mid upper

arm circumference (MUAC) is a measure of muscle,

fat, and bone. It has been used as an index of mal-

nutrition in rapid nutritional surveys when weight and

length measurements were not feasible. We advocate

measuring the MUAC in all children because it is

simple to perform on admission and follow-up and

it is an easy screening tool for malnutrition.

Feasibility of anthropometry. One has to take into

account that the feasibility to perform anthropomet-

ric measurements decreases with the severity of dis-

ease. The feasibility to perform anthropometric

measurements routinely was investigated. For weight,

35% of ventilated children were weighed on admis-

sion; 84% of all children who were in the PICU for

more than 48 hours were weighed [3,8]. This knowl-

edge underlines the need for a patient-tailored ap-

proach in which measurements can be performed in

the individual patient to detect malnutrition.

Indirect calorimetry

Measuring energy expenditure allows for a more

accurate monitoring of the child’s varying energy

needs in the course of critical illness. Clinically, the

measurement of energy expenditure by indirect calo-

rimetry (IC) is applicable in critical care, and is more

accurate than estimating individual energy expendi-

ture from standard prediction equations. IC provides

noninvasive, reliable, repeatable, and affordable mea-

surements of actual energy expenditure (resting

energy expenditure in nonventilated children and

ista & joosten388

total daily energy expenditure in ventilated children)

and the respiratory quotient (RQ).

RQ is a helpful parameter in nutritional assess-

ment because it has been considered important in

evaluating substrate use or nutritional support and in

determining overfeeding and underfeeding [10,11].

Table 2 shows the RQ values related to the feeding

status used in clinical practice. An RQ of greater

than 1 indicates overfeeding, which most of the time

is due to carbohydrate overfeeding; therefore, atten-

tion should be focused on the carbohydrate intake.

In the critically ill child, quantification of energy

expenditure also is important from the diagnostic

standpoint because it allows the detection of hyper- or

hypometabolic conditions that are related directly to

the individual prognosis. The greatest advantage of

using IC is to design a nutrition regimen that exactly

meets the patient’s energy requirements and avoids

the complications of overfeeding [12].

The IC in the ICU is valuable because not much

other information is available for approximating

the needs of the critically ill child [1]. IC to deter-

mine energy requirements is being used widely as a

research tool. In most ICUs, limited space at the

bedside, the cost of multiple metabolic carts, and the

availability of trained staff to operate them limit its

routine use.

For the practical use of IC in critically ill chil-

dren, accurate measurement requires the follow-

ing conditions:

� Fraction of inspired oxygen of less than 0.60� Tube leakage of less than 10%. Tube leakage

is determined by comparison of inspired and

expired tidal volumes measured by the ventila-

tor, assuming that there are no other leaks in the

patient–ventilator circuit.

In one investigation, the feasibility of routine use

of IC performed by the nursing staff was studied;

it was possible in 70% to 80% of the eligible

mechanically ventilated children [3,8].

Taken together, nutritional assessment is impor-

tant in providing optimal care to critically ill children.

A simple and integrated nutrition screening should

Table 2

Feeding status related to respiratory quotient

Feeding status Respiratory quotient

Underfeeding < 0.85

Adequate feeding 0.85–1.0

Overfeeding > 1.0

be part of the admission procedure in the ICU. It

has to be followed by an individual calculation of

macro- and micronutrient needs. In addition, nutri-

tional assessment should be repeated regularly to

monitor changes in nutritional status, diagnoses, or

conditions that might put the child at nutritional

risk, and to monitor the efficacy of nutritional sup-

port. Fig. 1 shows a standard of nutritional assess-

ment for the PICU population.

Nutritional support

The most important element in nutritional sup-

port in the intensive care setting is to have a stan-

dard feeding protocol in which three issues should

be considered:

� When to feed: indications for nutritional support� What to feed: composition of nutritional for-

mula and enteral feeding� How to feed: how to administer EN

Application of such a protocol is the most im-

portant step in treating the malnourished patient in

the ICU. The working group on nutrition and metabo-

lism of the European Society of Intensive Care Medi-

cine published a practical approach in 1998 for EN

for adult patients in the ICU [13]. These recommen-

dations consisted of the supply of macronutrients,

micronutrients, and immunomodulating agents, and

recommendations for feeding and organ dysfunction,

feeding preparations, and conditioning and routes of

feeding. Such a practical approach has not been pub-

lished for critically ill children; however, the concept

of this working group should be translated for the

critically ill child.

When to feed: indications for nutritional support

For assessing the total nutritional status of a pa-

tient, several parameters have to be evaluated. Souba

[14] stated that identification of the malnourished

adult patient at risk is important because besides estab-

lished indications for the use of nutritional support,

there is a list of unproven indications that requires

further study. There are accepted guidelines for the

time to start additional nutritional support for the

adult patient who has a severe illness; these consist

of items, such as the duration of the catabolic state,

days without nutrition, and the presence of mal-

nutrition on admission [15].

Compared with adults, children have less physio-

logic reserves of fat and protein and increased energy

Initial nutritional screening in all children on admission

Term neonates and older children with poor nutritional statusat admission or at high risk*

Anthropometry

(evaluation of nutritional risk)

Weight (SDS)Length (SDS), if possibleHead circumference (SDS)Primary diagnosisIllness severity score (PRISM, PIM, CRIB)Presence of comorbiditiesSurgery neededExpected duration of mechanical ventilationExpected length of ICU-stay

Weight

Indirect calorimetry - ASAP after adm, 2x/ wk thereafter(to adjust intake)

Alternative: 0.5-1.0*RDA

Daily calculation of nutrient intake compared to prescribed intake (energy and protein)⇒interruptions?

Daily calculation of actual energy intake compared to estimated/measured EE ⇒ deficits?

Evaluation of RQ (2x/ wk): RQ > 1.0 ⇒ decrease carbohydrate or energy intake; RQ < 0.85 increase intake

Weekly calculation of cumulative energy and protein deficits in relation to growth/anthropometry

- twice a week†

- biweekly- adm, weekly- adm, weekly- adm, weekly

HC (< 1 y)MUAC/CCKHL (< 2 y)TSF

Energy requirements

LOS < 48 h LOS > 48 h

No furtherassessment

Adjustmentof intake

Fig. 1. Proposed standard of nutritional assessment in the pediatric ICU population. Adapted from Hulst JM. Nutritional

assessment of critically ill children: the search for practical tools [master’s thesis]. Rotterdam (The Netherlands): Erasmus

University; 2004; with permission.

Abbreviations: Adm, admission; ASAP, as soon as possible; CC, calf circumference; CRIB, Clinical Risk Index for Babies;

EE, energy expenditure; HC, head circumference; LFA, length for age; KHL, knee-heel length; LOS, length of stay; MUAC,

mild upper arm circumference; PIM, Pediatric Index of Mortality; PRISM, Pediatric Risk of Mortality; RQ, respiratory quotient;

SDS, standard deviation score; TSF, triceps skin fold; WFA, Weight for age; WFL, Weight for length.

* poor nutritional status: WFA-SDS or LFA-SDS or WFL-SDS <�2; risk groups: prolonged expected ICU-stay, prolonged

duration of mechanical ventilation, children undergoing surgery, children with underlying growth-affecting disease such as

children with major congenital malformations, cardiac anomalies, cystic fibrosis, Inflammatory bowel disease, HIV-infection.

y depending on age of child.

picu nutritional assessment and enteral support 389

expenditure; therefore, children are at increased risk

for malnutrition [16]. Furthermore, it seems appro-

priate to start nutritional support as soon as possible

because children are in a state of growth, develop-

ment, and organ maturation.

What to feed: composition of nutritional formulas

Current recommendations for nutritional support

in critically ill pediatric patients are not based on

randomized trials with feeding intervention studies.

Knowledge concerning substrate intake and substrate

use can be derived from adult studies and studies

concerning primarily surgically treated newborn

infants. Knowledge concerning energy expenditure

can be derived from a few studies of mechanically

ventilated children; however, some important con-

clusions can be drawn from these studies:

� There is a significant discrepancy between mea-

sured energy expenditure compared with calcu-

lated energy expenditure using predictive equations� The total daily energy requirements can be higher

or lower than values of resting energy expendi-

ista & joosten390

ture but in general the total daily energy re-

quirements of the critically ill child will be

lower than the total daily energy requirements

for healthy children� There is a considerable risk for overfeeding in

the critically ill child for carbohydrate, fat and

protein [11,17]� There might be an individual maximum of oxi-

dative capacity for carbohydrate, fat and protein� Carbohydrate overfeeding can be determined by

measuring the respiratory quotient; an RQ of

more than 1.0 indicates overfeeding.� Fat overfeeding can be determined by measur-

ing plasma triglycerides levels or comparing fat

intake with fat use.� Protein needs can be determined by measuring

urinary nitrogen excretion [11,18].� Protein retention can be increased by a balanced

glucose/fat solution [19].� There might be an optimal nonprotein calorie:

nitrogen ratio to enhance protein retention.

Energy requirements

The reference method to evaluate the energy need

is IC. Some factors (eg, fever, injury, dialysis) cause

an increase in energy expenditure, whereas other

factors (eg, sedation or relaxation, decreased work of

breathing, decreased loss of heat during mechanical

ventilation) cause a decrease of energy expenditure.

A pragmatic estimate of energy requirements is

given in Table 3, based on a percentage of the rec-

ommended daily allowances of healthy children.

For growth of the infant for each 1 gram growth,

4 kcal growth should be added. One should account

for 10% to 15% loss of energy when enteral feeding

is supplied.

Protein requirements

The method to evaluate the protein need is to

calculate urinary nitrogen excretion. Protein need can

Table 3

Nutrition schedule of early enteral feeding protocol

Age Type of feedinga

0–1 months Nutrilon / breast milk

1–12 months Infatrini / breast milk

1–6 years Nutrini multi fiber

7–12 years Tentrini multi fiber

>12 years Nutrison multi fiber

a Nutricia, Zoetermeer, The Netherlands.

range from 1 g/kg/d to 4 g/kg/d in the severely ill

child. A recommendation is to start with enteral or

parenteral protein of 1 g/kg/d, and to increase the

amount depending on the need and level of blood

urea. Proteins that are administered with fresh frozen

plasma should not be taken into account. Standard

enteral formulas can be administered because there

is no evidence to use protein diet formulas.

Glucose requirements

Enteral or parenteral glucose should be admin-

istered at 4 to 6 mg/kg/min, depending on the se-

verity of disease and the tolerance of the patient.

The method to evaluate carbohydrate overfeeding is

measuring a respiratory quotient with IC or to

determine serum hyperglycemia or glucosuria. Insu-

lin therapy is started for hyperglycemia, depending

on the duration and the diagnosis, according to the

current guidelines of intensive insulin therapy in

adults [20].

Fat requirements

In general, the parenteral fat intake is less than

the enteral fat intake because there is a maximum

capacity to hydrolyze the administered parenteral fat

emulsions. Furthermore, the absorption of enteral fat

is 80% to 90%. When parenteral feeding, a low

amount of fat—0.5 g/kg/d—is started in the acute

phase of illness because of the risk of fat overload-

ing. In general, a least 2% to 3% of calories should

be linoleic acid to prevent fatty acid deficiency. The

method to evaluate fat overload is to measure plasma

triglycerides; fat intake should be adjusted depend-

ing on this level. The fat intake can be increased

gradually to between 3 g/kg/d and 4 g/kg/d. When

enteral feeding is supplied, fat in the amount of

1 g/kg/d to 1.5 g/kg/d should be given initially.

This amount can be increased gradually to between

7 g/kg/d and 8 g/kg/d in small infants and to be-

tween 3 g/kg/d and 4 g/kg/d in older children.

Amount of feeding

Day 1 - half of

RDA (kcal/kg/d)

Day 2 - total

RDA (kcal/kg/d)

50 100

47–100 95–100

46 92

35–42 70–84

25–30 49–60

Table 4

Amount of ice water

Age child Ice water

0–6 months 5 ml

6–12 months 10 ml

> 1 year 1 ml/kg

picu nutritional assessment and enteral support 391

How to feed: administration of enteral nutrition

Although nutrition can be provided to critically ill

children enterally or parenterally, the enteral route

is preferred if there are no contraindications [21]. EN is

the preferred method of nutritional support for

pediatric patients when the gastrointestinal tract can

by used. Advantages of EN are convenience, safety,

and low cost. EN also is important in maintaining

gastrointestinal mucosal integrity and immunologic

function that may prevent bacterial translocation and

multisystem organ failure in critically ill children [22].

Gastric and duodenal/jejunal feedings are the primary

routes for EN administration in critically ill children.

Gastric tubes usually are placed easily by bedside

nurses with fewer complications. Nasoduodenal feeding

tubes are recommended to reduce the risk of aspira-

tion in the presence of delayed gastric emptying or re-

flux [22], and is a safe ‘‘way’’ when continuous enteral

feeding of mechanically ventilated children is given.

Many strategies have been developed to increase

the success rate for placement of feeding tubes in

the small bowel/duodenum. Spalding and colleagues

[23] tested the effectiveness of gastric insufflation as

an adjunct to the placement of feeding tubes in the

small bowel compared with the standard insertion

technique. The investigators assumed that gastric in-

sufflation is a technique for bedside insertion of a

transpyloric feeding tube. Determination of tube po-

sition was done by a radiographic method. Other

studies demonstrated that the transpyloric placement

of feeding tubes using pH sensing is successful, but

specialized equipment is required [24,25]. Chellis and

colleagues described their experience with bedside

placement method using metoclopramide (0.1 mg/kg,

intravenously). Transpyloric placement was con-

firmed by absence of blue dye in nasogastric secre-

tions as well as by an abdominal radiograph [26].

In the PICU at Sophia Children’s Hospital, Rotter-

dam, The Netherlands, enteral feeding is given by a

transpyloric route (duodenal feeding tube) in mechani-

cally ventilated critically ill children. Transpyloric

feeding was easy to establish within 24 hours after

admission in most (44/46 [95%]) of the mechani-

cally ventilated children of various ages and with

various diseases [8] using a standard protocol.

The protocol for inserting a transpyloric feeding

tube is as described:

A 6, 8, or 10 French enteral feeding tube of ap-

propriate size for each patient is used.

Before insertion, the length of tubing needed to

reach the stomach and the fourth part of the

duodenum is determined.

The tube is placed in the stomach and the position is

confirmed by injection of air with auscultation.

Children are positioned right side down.

Before the feeding tube is advanced to the pre-

determined length, ice water is inserted to stimu-

late pyloric opening. The amount of ice water is

related to the age of the patient (Table 4).

The position of a transpyloric feeding tube is

determined by the use of a pH stick; if the pH

is between 7.0 and 8.0 it can be concluded that

the feeding tube is located transpyloric.

If this method is not successful after two attempts

with ice water, erythromycin (10 mg/kg) is

administrated intravenously for 30 minutes.

Directly after infusion of erythromycin, a new

attempt is executed. The use of erythromycin

can be helpful in stimulating pyloric opening.

The bedside placement of pH-guided transpyloric

small bowel feeding tubes can be done by nurses. In

addition, it is a low cost method for determining the

location of the feeding tube tip. Both of these are

considered advantages of this particular method. If

it is not possible to feed transpyloricly, continuous

gastric feeding will be started and gastric motility

agents (eg, motilium) will be added; however, it is

not possible to give all patients EN. Gastric retention,

diarrhea, and abdominal distention can limit the use

of enteral feeding. If possible, the enteral route of

feeding should be used, even with small amounts,

unless it is absolutely contraindicated (eg, bowel ob-

struction, intractable diarrhea).

Early enteral nutrition

Zaloga and Roberts [27] reviewed the results of

early EN in animal and human adult studies. Animal

studies showed that early EN improved gut blood

flow and gut mass, diminished the invasiveness of gut

bacteria, protected the liver and prevented injury

during shock, improved protein synthesis and the rate

of wound healing, and increased survival after critical

illness. More importantly, prospective, randomized

trials in humans have indicated that early EN im-

proved outcome during critical illness.

ista & joosten392

Studies in premature and low birth-weight infants

found that the lack of enteral feeding may result in

an absence of the natural stimulus for growth of the

intestinal mucosa, as well as diminished production

of intestinal mucins, which acts as a barrier to bac-

terial translocation [28]. Further proof of the efficacy

and safety of early enteral feeds was given in the

form of case reports and case series of burn patients

[29,30]. Chellis and colleagues performed a study

in 42 critically ill children to evaluate the feasibility

and safety of early enteral feedings. All patients were

able to achieve caloric goals within 48 hours of

beginning enteral feedings, and there were no docu-

mented complications, such as aspiration or abdomi-

nal distention [31]. A more recent retrospective study

in 95 critically ill children showed that it was possi-

ble to start EN within 24 hours after admission in

most children [32]. A limitation of both of these

studies was the use of retrospective chart review for

data collection.

A recent prospective analysis examined the use

of an early enteral feeding protocol in critically ill

children who were hemodynamically stable and who

had not undergone abdominal surgery. The aim of

the enteral feeding protocol was to feed critically ill

children within 2 days after admission according to

the total recommended daily energy intake (RDA)

for healthy children. The type and amount of enteral

feeding were based on the age category and weight

of the child (see Table 3). On day 1 of admission,

enteral feeding is started at 50% of the total RDA

and increased to 100% of RDA on day 2. With

this protocol, on day 1 and day 2, 90% and 89%,

respectively, of the children received the type of

feeding according to the protocol. In 10% and 11%

of the cases, respectively, the caregivers deviated

from the standard because of nutrition intolerance

and logistical problems. Concerning the amount of

the enteral feeding, on day 1 and day 2, 84% and 78%

of the children, respectively, received the amount

according to the protocol [8].

Despite the enthusiasm about enteral feeding, it

is not possible to give all critically ill children the

maximum required amount of enteral feeding accord-

ing to RDA. Barriers for the adequacy of nutri-

tional support in critically ill children are restriction

of fluid intake, clinical interventions (extubation),

administration of medications, gastrointestinal intol-

erance, and mechanical complications with the

enteral feeding tube [32–34].

Enteral feeding in critically all children should be

started as soon as possible. If critically ill children

are hemodynamically stabilized—even if high doses

of inotropics are necessary—small amounts of en-

teral feeding can be started. Because critically ill

children suffer from gastric dysmotility and empty-

ing difficulties, transpyloric tube feeding is the pre-

ferred route.

Total parenteral feeding is indicated when the

gastric– intestinal tract is nonfunctional, when it is

impossible to obtain enteral access, or when EN alone

is not able to meet the child’s energy requirements.

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