Notes - link.springer.com978-1-4039-7380-1/1.pdf · Notes Preface and Acknowledgments 1. Antonio Benítez-Rojo, The Repeating Island: The Caribbean and the Postmodern Perspective.Trans

Notes

Preface and Acknowledgments

1. Antonio Benítez-Rojo, The Repeating Island: The Caribbean and the PostmodernPerspective. Trans. James Maraniss (Durham, NC and London: Duke UniversityPress, 1992), p. 175.

2. Edward Soja and Barbara Hooper, “The Spaces That Difference Makes: SomeNotes on the Geographical Margins of the New Cultural Politics,” in Place andthe Politics of Identity, Michael Keith and Steve Pike (eds.) (London and NewYork: Routledge, 1993), p. 184. Emphasis is in the original.

3. David E. Johnson, “The Time of Translation: The Border of AmericanLiterature,” in Border Theory: The Limits of Cultural Politics, Scott Michaelsenand David E. Johnson (eds.) (Minneapolis and London: University ofMinnesota Press, 1997), p. 153.

Chapter 1 Introduction: Point Counterpoint

1. Freddy Prestol Castillo, El Masacre se pasa a pie (Santo Domingo: Ediciones de Taller, 1989), p. 49. The translation of this quote is mine, as are all othertranslations of quotes from the original French or Spanish except for those otherwise indicated under “Notes” and “Bibliography.”

2. Manuel del Cabral, Obra Poética Completa de Manuel del Cabral (SantoDomingo: Editora Alfa y Omega, 1987), pp. 486–8.

3. The first quote is from Carlos Augusto Sánchez i Sánchez, El caso domínico-haitiano (Ciudad Trujillo: Editora Montalvo, 1958), p. 3; the second from J. Marino Incháustegui,“Relaciones entre España, Santo Domingo y Haití,” EmeEme V.26 (September–October 1976, dated “Madrid, 1965”), p. 42.

4. David Howard, Dominican Republic in focus: a guide to the people, politics andculture (New York: Interlink Books, 1999), p. 7.

5. Michele Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight: Dominicans, Haitians, and the Strugglefor Hispaniola (New York: Hill & Wang, 1999), p. 13.

6. María Elena Muñoz, Las Relaciones Domínico-Haitianas: Geopolítica yMigración (Santo Domingo: Editora Alfa & Omega, 1995), p. 209.

7. Alan Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella: The Dominican Republic in Historical andCultural Perspective (Armonk, NY and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), p. 148.

8. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 33.9. Paul Farmer, The Uses of Haiti (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press,

1994), p. 56.10. Gérard Pierre-Charles, “Presentación,” in Política y sociología en Haití y la

República Dominicana. Coloquio Domínico-Haitiano de Ciencias Sociales, SuzyCastor, André Corten, Lil Despradel, Gérard Pierre-Charles, et al. (eds.) (Mexico:Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de InvestigacionesSociales, 1974), p. 10.

11. Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, “Haiti: Perspectives of Foreign Policy; An Essay on the International Relations of a Small State,” Caribbean Quarterly(September–December, 1974): 21–38, pp. 32–3. Also, Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, In the Shadow of Powers: Dantes Bellegarde in Haitian Social Thought(Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1985), p. 107, from which thequote is taken.

12. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy ofDuvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), p. 230. Emphasis is inthe original.

13. On the formación de la frontera, see Frank Moya Pons, Manual de HistoriaDominicana, 10th edn. (Santo Domingo: Caribbean Publishers, 1995),pp. 143ff. Of interest may be the fact that Pierre-Charles formerly supportedHaitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide but, at the time of writing, repre-sents Convergence Democratique, the 15-party coalition that has opposedLavalas and contested the elections that restored Aristide to the presidency.

14. See David E. Johnson and Scott Michaelson (eds.), Border Theory(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), p. 2.

15. Pedro Mir, Las dos patrias de Santo Domingo, tesis acerca de la división políticade la isla en dos naciones (Santo Domingo: Editora Cultura Dominicana,1975).

16. Franklin J. Franco, Santo Domingo: cultura, política e ideología (SantoDomingo: Editora Nacional, 1974), p. 7.

17. Franco, Santo Domingo, p. 8.18. Muñoz, Las Relaciones Domínico-Haitianas, p. 114.19. The concept of insularity gained visibility in the 1934 study of Antonio S.

Pedreira, Insularismo: Ensayos de interpretación puertorriqueña. Presenting anelitist interpretation of Puerto Rico’s economic and cultural crisis during theinter-war period, Pedreira’s book blamed the island’s problems on the passiv-ity and backwardness of its peasant majority, the jíbaros, whose vices Pedreiraattributed to racial mixing and climatological factors. Cited in Ernesto Sagás,Race and Politics in the Dominican Republic (Gainesville, FL: University Pressof Florida, 2000), p. 120.

20. Otto Bauer, The Austrian Revolution, trans. H. J. Stenning (New York: BurtFranklin, 1970).

21. See Otto Bauer, The Austrian Revolution; cited in Rafael Emilio Yunén Z., LaIsla Como Es: Hipótesis Para Su Comprobación (Santiago de los Caballeros,

218 NOTES

Dominican Republic: Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, ColecciónEstudios, 1985), p. 188.

22. Sagás, Race and Politics, p. 116.23. Jean Price-Mars, La République d’Haïti et la République Dominicaine. Les

aspects divers d’un problème d’histoire, de géographie et d’ethnologie, V.1 (Port-au-Prince: Collection du Tricinquantenaire de l’Indépendance d’Haïti, 1953),p. 165.

24. Elizabeth Abbott, Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy (New York, London,Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo, and Singapore: Simon & Schuster, 1988), p. 162.

25. Farmer, The Uses of Haiti, p. 294.26. From José Ricardo Roques Martínez, El problema fronterizo domínico-haitiano

(Santo Domingo: La Cuna de América, n.d.), p. 3; and Roberto Cassá, “Elracismo en la ideología de las clases dominantes dominicanas,” Revista CienciaIII.1 (January–March 1976), pp. 64–5; quoted in José Alcántara Almánzar,Narrativa y sociedad en Hispanoamérica (Santo Domingo: Editora Corripio,1984), pp. 36–7n.3.

27. Edward Soja and Barbara Hooper, “The Spaces That Difference Makes: SomeNotes on the Geographical Margins of the New Cultural Politics,” in Place and the Politics of Identity, Michael Keith and Steve Pike (eds.) (London andNew York: Routledge, 1993), p. 198.

28. David E. Johnson, “The Time of Translation: The Border of AmericanLiterature,” in Border Theory: The Limits of Cultural Politics, Scott Michaelsenand David E. Johnson (eds.) (Minneapolis and London: University ofMinnesota Press, 1997), p. 132.

29. Manuel Rueda, La criatura terrestre (Santo Domingo: Editora Taller, 1987[1963]), p. 25.

30. Richard L. Morrill, The Spatial Organization of Society (Belmont, CA:Wadworth Publishing Co., 1970), p. 19.

31. José del Castillo, “Demografía de la inmigración haitiana,” in Ensayos de socio-logía dominicana (Santo Domingo: Ediciones Siboney, Taller, 1984), p. 178.

32. Carlos Esteban Deive, Diccionario de Dominicanismos (Santo Domingo:Politecnia Ediciones, 1986), p. 79; Ramón Francisco, “Macaraos del cielo,macaraos de la tierra. El hombre, sus dioses, sus creencias,” in De tierra morenavengo. Imágenes del hombre dominicano y su cultura, 2nd edn., Soledad Alvarez(ed.) (Santo Domingo: Editora Corripio, 1987), pp. 119–55.

33. Francisco, “Macaraos del cielo,” pp. 121, 125.34. Margarite Fernández Olmos, “Trans-Caribbean Identity and the Fictional

World of Mayra Montero,” in Sacred Possessions: Vodou, Santería, Obeah, andthe Caribbean, Margarite Fernández Olmos and Lizabeth Paravisini-Gebert(eds.) (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997), p. 272.

35. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 213; cf. p. 216.36. See José Alcántara Almanzar, Los escritores dominicanos y la cultura (Santo

Domingo: Editora Amigo del Hogar, 1990), p. 168.37. Cf. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 10.

NOTES 219

38. Hubert Herring, with the assistance of Helen Baldwin Herring, A History ofLatin America from the Beginnings to the Present, 3rd edn. (New York: AlfredA. Knopf, 1968), p. 427.

39. Carolyn E. Fick, The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution fromBelow (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1990), p. 56.

40. José Alcántara Almánzar, Estudios de poesía dominicana (Santo Domingo:Editora Alfa y Omega, 1979), p. 324.

41. Franklin J. Franco, La Aportación de los Negros (Santo Domingo: EditorialNacional, 1967), pp. 5, 28; quoted in Bruno Rosario Candelier, “Poesía negraen Santo Domingo,” El Nacional de ¡Ahora! Suplemento Cultural de 30 Abril1972, p. 2.

42. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 28.43. See Morrill, The Spatial Organization, p. 16.44. Jan Rogozinski, A Brief History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the

Carib to the Present (New York: Penguin Books, 1994), p. 5; Rosaline NgCheong-Lum, Haiti (New York, London and Sydney: Marshall Cavendish,1995), pp. 8–9.

45. See Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 20.46. Selden Rodman, Quisqueya: A History of the Dominican Republic (Seattle:

University of Washington Press, 1964), p. 191.47. Thomas E. Weil, Jan Knippers Black, Howard I. Blustein, Kathryn T.

Hongston, David S. McMorris, and Frederick P. Munson, Haiti: A CountryStudy (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982 [researchcompleted February 1973]), p. 6.

48. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 191.49. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 241.50. See Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 23.51. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 28.52. See Morrill, The Spatial Organization, p. 18.53. Figures from Population Reference Bureau, 1998, and Caroline Rayner (ed.),

Encyclopedic World Atlas, compiled by Richard Widdows (New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 1996); cited in David Howard, Coloring the Nation: Race andEthnicity in the Dominican Republic (Oxford: Signal Books and Boulder, CO:Lynne Rienner, 2001), p. 2.

54. Andrés Corten, El estado débil: Haití, República Dominicana. Trans. CeciliaMillán and rev. Pilar Espaillat (Santo Domingo: Editora Taller, 1993), p. 129.

55. Paul Goodwin, Jr., Global Studies: Latin America, 6th edn. (Guilford, CT:The Dushkin Publishing Group, 1994), p. 124; Tom Barry, Beth Wood, andDeb Preusch, The Other Side of Paradise: Foreign Control in the Caribbean(New York: Grove Press, 1984), p. 330.

56. See Morrill, The Spatial Organization, p. 12.57. Goodwin, Global Studies, pp. 120, 124.58. See Sánchez i Sánchez, El caso domínico-haitiano, pp. 31, 32, 34, 39.59. Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism: Or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism

(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), p. 12.

220 NOTES

60. In this way it partakes of the abstract corporeality that Antonio Benítez-Rojoevokes in his chaos theory-inspired The Repeating Island: The Caribbean andthe Postmodern Perspective, trans. James Maraniss (Durham, NC and London:Duke University Press, 1992). For Benítez-Rojo, the insular “machine ofmachines” is reiterated in island after island. That is, like fractal patterns,the power of the plantation and the trope of syncretism are mirrored againand again on ever-widening scales throughout the archipelago, and we are reminded that the very word archipelago derives from the Greek archos �pelagos, first applied to the Aegean as a sea of many islands, meaning “original sea.”

61. James Ridgeway (ed.), The Haiti Files: Decoding the Crisis (Washington, D.C.:Essential Books/Azul Editions, 1994), p. 1.

Chapter 2 Limits of Colonialism, 1492–1750

1. Frank Moya Pons, Manual de Historia Dominicana, 10th edn. (SantoDomingo: Caribbean Publishers, 1995), p. 143.

2. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 54–5.3. Franklin J. Franco, Santo Domingo: Cultura, Política e Ideología (Santo

Domingo: Editora Nacional, 1974), p. 120.4. Rondo Cameron, A Concise Economic History of the World: From Paleolithic

Times to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); quoted inCarlos Fuentes, El espejo enterrado (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica,1992), p. 223.

5. Fuentes, El espejo enterrado, pp. 63, 66, 71, 72, 78.6. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 41, 42.7. Juan Bosch, Composición Social Dominicana. Historia e Interpretación,

16th edn. (Santo Domingo: Alfa y Omega, 1988 [1968]), pp. 56, 81.8. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 51–3, 215.9. Selden Rodman, Quisqueya: A History of the Dominican Republic (Seattle:

University of Washington Press, 1964), p. 23.10. Alan Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella: The Dominican Republic in Historical

and Cultural Perspective (Armonk, NY and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1997),p. 76.

11. Fradique Lizardo, Cultura africana en Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo: Taller,1979), pp. 43, 47–8.

12. Franklin J. Franco, Los negros, los mulatos y la nación dominicana (SantoDomingo: Editora Nacional, 1970), p. 121; Andrés Corten, El estado débil:Haití, República Dominicana, trans. Cecilia Millán and rev. Pilar Espaillat(Santo Domingo: Editora Taller, 1993), p. 30.

13. See Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, pp. 78, 107–8.14. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 36.15. Samuel Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and Present; with a Glance at Hayti

(Santo Domingo: Editora de Santo Domingo, 1974; reprint of the original,published New York: Harper & Brothers, 1873), p. 189.

NOTES 221

16. See J. Marino Incháustegui, “Relaciones entre España, Santo Domingo yHaití,” Eme Eme V.26 (September–October 1976, dated with the note “Madrid,1965”), p. 40.

17. Corten, El estado débil, p. 29.18. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 59–60.19. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, pp. 69–70.20. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 59–60.21. Bosch, Composición, pp. 56, 81.22. Ramón Francisco, “Macaraos del cielo, macaraos de la tierra. El hombre, sus

dioses, sus creencias,” in De tierra morena vengo. Imágenes del hombre domini-cano y su cultura, 2nd edn., Soledad Alvarez (ed.) (Santo Domingo: EditoraCorripio, 1987), p. 120.


24. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 59–60.25. Bosch, Composición, p. 67.26. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 65, 103.27. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 31.28. Tirso Mejía Ricart, “Haití en la Formación de la Nacionalidad Dominicana,”

Eme Eme XIV.79 (July–August 1985), p. 65.29. Hazard, Santo Domingo, p. 65.30. Mejía Ricart, “Haití,” p. 65.31. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 61.32. Rodman, Quisqueya, pp. 27–8.33. Corten, El estado débil, p. 29.34. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 31.35. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 22.36. See Mejía Ricart, “Haití,” p. 63.37. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 68. See also Jean Price-Mars, La République d’Haïti et

la République Dominicaine. Les aspects divers d’un problème d’histoire, de géo-graphie et d’ethnologie, V.1 (Port-au-Prince: Collection du Tricinquantenairede l’Indépendance d’Haïti, 1953), p. 16.

38. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 68. See also Price-Mars, La République, V.1, p. 16.39. Marcio Veloz Maggiolo, Sobre cultura dominicana y otras culturas (ensayos)

(Santo Domingo: Editora Alfa y Omega, 1977), p. 12.40. Veloz Maggiolo, Sobre cultura dominicana, p. 12.41. Hazard, Santo Domingo, p. 87.42. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 68.43. Miguel Alberto Román, Compay Chano (Ciudad Trujillo: Editorial El Caribe,

1949), p. 23n.44. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 92–3, 95.45. That is, had not Ogeron’s untimely death prevented him from taking over the

Spanish portion at that juncture. Rodman, Quisqueya, pp. 21–2.46. Corten, El estado débil, p. 29.

222 NOTES

47. On this history of the French incursions, see Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 80–111.48. See Franco, Los negros, pp. 126–7.49. The intention of the authorities was to “utilize the Canarians as a living

border that, in defending their newly acquired lands, would at the same timedefend the Colony against the French” (Moya Pons, Manual, p. 109).

50. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 107–9, 111, 143–4.51. Mejía Ricart, “Haití,” p. 64.52. Thomas E. Weil, Jan Knippers Black, Howard I. Blutstein, Kathryn T. Honston,

David S. McMorris, and Frederick P. Munson, Haiti: A Country Study(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982 [research completed February 1973]), p. 29.

53. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 113.54. Lizardo, Cultura africana, pp. 55, 61. Against the proclivity toward another

kind of marronage, Toussaint L’Ouverture will launch his campaign to elimi-nate “vagabondage,” instituting compulsory labor on the restored plantations.See Corten, El estado débil, p. 30.

55. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 116, 122.56. Mejía Ricart, “Haití,” p. 68.57. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 122–3.58. Lizardo, Cultural africana, p. 102.59. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 135, 148.60. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 72. See also p. 99, where Cambeira refers to

the two groups as “enclaves” composing one extra-legal group that “elected tooperate their affairs, their lives outside the restrictive margin of colonial orderand management.”

61. Mejía Ricart, “Haití,” p. 63.

Chapter 3 The Great Opening, 1751–1801

1. Marx V. Aristide and Laurie Richardson, “Haiti’s Popular Resistance,” in TheHaiti Files: Decoding the Crisis, James Ridgeway (ed.) (Washington, D.C.:Essential Books/Azul Editions, 1994), p. 65.

2. C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San DomingoRevolution, 2nd rev. edn. (New York: Vintage Books, 1989), p. 89.

3. See Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford UniversityPress, 1990), p. 67.

4. Wilson Harris, Tradition, the Writer and Society: Essays (London and Port ofSpain: New Beacon, 1967), p. 45.


6. Carolyn E. Fick, The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution fromBelow (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1990), pp. 127–8.

7. Tirso Mejía Ricart, “Haití en la Formación de la Nacionalidad Dominicana,”Eme Eme XIV.79 (July–August 1985), p. 69.

NOTES 223

8. Martin Ros, Night of Fire: The Black Napoleon and the Battle for Haiti, trans.Karin Ford-Treep (New York: Sarpedon, 1994), p. 62.

9. Mejía Ricart, “Haití,” p. 68.10. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 149, 150, 152.11. Juan Bosch, Composición Social Dominicana. Historia e Interpretación,

16th edn. (Santo Domingo: Alfa y Omega, 1988 [1968]), p. 150.12. Elizabeth Abbott, Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy (New York, London,

Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo, and Singapore: Simon & Schuster, 1988), p. 11.13. Fradique Lizardo, Cultura africana en Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo: Taller,

1979), p. 62.14. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 57, 140.15. Samuel Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and Present; with a Glance at Hayti

(Santo Domingo: Editora de Santo Domingo, 1974; reprint of the original,published New York: Harper & Brothers, 1873), pp. 499, 506.

16. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 141.17. Fick, The Making of Haiti, pp. 51–2; 297n.20.18. Alan Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella: The Dominican Republic in Historical and

Cultural Perspective (Armonk, NY and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), pp. 113, 117.19. Bosch, Composición, pp. 159–60.20. Ros, Night of Fire, p. 12.21. See Rodman, Quisqueya: A History of the Dominican Republic (Seattle:

University of Washington Press, 1964), p. 31.22. Ros, Night of Fire, p. 11.23. Emilio Cordero Michel, La Revolución Haitiana y Santo Domingo (Santo

Domingo: Editorial Nacional, 1968), p. 22.24. Cordero Michel, La Revolución, pp. 17–19, 28–30, 32.25. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 167.26. Ros, Night of Fire, pp. 24, 26–7.27. Mejía Ricart, “Haití,” p. 70.28. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 33.29. Ros, Night of Fire, pp. 30, 34, 35, 49, 64, 66.30. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 36.31. See Jean Price-Mars, La République d’Haïti et la République Dominicaine. Les

aspects divers d’un problème d’histoire, de géographie et d’ethnologie, V.1 (Port-au-Prince: Collection du Tricinquantenaire de l’Indépendance d’Haïti, 1953),pp. 19, 21.

32. Ros, Night of Fire, p. 70.33. Cordero Michel, La Revolución, pp. 42–3.34. Fick, The Making of Haiti, p. 182.35. Ros, Night of Fire, pp. 72, 73, 85.36. Cordero Michel, La Revolución, p. 55.37. Quoted in Bosch, Composición, p. 175.38. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 36.39. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 170–1.40. Price-Mars, La République, V.2, p. 203.

224 NOTES

41. See Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 132.42. Ros, Night of Fire, p. 98.43. See Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 132.44. In Emilio Rodríguez Demorizi (ed.), Poesía Popular Dominicana, 2nd edn.

(Santiago: Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, 1973), p. 17; see alsoJoaquín Balaguer, La Isla Al Revés. Haití y el Destino Dominicano (SantoDomingo: Librería Dominicana, 1984 [1947]), p. 85n.33.

45. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 243.46. Ros, Night of Fire, p. 117.47. Robert Debs Heinl, Jr. and Nancy Gordon Heinl, Written in Blood: The Story

of the Haitian People, 1492–1995, 2nd edn., rev. and expanded by MichaelHeinl (Lanham, MD, New York, and London: University Press of America,1996), p. 87.

48. Pedro Mir, Las dos patrias de Santo Domingo, tesis acerca de la división políticade la isla en dos naciones (Santo Domingo: Editora Cultura Dominicana,1975), p. 39.

49. Ros, Night of Fire, pp. 118, 119, 120.50. Balaguer, La Isla, pp. 227–8.51. Ros, Night of Fire, p. 120.52. This was an important precedent: the 1816 constitution would echo the

earlier document in recognizing the Île d’Haïti as one united island.53. J. Marino Incháustegui, “Relaciones entre España, Santo Domingo y Haití,”

Eme Eme V.26 (September–October 1976, dated “Madrid, 1965”), p. 44.54. Ros, Night of Fire, p. 120.55. The university was reopened in 1815 but would be closed again during the

Haitian Domination of 1822–44.56. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 193–5.57. Mejía Ricart, “Haití,” p. 70.58. Mejía Ricart, “Haití,” p. 70.59. Fick, The Making of Haiti, p. 206.60. Price-Mars, La République, V.1, p. 26.61. Cordero Michel, La Revolución, pp. 58–9.62. Ros, Night of Fire, pp. 117–18.63. Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, Haiti: The Breached Citadel (Boulder, CO, San

Francisco, and London: Westview Press, 1990), p. 44.64. Quoted in Rosaline Ng Cheong-Lum, Haiti (New York, London, and Sydney:

Marshall Cavendish, 1995), p. 24.65. Price-Mars, La République, V.1, p. 31.66. Cordero Michel, La Revolución, pp. 100–1.67. Price-Mars, La République, V.2, pp. 325–6.

Chapter 4 Haiti and Santo Domingo, 1802–44

1. Máximo Aviles Blonda, Teatro. La Otra Estrella en el Cielo. Yo, Bertolt Brecht.Pirámide 179 (Santo Domingo: Editora del Caribe, Ediciones de la Sociedad

NOTES 225

de Autores y Compositores Dramáticos de la República Dominicana, 1968),p. 155.

2. Jean-Pierre Boyer in later years would join horizontal blue and red bands onthe flag as background to a national coat-of-arms. The colors would go backto black and red in 1964, as an affirmation of Haitian négritud during FrançoisDuvalier’s présidence-à-vie; and then, with the ouster of Jean-Claude Duvalierin 1986, back to the pre-Duvalier blue and red. Rosaline Ng Cheong-Lum,Haiti (New York, London, and Sydney: Marshall Cavendish, 1995), p. 34.

3. Juan Bosch, Composición Social Dominicana. Historia e Interpretación,16th edn. (Santo Domingo: Alfa y Omega, 1988 [1968]), p. 181.

4. Samuel Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and Present; with a glance at Hayti (SantoDomingo: Editora de Santo Domingo, 1974; reprint of the original, publishedNew York: Harper & Brothers, 1873), pp. 150–1.

5. Howard J. Wiarda and Michael J. Kryzanek, The Politics of External Influencein the Dominican Republic (New York: Praeger/Hoover Institution Press,1988), p. 27.


7. Robert Debs Heinl, Jr. and Nancy Gordon Heinl, Written in Blood: The Storyof the Haitian People, 1492–1995, 2nd edn., rev. and expanded by MichaelHeinl (Lanham, MD, New York, and London: University Press of America,1996), p. 104.

8. Alan Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella: The Dominican Republic in Historical andCultural Perspective (Armonk, NY and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), p. 138.

9. Emilio Cordero Michel, La Revolución Haitiana y Santo Domingo (SantoDomingo: Editorial Nacional, 1968), pp. 81–2, 96.


11. Jean Price-Mars, La République d’Haïti et la République Dominicaine. Lesaspects divers d’un problème d’histoire, de géographie et d’ethnologie, V.1 (Port-au-Prince: Collection du Tricinquantenaire de l’Indépendance d’Haïti,1953), p. 34.

12. See Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, pp. 141–2.13. Selden Rodman, Quisqueya: A History of the Dominican Republic (Seattle:

University of Washington Press, 1964), pp. 43–4.14. Cordero Michel, La Revolución, pp. 85–7.15. Hazard, Santo Domingo, p. 151.16. Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, Haiti: The Breached Citadel (Boulder, CO, San

Francisco, and London: Westview Press, 1990), p. 44.17. Bellegarde-Smith, Haiti, p. 51.18. Elizabeth Abbott, Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy (New York: Simon &

Schuster, 1988), p. 20.19. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of

Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), p. 106.

226 NOTES

20. Hazard, Santo Domingo, p. 152.21. Abbott, Haiti, p. 19.22. Bosch, Composición, p. 190.23. Cordero Michel, La Revolución, p. 80.24. Gordon K. Lewis, Main Currents in Caribbean Thought: The Historical

Evolution of Caribbean Society in Its Ideological Aspects 1492–1900 (Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), p. 285.

25. Price-Mars, La République, V.I, p. 208; V.2, p. 103n.1.26. Cordero Michel, La Revolución, p. 97.27. Hazard, Santo Domingo, p. 155.28. André Corten, El estado débil: Haití, República Dominicana (Santo Domingo:

Editora Taller, 1993), p. 31.29. Abbott, Haiti, p. 21.30. Abbott, Haiti, p. 24.31. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 140.32. Abbott, Haiti, pp. 18, 24.33. Bosch, Composición, p. 185.34. Bosch, Composición, pp. 198, 202–3.35. Rodman, Quisqueya, pp. 43–4.36. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 21.37. Cordero Michel, La Revolución, p. 106.38. Tirso Mejía Ricart, “Haití en la Formación de la Nacionalidad Dominicana,”

Eme Eme XIV.79 (July–August 1985), p. 71; see also José Alcántara Almánzar,Los escritores dominicanos y la cultura (Santo Domingo: Editora Amigo delHogar, Publicaciones del INTEC, Monografía 21, 1990), p. 173.

39. Hazard, Santo Domingo, pp. 156–7.40. Joaquín Balaguer, La Isla Al Revés. Haití y el Destino Dominicano (Santo

Domingo: Librería Dominicana, 1984 [1947]), p. 159.41. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 154n.12.42. Bosch, Composición, pp. 198, 202–3.43. José Alcántara Almánzar, Narrativa y sociedad en Hispanoamérica (Santo

Domingo: Editora Corripio, Ediciones del Instituto Tecnológico de SantoDomingo, 1984), p. 44.

44. Silvio Torres-Saillant, “The Dominican Republic,” No Longer Invisible: Afro-Latino Americans Today, Minority Rights Group (ed.) (London: MinorityRights Group, 1995); cited in David Howard, Coloring the Nation: Race andEthnicity in the Dominican Republic (Oxford: Signal Books and Boulder, CO:Lynne Rienner, 2001), p. 27.

45. Georges Rouma, L’Île de Saint-Domingue ou de Haïti (Brussels: Maison del’Amerique latine, 1939; an 8-page mimeographed copy in the library of theUniversidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo), pp. 1–2.

46. J. Marino Incháustegui, “Relaciones entre España, Santo Domingo y Haití,”Eme Eme V.26 (September–October 1976; dated “Madrid, 1965”), p. 45.

47. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 148.

NOTES 227

48. Price-Mars, La République, V.2, p. 169.49. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 219.50. Quoted in Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 149.51. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 38.52. Rayford Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (New York: Oxford

University Press, 1968), p. 32; quoted in Paul Farmer, The Uses of Haiti(Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1994), p. 79.

53. Quoted in Price-Mars, La République, V.1, pp. 141–2.54. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 229.55. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 47.56. Rafael Emilio Yunén Z., La Isla Como Es: Hipótesis Para Su Comprobación

(Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic: Universidad CatólicaMadre y Maestra, 1985), p. 146.

57. Franklin J. Franco, Los negros, los mulatos y la nación dominicana (SantoDomingo: Editora Nacional, 1970), pp. 130–1.

58. Franklin J. Franco, Santo Domingo: Cultura, Política e Ideología (SantoDomingo: Editora Nacional, 1974), p. 131.

59. Gérard Pierre-Charles, “Génesis de las Naciones Haitiana y Dominicana,” inPolítica y sociología en Haití y la República Dominicana. Coloquio Domínico-Haitiano de Ciencias Sociales, Suzy Castor, André Corten, Lil Despradel, andGérard Pierre-Charles (eds.) (Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma deMéxico, Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales, 1974), p. 37; Carlos EstebanDeive, Diccionario de Dominicanismos (Santo Domingo: Politecnia Ediciones,1986), p. 63.

60. Mejía Ricart, “Haití,” p. 72.61. Balaguer, La Isla al Revés, pp. 14, 15.62. Balaguer, La Isla al Revés, p. 188; Ramón Francisco, “Macaraos del cielo,

macaraos de la tierra. El hombre, sus dioses, sus creencias,” in De tierra morenavengo. Imágenes del hombre dominicano y su cultura, 2nd edn., Soledad Alvarez(ed.) (Santo Domingo: Editora Corripio, 1987), p. 120.

63. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 150.64. Balaguer, La Isla al Revés, p. 24.65. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 234.66. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, pp. 149–50.67. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 233.68. Bosch, Composición, pp. 241, 248.69. Hazard, Santo Domingo, pp. 165–7.70. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 240–1.71. Pierre-Charles, “Génesis,” p. 38.72. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 235.73. Rodman, Quisqueya, pp. 47–8.74. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 149.75. Mejía Ricart, “Haití,” p. 73.76. Rodman, Quisqueya, pp. 61–2.

228 NOTES

77. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 185. In 1842, American bishop Msgr.Joseph Rosati renewed the initiative by heading the effort to draw up a con-cordat satisfactory to both parties, but this occurred in the year in which Boyerwas deposed at the hands of his enemies, the dissatified mulattos, and so theendeavor to bond together the two portions of Hispaniola by ecclesiasticalmeans was frustrated.

78. Balaguer, La Isla al Revés, p. 28.79. Mejía Ricart, “Haiti,” p. 73.80. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 229–30.81. Hazard, Santo Domingo, p. 170.82. Bosch, Composición, p. 235.83. Franco, Santo Domingo, pp. 132–3; Moya Pons, Manual, p. 270.84. Abbott, Haiti, p. 24. From the movement at Praslin was spawned the mulatto-

led revolt, whose success was followed by the exile of Boyer and then a 15-yearperiod of regimes headed by noir generals: Philippe Guerrier, Louis Pierrot,Jean-Baptiste Riché, and then Faustin Soulouque.

85. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 52.86. Howard, Coloring the Nation, p. 28.87. Yunén, L Isla Como Es, p. 146.88. Hazard, Santo Domingo, p. 424.89. See Price-Mars, La République, V.1, p. 202.90. Price-Mars, La République, V.2, pp. 109, 113–4, 177.91. Bosch, Composición, pp. 228, 232.92. Max Lovatón, “Prólogo” to El problema fronterizo domínico-haitiano, by José

Ricardo Roques Martínez (Santo Domingo: La Cuna de América, n.d.), p. 12.93. Fradique Lizardo, Cultura africana en Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo: Taller,

1979), p. 68.94. Carlos Augusto Billini, El caso domínico-haitiano (Separata de la 2a edición del

Curso de Derecho Internacional Público Americano) (Ciudad Trujillo: EditoraMontalvo, 1958), p. 51.

95. See Price-Mars, La République, V.1, p. 12.96. See Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 148.97. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 179.

Chapter 5 Territorial Imperatives, 1845–1929

1. Quoted in Jean Price-Mars, La République d’Haïti et la RépubliqueDominicaine. Les aspects divers d’un problème d’histoire, de géographie et d’ethnologie, V.2 (Port-au-Prince: Collection du Tricinquantenaire del’Indépendance d’Haïti, 1953), pp. 210–11.

2. Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford: StanfordUniversity Press, 1990), pp. 64–5, 169.

3. Gordon K. Lewis, Main Currents in Caribbean Thought: The HistoricalEvolution of Caribbean Society in Its Ideological Aspects 1492–1900 (Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), pp. 276–7.

NOTES 229

4. Price-Mars, La République, V.1, pp. 226–7.5. Samuel Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and Present; with a Glance at Hayti

(Santo Domingo: Editora de Santo Domingo, 1974; reprint of the original,published in New York: Harper & Brothers, 1873), p. 248.


7. J. Marino Incháustegui, “Relaciones entre España, Santo Domingo y Haití,”Eme Eme V.26 (September–October 1976; dated “Madrid, 1965”), p. 46.

8. Carlos Augusto Billini, El caso domínico-haitiano (Separata de la 2a edición delCurso de Derecho Internacional Público Americano) (Ciudad Trujillo: EditoraMontalvo, 1958), pp. 51–2.

9. Joaquín Balaguer, El centinela de la frontera: vida y hazañas de AntonioDuvergé, 2nd edn. (Santo Domingo: Fuentes Impresores, 1974), pp. 68, 70.

10. Price-Mars, La République, V.2, p. 167.11. Alan Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella: The Dominican Republic in Historical and

Cultural Perspective (Armonk, NY and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), p. 126n.2.12. Robert Debs Heinl, Jr. and Nancy Gordon Heinl, Written in Blood: The Story

of the Haitian People, 1492–1995, 2nd edn., rev. and expanded by MichaelHeinl (Lanham, MD, New York, London: University Press of America, 1996),p. 183.

13. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, pp. 193, 198.14. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 193.15. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 211.16. Price-Mars, La République, V.2, p. 180.17. Selden Rodman, Quisqueya: A History of the Dominican Republic (Seattle:

University of Washington Press, 1964), pp. 64, 65.18. Price-Mars, La République, V.2, p. 191.19. Billini, El caso, p. 62.20. Juan Bosch, Composición Social Dominicana. Historia e Interpretación (Santo

Domingo: Alfa y Omega, 1988 [1968]), p. 280.21. José Ricardo Roques Martínez, El problema fronterizo domínico-haitiano

(Santo Domingo: La Cuna de América, n.d.), p. 19.22. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 200.23. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 201.24. Quoted in Fradique Lizardo, Cultura africana en Santo Domingo (Santo

Domingo: Taller, 1979), pp. 69, 73.25. Quoted in Lizardo, Cultura africana, pp. 69, 73.26. Gérard Pierre-Charles, “Génesis de las Naciones Haitiana y Dominicana,” in

Política y sociología en Haití y la República Dominicana. Coloquio Domínico-Haitiano de Ciencias Sociales, Suzy Castor, André Corten, Lil Despradel, andGérard Pierre-Charles (eds.) (Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma deMéxico, Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales, 1974), p. 38.

27. Pierre-Charles, “Génesis,” p. 39.28. Pierre-Charles, “Génesis,” p. 38.

230 NOTES

29. Joaquín Balaguer, La Isla Al Revés. Haití y el Destino Dominicano (SantoDomingo: Librería Dominicana, 1984 [1947]), p. 31.

30. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 70.31. Frank Moya Pons, Manual de Historia Dominicana, 10th edn. (Santo

Domingo: Caribbean Publishers, 1995), p. 338.32. Price-Mars, La République, V.2, pp. 210–11, 228–9.33. Bernardo Vega, Trujillo y Haití, V.I (1930–1937) (Santo Domingo: Fundación

Cultural Dominicana, 1988), p. 25.34. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, pp. 212–13.35. Hazard, Santo Domingo, pp. 429–30.36. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 77.37. Hazard, Santo Domingo, p. 170.38. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 345.39. David Howard, Coloring the Nation: Race and Ethnicity in the Dominican

Republic (Oxford: Signal Books and Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001), p. 28.40. David Nicholls, Haiti in Caribbean Context: Ethnicity, Economy and Revolt

(Basingstoke and London: St. Anthony’s/Macmillan, 1985), pp. 177–8.41. Hazard, Santo Domingo, p. 265.42. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 155.43. Vega, Trujillo y Haití, p. 25.44. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 212.45. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 73.46. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 212.47. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, pp. 212, 225.48. Price-Mars, La République, V.2, pp. 233, 259.49. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, pp. 229, 239, 264.50. Price-Mars, La République, V.2, p. 277.51. Vega, Trujillo y Haití, p. 19.52. Rodman, Quisqueya, pp. 86–90.53. See Muñoz, Las Relaciones Domínico-Haitianas, pp. 84–5.54. Rodman, Quisqueya, pp. 93–4.55. Ramón AntonioVeras, Migración caribeña y un capítulo haitiano (Santo

Domingo: Editora Taller, 1985), p. 20.56. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 95.57. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 426; cf. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 100.58. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 293.59. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 426.60. Balaguer, La Isla Al Revés, p. 71. The Dominican jurist Sánchez i Sánchez

alleges that a questionable alteration was made in the text of Article 3 ofthe seventh conference, the one that ratified the “current possessions.” Thisalteration in effect annulled the 1874 treaty. The Haitians played the game,according to Sánchez i Sánchez, of never committing themselves steadfastly to any accord or treaty, as in the case of President Canal’s annulation of the

NOTES 231

1874 treaty in 1876. See Carlos Augusto Sánchez i Sánchez, El caso domínico-haitiano (Ciudad Trujillo: Editora Montalvo, 1958), pp. 14–15.

61. Veras, Migración, p. 20.62. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 458–9.63. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 477, 479, 482.64. Suzy Castor, “El Impacto de la Ocupación Norteamericana en Haití,” in

Política y sociología en Haití y la República Dominicana. Coloquio Domínico-Haitiano de Ciencias Sociales, Suzy Castor, André Corten, Lil Despradel andGérard Pierre-Charles (eds.) (Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma deMéxico, Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales, 1974), p. 55.

65. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 359.66. The production boom would reach record levels in 1930 with its 345,980 tons,

yet its export value, appraised at $9.9 million, constituted a considerable dropfrom 1920’s rate of $45 million for a yield of 159,000 tons. It was the greatdepression that brought on this decrease in revenues, prompting U.S. refinersto look to Haiti again as the primary source of low-cost cane-cutting labor during the crisis. José del Castillo, Ensayos de sociología dominicana(Santo Domingo: Ediciones Siboney, Taller, 1984), pp. 180–1; Vega, Trujillo yHaití, p. 19.

67. Castillo, Ensayos, p. 183.68. Balaguer, La Isla Al Revés, p. 133.69. Senaida Jansen and Cecilia Millán, Género, Trabajo y Etnica en los Bateyes

Dominicanos (Santo Domingo: Editora de Colores. Instituto Tecnológico deSanto Domingo, Programa Estudios de la Mujer, 1991), p. 37.

70. Bosch, Composición, p. 287; quoted in Castor, “El Impacto,” p. 60.71. Moya Pons, Manual, pp. 477, 479, 482.72. Castor, “El Impacto,” pp. 56–60.73. José Alcántara Almánzar, Narrativa y sociedad en Hispanoamérica (Santo

Domingo: Editora Corripio, 1984; Ediciones del Instituto Tecnológico deSanto Domingo), p. 53.

74. See James Ferguson, The Dominican Republic: Beyond the Lighthouse (London:Latin American Bureau, 1992), p. 17.

75. Castillo, Ensayos, pp. 180–1.76. Elizabeth Abbott, Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy (New York, London,

Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo, and Singapore: Simon & Schuster, 1988), p. 40.77. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 124; Monika Latzel, Dominican Republic (Hong Kong:

Apa Publications, 1996), p. 12.78. Michele Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight: Dominicans, Haitians, and the Struggle

for Hispaniola (New York: Hill & Wang, 1999), p. 102.79. Veras, Migración, p. 23.80. Ramón Francisco, “Macaraos del cielo, macaraos de la tierra. El hombre, sus

dioses, sus creencias,” in De tierra morena vengo. Imágenes del hombre domini-cano y su cultura, 2nd edn., Soledad Alvarez (ed.) (Santo Domingo: EditoraCorripio, 1987), p. 120.

232 NOTES

81. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, p. 17.82. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 497.83. José Alcántara Almánzar, Los escritores dominicanos y la cultura (Santo

Domingo: Editora Amigo del Hogar, Publicaciones del INTEC, Monografía21, 1990), p. 61.

Chapter 6 Transnational Dictatorships, 1930–86

1. Graham Greene, The Comedians (New York: Viking Press, 1966 [1965]),p. 250.

2. Robert Debs Heinl, Jr. and Nancy Gordon Heinl, Written in Blood: The Storyof the Haitian People, 1492–1995, 2nd edn., rev. and expanded by MichaelHeinl (Lanham, MD, New York, and London: University Press of America,1996), p. 498.

3. José del Castillo, Ensayos de sociología dominicana (Santo Domingo: EditoraTaller, 1984), p. 175. Paul Farmer, The Uses of Haiti (Monroe, ME: CommonCourage Press, 1994), p. 103, puts the range of victims from 18,000 to 35,000.

4. See Mario Vargas Llosa, La Fiesta del Chivo (Madrid: Grupo Santillana deEdiciones, 2000), p. 220.

5. See Carolyn Fowler, A Knot in the Thread: The Life and Work of JacquesRoumain (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1980), p. 180n.8.

6. José Alcántara Almánzar, Estudios de poesía dominicana (Santo Domingo:Editora Alfa y Omega, 1979), p. 323.

7. See Richard A. Haggerty, “Introduction,” in Richard A. Haggerty (ed.),Dominican Republic and Haiti: Country Studies, 2nd edn. (Washington, D.C.:Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, 1991), p. xix.

8. See Aaron Segal, Cartography by Patricia M. Chalk and J. Gordon Shields, AnAtlas of International Migration (London, Melbourne, Munich, and NewJersey: Hans Zell Publishers, 1993), p. 38.

9. Andrés Corten, El estado débil: Haití, República Dominicana, trans. CeciliaMillán and rev. Pilar Espaillat (Santo Domingo: Editora Taller, 1993), pp. 201,262, 263, 273.

10. David Howard, Coloring the Nation: Race and Ethnicity in the DominicanRepublic (Oxford: Signal Books and Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001), p. 23.

11. On the implications of insular duality, see Rafael Emilio Yunén Z., La IslaComo Es: Hipótesis Para Su Comprobación (Santiago de los Caballeros,Dominican Republic: Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, 1985), p. 31.

12. Joe Painter, Politics, Geography and “Political Geography”: A Critical Perspective(London, New York, Sydney, and Auckland: Arnold/Halstead Press, 1995),pp. 53, 113–14.

13. Ramón Antonio Veras, Migración caribeña y un capítulo haitiano (SantoDomingo: Editora Taller, 1985), p. 26.

14. James Ferguson, The Dominican Republic: Beyond the Lighthouse (London:Latin American Bureau, 1992), p. 82.

NOTES 233

15. Quoted in Alfred Viau, Le Président Raphaêl L. Trujillo M. et la Républiqued’Haïti (Ciudad Trujillo: Impresora Nacional, 1956), pp. 57–8, 60.

16. Frank Moya Pons, Manual de Historia Dominicana, 10th edn. (SantoDomingo: Caribbean Publishers, 1995), pp. 514–15, 518.

17. Cited in Alan Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella: The Dominican Republic inHistorical and Cultural Perspective (Armonk, NY and London: M. E. Sharpe,1997), pp. 179–80.

18. Quoted in Bernardo Vega, Trujillo y Haití, V.1 (1930–1937) (Santo Domingo:Fundación Cultural Dominicana, 1988), p. 27.

19. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 526.20. See Gérard Pierre-Charles, “Génesis de las Naciones Haitiana y Dominicana,”

in Política y Sociología en Haití y la República Dominicana. Coloquio Domínico-Haitiano de Ciencias Sociales, Suzy Castor, André Corten, Lil Despradel, andGérard Pierre-Charles (eds.) (Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma deMéxico, Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales, 1974), pp. 40–1. On anti-haitianismo as state-sanctioned ideology, see Ernesto Sagás, Race and Politicsin the Dominican Republic (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000).

21. Howard J. Wiarda and Michael J. Kryzanek, The Dominican Republic: A Caribbean Crucible, 2nd edn. (Boulder, CO, San Francisco, and Oxford:Westview Press, 1992), p. 138.

22. Veras, Migración, p. 21.23. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, p. 83. Prestol Castillo writes, in reference

to Dajabón in the time of the massacre, that “they didn’t use the money of theDominican Republic in the village, except occasionally, when some travelerswas passing through. Days and suns and abstinences and the ‘gouls’—Haitianmoney—increased the pile of savings.” Freddy Prestol Castillo, El Masacre sepasa a pie, 8th edn. (Santo Domingo: Ediciones de Taller, 1989), p. 97.

24. Presented in Viau, Le Président, p. 105.25. Viau, Le Président, p. 68.26. Selden Rodman, Quisqueya: A History of the Dominican Republic (Seattle:

University of Washington Press, 1964), p. 144.27. Edwidge Danticat, The Farming of Bones: A Novel (New York: Soho, 1998),

p. 114.28. See Danticat, The Farming of Bones, pp. 299, 307.29. Pedro Mir, Las dos patrias de Santo Domingo, tesis acerca de la división política

de la isla en dos naciones (Santo Domingo: Editora Cultura Dominicana,1975), p. 62.

30. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 519.31. Eric Williams, From Columbus to Castro: The History of the Caribbean,

1492–1969 (New York: Vintage Books [Random House], 1984), p. 438.32. Carlos Augusto Sánchez i Sánchez, El caso domínico-haitiano (Ciudad Trujillo:

Editora Montalvo, 1958), p. 21.33. Veras, Migración, p. 21.34. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, pp. 500–1.

234 NOTES

35. Danticat, The Farming of Bones, p. 236.36. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 501.37. Moya Pons, Manual, p. 520.38. See María Elena Muñoz, Las Relaciones Domínico-Haitianas: Geopolítica y

Migración (Santo Domingo: Editora Alfa & Omega, 1995), p. 162.39. Jacques Roumain, “La Tragédie haïtienne,” Regards (18 November, 1937: 4–6),

p. 5, quoted in Fowler, A Knot, p. 182.40. Fowler, A Knot, pp. 184–5, tells that the Dominican representative in Haiti, in

response to Roumain’s denunciation, demanded the arrest of both the Haitianauthor and journal editor, Pierre Saint-Dizier, both residing in France at thetime. Although the charge, “outrages à un chef d’état étranger,” had been pro-hibited by the Laval Decree of 30 October 1935, the French government actedon the demand in April 1938, arresting Roumain and Saint-Dizier. The arrestssparked a widespread protest by liberal and radical newspapers and laborunions, which denounced both the arrests and the decree that authorizedthem as acts of censorship. In the trial of 13 December 1938, the French courtnonetheless found the accused guilty as charged, finding justification not inthe Laval Decree but in a 57-year-old law forbidding public ridicule of headsof state. Roumain and his editor at least were each given a lenient sentence,a fine of 300 francs, with suspended term of imprisonment, which would havebeen from 3 to 12 months. Both defendants successfully appealed the decisionthe month following the judgment.

41. Veras, Migración, p. 25.42. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 185.43. Castillo, Ensayos, p. 188.44. Michele Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight: Dominicans, Haitians, and the Struggle

for Hispaniola (New York: Hill & Wang, 1999), p. 125.45. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 529.46. Thomas E. Weil, Jan Knippers Black, Howard I. Blutstein, Kathryn T. Honston,

David S. McMorris, and Frederick P. Munson, Haiti: A Country Study(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982; research completed February 1973), pp. 122–3.

47. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 522.48. Veras, Migración, pp. 26, 27.49. Williams, From Columbus to Castro, p. 465.50. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, pp. 528, 532.51. See Sagás, Race and Politics, pp. 52–5.52. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 105.53. Juan Bosch, Composición Social Dominicana. Historia e Interpretación (Santo

Domingo: Alfa y Omega, 1988 [1968]), p. 405.54. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 139.55. Joaquín Balaguer, La Isla Al Revés. Haití y el Destino Dominicano (Santo

Domingo: Librería Dominicana, 1984 [1947]), p. 131.56. Sánchez i Sánchez, El caso domínico-haitiano, pp. 75, 77.

NOTES 235

57. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 574.58. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 627n.4.59. Claude Moise, “La Constitución de 1987, en la transición política haitiana,”

Ciencia y Sociedad XVIII. 3 (July–September 1993), pp. 323, 332.60. See Andrés Corten, El estado débil: Haití, República Dominicana, trans. Cecilia

Millán and rev. Pilar Espaillat (Santo Domingo: Editora Taller, 1993), p. 21.61. See Segal, An Atlas, p. 38.62. Castillo, Ensayos, p. 188.63. Bosch, Composición, p. 416.64. Weil et al., Haiti, pp. 122–3.65. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 144.66. Amy Wilentz, The Rainy Season: Haiti Since Duvalier (New York: Simon and

Schuster, 1989), p. 39.67. Ernesto Sagás, “An Apparent Contradiction? Popular Perceptions of Haiti

and the Foreign Policy of the Dominican Republic,” paper presented at theSixth Annual Conference of the Haitian Studies Association (Boston, MA,14–15 October, 1994), p. 4.

68. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, pp. 144–5.69. Rodman, Quisqueya, p. 170.70. Marcio Veloz Maggiolo, Cultura, Teatro y Relatos en Santo Domingo (Santiago

de los Caballeros: Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, 1972), p. 251;Abelardo Vicioso, “Poesía y nacionalismo en la República Dominicana,”Scriptura I.4 (1981), p. 78.

71. Weil et al., Haiti, p. 122.72. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 106.73. Castillo, Ensayos, p. 188.74. Abbott, Haitií, p. 218.75. Muñoz, Las Relaciones Domínico-Haitianas, pp. 211–12.76. Bernard Diederich, Swine Fever Ironies (1985), in Libète: A Haiti Anthology,

Charles Arthur and Michael Dash (eds.) (Princeton, NJ: Markus WienerPublishers/Latin America Bureau, Ian Randle Publishers, 1999), pp. 104–5.

77. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, p. 82.78. Farmer, The Uses of Haiti, p. 231.79. Sagás, “An Apparent Contradiction?,” p. 5.80. Report of the Liga Contra la Esclavitud para la Protección de los Derechos

Humanos (1979). Reprinted in Veras, Migración, p. 258.81. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, p. 82.82. Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood, p. 643.83. Yunén, in La Isla Como Es, p. 186, concludes the scene with the remark,

“I couldn’t stand it anymore and loudly left the room, later falling into a profound depression on finding out that, even after they were dead, we con-tinued exploiting our island neighbors.” Cambronne also did a brisk businessin selling Haitian blood, which, due to the high resistance of the survivors of numerous contagions, was especially rich in antibodies and therefore

236 NOTES

prized by immunological researchers. Also, Heinl and Heinl, Written in Blood,p. 643.

84. Carlos Fuentes, El espejo enterrado (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica,1992), p. 523.

Chapter 7 Close Encounters: Haitians in Dominican Literature

1. Manuel Rueda, La criatura terrestre (Santo Domingo: Editora Taller, 1975[1963]), p. 32. Subsequent citations in parentheses will refer to this edition.

2. Marianna Torgovnick, Gone Primitive: Savage Intellectuals, Modern Lives(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Fernando Valerio-Holguín,“Primitive Borders: Cultural Identity and Ethnic Cleansing in the DominicanRepublic,” Returning Gaze: Primitivism and Identity in Latin America, ErikCamayd-Freixas and José Eduardo González (eds.) (Tucson, AZ: TheUniversity of Arizona Press, 2000), p. 75.

3. Valerio-Holguín, “Primitive Borders,” p. 77.4. Valerio-Holguín, “Primitive Borders,” p. 83.5. Linda M. Rodríguez,“Dominican Republic: 19th- and 20th Century Prose and

Poetry,” in Encyclopedia of Latin American Literature, Verity Smith (ed.)(Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997), p. 263.

6. Marcio Veloz Maggiolo, “Tipología del tema haitiano en la literatura domini-cana” in Sobre cultura dominicana y otras culturas (ensayos) (Santo Domingo:Editora Alfa y Omega, 1977), p. 93.

7. Veloz Maggiolo, Sobre cultura, pp. 94–5.8. Veloz Maggiolo, Sobre cultura, p. 95.9. Andrés L. Mateo, Mito y cultura en la Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo: Editora

de Colores, 1993), p. 52.10. See Mateo, Mito y cultura, p. 13 and passim, on the key role of the Trujillist

intellectual in the creation of a whole “mythological system.”11. See José Alcántara Almánzar, Los escritores dominicanos y la cultura (Santo

Domingo: Editora Amigo del Hogar, Publicaciones del INTEC, Monografía21, 1990), p. 193.

12. Manuel Marrero Aristy, Over, 12th edn. (Santo Domingo: LibreríaDominicana, 1983 [1940]), p. 49. Subsequent citations in parentheses willrefer to this edition.

13. See Fradique Lizardo, Cultura africana en Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo:Taller, 1979), p. 12.

14. See Alcántara Almánzar, Los escritores, p. 171.15. See Rodríguez, “Dominican Republic,” p. 265.16. Alcántara Almánzar, in Los escritores dominicanos y la cultura, p. 23, writes that

“the indigenist expedient, so logical in the conception of the South Americanbourgeoisie, appears among us as a late product, lacking in strength and onlyvalid for the dominant class.” And so it is that among the Hispanic valuesaffirmed in Enriquillo stand out those virtues associated with the hidalgo class

NOTES 237

of lower nobility: fidelity and the sense of honor. See also José AlcántaraAlmánzar, Narrativa y sociedad en Hispanoamérica (Santo Domingo: EditoraCorripio, Ediciones del Instituto Tecnológico de Santo Domingo, 1984), p. 12.

17. Gordon K. Lewis, Main Currents in Caribbean Thought: The HistoricalEvolution of Caribbean Society in Its Ideological Aspects, 1492–1900 (Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), p. 284.

18. See Joaquín Balaguer, La Isla Al Revés. Haití y el Destino Dominicano (SantoDomingo: Librería Dominicana, 1984 [1947]), p. 212. José Joaquín Pérez,enamored of a heroic past, shows his exclusive love of Hispanity in “El JuncoVerde,” on Columbus: Pérez expresses the belief that “not all was negative” inthis past, “and that there were also visionary men, of progressive ideas, wholoved the good, justice, and peace.” Quoted in Alcántara Almánzar, Narrativay sociedad, p. 12.

19. David Howard, Coloring the Nation: Race and Ethnicity in the DominicanRepublic (Oxford: Signal Books and Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001),pp. 120, 122.

20. Both poems quoted in Howard, Coloring the Nation, pp. 138–9; see commen-tary, idem.

21. Bruno Rosario Candelier, “Poesía Negra en Santo Domingo,” El Nacional de¡Ahora! Suplemento Cultural (30 April 1972), p. 2.

22. “[R]ecited by memory” on the record Papá-bocó, Industria Mozart, OMD-01.Quoted in Candelier, “Poesía negra,” p. 2n.48.

23. Candelier, “Poesía negra,” pp. 2, 6.24. Manuel del Cabral, “Poesía Negra y Metafísica” (interview), Letra Grande 2.1

(April 1980), p. 44.25. Cabral, “Poesía negra,” p. 47; Sócrates Nolasco, “Aparición y Evolución del

Cuento en Santo Domingo. Noticias Preliminares,” in El Cuento en SantoDomingo. Selección Antológico, Sócrates Nolasco (ed.) (Santo Domingo:Biblioteca Nacional, 1986), p. 21.

26. Federico Henríquez Gratereaux, “Andrajos intelectuales,” in Literatura delCaribe. Antología. Siglos XIX y XX. Puerto Rico, Cuba, República Dominicana,5th edn., Eliseo Colón Zayas (ed.) (Madrid: Editorial Playor, 1988), p. 264.

27. Candelier, “Poesía negra,” p. 239.28. Manuel del Cabral, Compadre Mon, 4th edn. (Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada,

1957), p. 135. Subsequent citations in parentheses will refer to this edition ofthe poem.

29. Manuel del Cabral, Obra Poética Completa de Manuel del Cabral (SantoDomingo: Editora Alfa y Omega, 1987), pp. 214–15.

30. Manuel del Cabral, Antología tierra (1930–1949) (Madrid: Editorial Escelicer,1949), p. 8.

31. José Alcántara Almánzar, Narrativa y sociedad, p. 16.32. La Poesía Sorprendida I (October 1943 [Facsimile, Santo Domingo: Editora

Cultural Dominicana, 1974]), p. 8 [unnumbered].33. La Poesía Sorprendida I (December 1943), p. 8 [unnumbered].

238 NOTES

34. La Poesía Sorprendida V (February 1944), pp. 1–2 [unnumbered].35. José Alcántara Almánzar, Estudios de poesía dominicana (Santo Domingo:

Editora Alfa y Omega, 1979), p. 323.36. Alcántara Almánzar, Estudios, p. 47.37. Candelier, “Poesía negra,” p. 6.38. Héctor Incháustegui Cabral, “Prólogo” to Teatro. La Otra Estrella en el Cielo,

Yo, Bertolt Brecht, Pirámide 179 by Máximo Avilés Blonda (Santo Domingo:Ediciones de la Sociedad de Autres y Compositores Dramáticos de laRepública Dominicana, 1968), p. 12. Subsequent citations in parentheses willrefer to this edition.

39. José Alcántara Almánzar (ed.), Antología de la literatura dominicana (SantoDomingo: Editora Cultural Dominicana, 1972), p. 67.

40. José Alcántara Almánzar, Las máscaras de la seducción (Santo Domingo:Editorial Taller, 1983), p. 62.

41. Alcántara Almánzar, Las máscaras, p. 107.42. Alcántara Almánzar, Las máscaras, p. 109.43. Alcántara Almánzar, Las máscaras, p. 111.44. René Depestre, “Problemas de la identidad del hombre negro en las literaturas

antillanas,” Casa de las Américas 31 (1970): 51–9; quoted in Howard, Coloringthe Nation, p. 134.

Chapter 8 Searching out the Boundary, 1986–2003


2. James Ridgeway (ed.), The Haiti Files: Decoding the Crisis (Washington, D.C.:Essential Books/Azul Editions, 1994), p. 1.

3. Quoted in Michele Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight: Dominicans, Haitians, andthe Struggle for Hispaniola (New York: Hill & Wang, 1999), p. 136.

4. Muñoz, Las Relaciones Domínico-Haitianas, p. 191.5. Article 1 of the “Decreto Presidencial 233-91,” is appended in Ernesto Sagás,

“An Apparent Contradiction? Popular Perceptions of Haiti and the ForeignPolicy of the Dominican Republic,” a paper presented at the Sixth AnnualConference of the Haitian Studies Association (Boston, MA, 14–15 October,1994), pp. 7–8. The text itself states, however: “Se dispone la repatriación de todos los menores que hayan alcanzado la edad de dieciséis (16) años deedad, de nacionalidad extranjera, que venían trabajando como braceros en lasiembra, cultivo, corte y acarreo de la caña.”

6. Sagás, “An Apparent Contradiction?,” pp. 1, 5.7. Rafael Emilio Yunén Z., La Isla Como Es: Hipótesis Para Su Comprobación

(Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic: Universidad Católica Madrey Maestra, Colección Estudios, 1985), p. 42. Yunén refers to the “internalarticulation” of the Dominican Republic, but the concept would apply equallywell to Haiti.

NOTES 239

8. Sagás, “An Apparent Contradiction?,” p. 7.9. See Muñoz, Las Relaciones Domínico-Haitianas, p. 190.

10. James Ferguson, The Dominican Republic: Beyond the Lighthouse (London:Latin American Bureau, 1992), pp. 90–1. Ferguson here cites CEA generalmanager Juan Arturo Biaggi’s claim that only 3 percent of the country’sHaitian population was employed in the cultivation and harvesting ofsugarcane in 1991.

11. Paul B. Goodwin, Jr., Global Studies: Latin America (Guilford, CT:Dushkin/McGraw Hill, 1998, 8th edn.), pp. xi, 120, 124.

12. See Muñoz, Las Relaciones Domínico-Haitianas, pp. 137, 198.13. Dominican remittances from the United States on the other hand totaled $328

million. Aaron Segal, An Atlas of International Migration, cartography byPatricia M. Chalk and J. Gordon Shields (London, Melbourne, Munich, andNew Jersey: Hans Zell Publishers, 1993), p. 152.

14. See David Jacobson, Rights Across Borders: Immigration and the Decline ofCitizenship (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press,1997), p. x.

15. Ernesto Sagás, Race and Politics in the Dominican Republic (Gainesville, FL:University Press of Florida, 2000), p. 92.

16. Jean Bertrand Aristide, with the collaboration of Christophe Wargny,Tout moun se moun, trans. Jaime Vergara (Madrid: IEPALA Editorial, 1994),pp. 16–17.

17. Paul Farmer, The Uses of Haiti (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1994),pp. 25, 26.

18. Aristide, Tout moun se moun, p. 36.19. Bella Stumbo, “A Place Called Fear,” Global Studies: Latin America, 6th edn.,

Paul Goodwin, Jr. (ed.) (Guilford, CT: The Dushkin Publishing Group, 1994),p. 225 (originally appearing in Vanity Fair, February 1994).

20. Sagás, “An Apparent Contradiction?,” p. 5.21. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, p. 58.22. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, p. 60.23. Yunén, La Isla Como Es, p. 175.24. Silvio Torres-Saillant and Ramona Hernández, The Dominican Americans

(Westport, CT and London: Greenwood Press, 1998), p. xix, give a 1990 totalof 511,297 Dominicans permanently residing in the United States; Wucker,Why the Cocks Fight, p. 96.

25. Georges Anglade, Coup d’oeil sur le passé (1990), trans. James Ferguson, inLibète: A Haiti Anthology, Charles Arthur and Michael Dash (eds.) (Princeton,NJ, London, and Kingston: Markus Wiener Publishers/Latin America Bureau,Ian Randle Publishers, 1999, p. 99.

26. Fédération des Amis de la Nature, Quelques données sure la réalité dramatiquede l’environment en Haïti (1986), trans. James Ferguson, in Libète, Arthur andDash (eds.), p. 101.

27. Anglade, Coup d’oeil, p. 99.

240 NOTES

28. Quoted in Arthur and Dash (eds.), Libète, p. 111.29. Yunén, La Isla Como Es, pp. 167–8, 174.30. See Muñoz, Las Relaciones Domínico-Haitianas, p. 190.31. Arthur and Dash (eds.), Libète, p. 111.32. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, p. 58; Nicholls, lls, Haiti in Caribbean

Context, pp. 189–90.33. Nicholls, Haiti in Caribbean Context, p. 198.34. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, p. 60. Another estimate puts the population

of Haitians in the Dominican Republic between 200,000 and 300,000, withonly as much as 20 percent of the total working in the sugarcane fields. Thesefigures were provided by Danilo Díaz, director of the television programMatinal, September 1999; quoted in Edwin Paraison, “La Migration et lesRelations Bilatérales entre Haiti et la République Dominicaine: A la recherched’un solution finale” (http://www.windowsonhaiti.com/w299021.shtml), p. 4.

35. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, pp. 13, 58.36. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, p. 74.37. David Howard, Coloring the Nation: Race and Ethnicity in the Dominican

Republic (Oxford: Signal Books and Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001), p. 71.38. David E. Johnson, “The Time of Translation: The Border of American

Literature,” in Border Theory, Scott Michaelson and David E. Johnson (eds.)(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), p. 133.

39. See Alejandro Lugo, “Reflections on Border Theory, Culture, and the Nation,”in Johnson and Michaelson, Border Theory, pp. 50–1, 57.

40. Miguel Alberto Román, Compay Chano (Ciudad Trujillo: Editorial El Caribe,1949), p. 30n.27.

41. Román, Compay Chano, p. 35n.33.42. Joaquín Balaguer, La Isla Al Revés. Haití y el Destino Dominicano (Santo

Domingo: Librería Dominicana, 1984 [1947]), p. 89.43. Balaguer, La Isla Al Revés, p. 89.44. Howard J. Wiarda and Michael J. Kryzanek, The Dominican Republic: A

Caribbean Crucible, 2nd edn. (Boulder, San Francisco, and Oxford: WestviewPress, 1992), pp. 140–1.

45. David Howard, Dominican Republic in Focus: A Guide to the People, Politicsand Culture (New York: Interlink Books, 1999), p. 15.

46. Thomas E. Weil, Jan Knippers Black, Howard I. Blutstein, Kathryn T. Honston,David S. McMorris, and Frederick P. Munson, Haiti: A Country Study(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982; research com-pleted February 1973), p. 6.

47. Alan Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella: The Dominican Republic in Historical and Cultural Perspective (Armonk, NY and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1997),pp. 229–30, 236.

48. Paul Goodwin, Jr. (ed.), Global Studies: Latin America, 6th edn. (Guilford, CT:The Dushkin Publishing Group, 1994), p. 106.

49. Nicholls, Haiti in Caribbean Context, p. 126.

NOTES 241

50. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 230.51. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 244.52. Guy S. Antoine, “Another Haitian–Dominican Crisis,” http://www.windoson

haiti.com/w99462.shtml (November 1999), p. 2.53. Howard, Dominican Republic in Focus, p. 69.54. Ramón Antonio Veras, Migración caribeña y un capítulo haitiano (Santo

Domingo: Editora Taller, 1985), p. 29.55. Elizabeth Abbott, Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy (New York, London,

Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo, and Singapore: Simon & Schuster, 1988), p. 235.In light of such abuses, Yunén in 1985 proposed that profits gained by sugar companies established in the Dominican territories be entailed for“humanizing” the industry. Producers would be obligated by this entailmentto improve living conditions in the bateyes and to guarantee protection of theworkers’ rights to decent salary and adequate living conditions. Yunén, La IslaComo Es, p. 192.

56. Manuel Rueda, “Cinco temas sobre el hombre dominicano,” in De tierramorena vengo. Imágenes del hombre dominicano y su cultura, 2nd edn., SoledadAlvarez (ed.) (Santo Domingo: Editora Corripio, 1987), p. 41.

57. Howard, Coloring the Nation, p. 30.58. See Yunén, La Isla Como Es, p. 193.59. Howard, Coloring the Nation, p. 37.60. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, p. 13.61. Americas Watch, Haitian Sugar Cane Cutters in the Dominican Republic (New

York: Americas Watch, 1989), pp. 13–19; cited in Ferguson, The DominicanRepublic, pp. 86–8.

62. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 155.63. Cambeira, Quisqueya la Bella, p. 205.64. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 165.65. See Andrés Corten, El estado débil: Haití, República Dominicana, trans. by

Cecilia Millán and rev. Pilar Espaillat (Santo Domingo: Editora Taller, 1993),p. 192; and Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, p. 36.

66. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 4.67. Howard, Dominican Republic in Focus, p. 52.68. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 187.69. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 189.70. Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight, p. 5.71. See Gordon K. Lewis, Main Currents in Caribbean Thought: The Historical

Evolution of Caribbean Society in Its Ideological Aspects 1492–1900 (Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), p. 285.

72. Howard, Coloring the Nation, p. 35.73. See Yunén, La Isla Como Es, p. 193.74. Ferguson, The Dominican Republic, pp. 91, 110.75. Yunén, La Isla Como Es, pp. 34–5.76. See Muñoz, Las Relaciones Domínico-Haitianas, pp. 201–2.

242 NOTES

77. See also Howard, Coloring the Nation, pp. 25–6.78. Howard, Dominican Republic in Focus, p. 70.79. Paraison, “La Migration,” p. 9.80. See Thomas E. Skidmore and Peter H. Smith, Modern Latin America, 3rd edn.

(New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 297.81. Corten, El estado débil, p. 23.82. Howard, Coloring the Nation, p. 185.83. Sarah Cameron, Book of the Year [1998]: World Affairs: “Haiti,”

in file://C:/Program files\Britannica\Bdvd\Cache\_\_4_PreviewRil.htm (18 December 1999), p. 1.

84. Paraison, “La Migration,” pp. 5–10, 12.85. See Jacobson, Rights Across Borders; also Balaguer, La Isla Al Revés, p. 80.86. Balaguer, La Isla Al Revés, p. 80.87. P. Baltenweck, Bulletin météorologique du Collège Saint-Martial (1992), trans.

Charles Arthur, in Arthur and Dash (eds.), Libète, p. 91.88. Paraison, “La Migration,” pp. 3–5.89. Michael Deibert, “Haiti seeks alleged leader of coup attempt,” Reuters News

Service (Port-au-Prince: 26 December 2001), p. 1.90. “Dominican military faces accusations of human rights abuses,” Christian Aid

press release, 10 December 2001 ([email protected]).91. DR1 Daily News, 16 January 2002 (www.dr1.com).92. DR1 Daily News of 30 January 2002 (www.dr1.com).93. Yunén, La Isla Como Es, p. 31.

NOTES 243

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Index

Abad Alfau, Antonio, 117, 124abolition, 67, 74, 100accord, of 1966; 152; on cooperation

and assistance, 210; on labor, 151;on trade in Haití, 152

affranchis, 54, 61–2, 71; domingüois, 32African swine fever, 159–60Africanity, 16, 164, 170Africanization, 5, 79Afro-Dominicans, 170–1, 184Afro-Haitianism, 119, 172, 179–80Alcántara Almanzar, José, 18, 140, 166,

179, 184Alfau, Felipe, 97, 120Alvarez de Toledo, Fradique, 38Americas Watch, 191, 212annexation, 3, 9, 95–6, 119–21, 124,

126, 136anti-Communism, 145, 193anti-Dominicanism, 187anti-Haitianism, 10, 18, 145, 153,

166–7, 178, 184, 186–7, 205Aranjuez, Treaty of, 59, 113, 122, 127Aristide, Jean-Bertrand, 187, 193,

202–3, 210, 213–14arrondisements, 74, 94Artibonite, the, 21, 59, 62, 159, 179–80Audiencia, 27, 35–6authoritarianism, 137, 141, 143, 155Avilés Blonda, Máximo, 81, 166, 180,

186Azlor, Manuel, 56–7Azua de Compostella, 36, 61, 71, 88,

96, 112–3, 118, 123, 132, 140

Báez, Buenaventura, 103–4, 106,115–17, 124–5

Bahoruco, 20, 33, 60Balaguer, Joaquín, 135, 153–4, 158,

161, 164, 188, 193, 197–8, 202,204–5

Barahona, 118, 123, 132, 146, 211Barón, Juan, 75Basle, Treaty of, 45–6, 69–71, 72, 73,

83, 93, 109bateyes, 14, 15, 196, 201–2, 208,

212Belladère, 152–3, 212Bellegarde-Smith, Patrick, 5Biassou, Georges, 66, 69bidonvilles, 23, 195binary oppositions, 10, 13, 164blacks, 74, 85–6, 95Bobadilla, Tomás de, 102–3, 105, 108,

113Bois Caiman, 51Boisrond-Canal, Pierre Théomas,

127–8Bonaparte, Napoleon, 12, 72–3, 76, 84,

89, 92border, 3, 5, 10, 13, 16, 19–21, 24–7,

45, 47, 54, 56–7, 60, 66, 70, 82,106, 111–12, 116, 127–9, 132,140–4, 158, 164, 176–8, 180–2,189, 195, 199, 202–3, 208–9, 213

borderlands, 14–15, 21, 25, 31, 43–4,83, 85, 89, 115, 117, 119, 130,132,134, 140, 147, 162, 164, 166,179, 186, 189, 198–200, 211

border mentality, 14, 164, 178, 180Borgella, Bernard, 74, 88, 104–5Borno, Luis, 136Bosch, Juan, 156–7bourgeoisie, Dominican, 84, 98, 107,

122, 156boundary, 8, 5, 14, 30, 36, 44, 58, 109,

154, 163, 174, 186Bourbons, kings, 48, 69; reforms, 56Boyer, Jean-Pierre, 94, 98, 101–103,

105, 107, 114, 142, 145, 174braceros, 12, 13, 132, 152–3, 158–60,

168, 188, 202, 209buccaneers, 34, 38, 50, 139, 178

Cabral, José María, 121–3, 125, 166,172, 178, 186

Cabral, Manuel del, 1, 7, 172–7Cabrera, General, 66–8, 122–3Cachimán, 114, 118Cacos, 126, 130, 132, 135, 143Cambronal, 108, 118Cambronne, Luckner, 161Campos Tavares, José, 82, 92, 97Canary Islands, 43, 48, 49, 55, 56, 105caneworkers, 161, 168; syndicates, 212Cap Français, 37, 41–2, 49, 61, 68–9,

83Cap Haïtien, 71, 82, 88, 107, 115, 122,

125, 136Catholic Church, 29, 79, 98, 106, 145,

212cattle, 27, 31, 35, 49, 58, 61, 73, 91,

146; cattle-raising, 28, 45, 54, 79,133

caudillism, 25, 125, 156, 173–4Central Romana, 14, 156, 159Christophe, Henry, 53, 74, 76, 81, 83,

89–90, 92Cibao, the, 20–1, 37, 49, 56, 61, 78, 83,

85, 92, 95, 100–1, 105, 126–8,172–3, 178

cimarrones, 31–4, 38–9, 50, 58, 186cincuentenas, 44, 46, 118citizenship, 88, 95

Clervaux, Jacques, 74, 76, 81Coalition Nationale pour les Droits

des Haïtien, 212cockfights, 16, 26, 99, 173Code Noir of 1685, 62–3, 76coffee, 37, 57, 61, 84, 87, 93, 133,

188, 191Colbert, Jean Baptist, 41, 54, 63colonization, 10, 24, 199Columbus, Christopher, 24, 31, 73, 190communal lands, 100, 134, 142community, 6, 10, 50, 86, 99, 167, 176,

179, 178, 192, 198–9complementarity, 4, 10, 37, 49, 60, 143,

190, 208Consejo Estatal de Azúcar (CEA), 156,

158–9, 201, 202, 208contraband, 28, 31, 33–5, 38, 41, 47,

49, 50, 58, 190, 193, 199conucos, 37, 75, 94Convergence Democratique (CD),

212–13corporate state, the, 152, 202corporations, 136, 202Cotuí, 47, 71, 88–9, 96, 123counterpoint, 3, 4, 8, 10, 12–13, 16, 24,

26, 112, 140, 142, 162, 165, 167,180, 193, 215

Cuba, 55, 64, 73, 121, 124, 128, 134,142–3, 152, 155, 158, 209, 211

Cul-de-Sac, 62, 152–3

D’Ogeron, Bertrand, 40Dajabón, 21, 47, 59, 48, 83, 115, 118,

122, 131, 139, 140, 144, 146, 150,157, 199, 211–12

Dartiguenave, Sudre, 5, 131Daut, General, 75–6Declaration of the Rights of Man and

Citizen, 51, 62, 74Decree of 16 of Pluviôse, 77demarcation, 45, 59, 113, 116democracy, 5, 155, 189, 191, 193dependency, 30, 134, 136, 137, 140,

141, 162, 167, 191

264 INDEX

Depestre, René, 172, 186Desrosiers, Caco Excellent, 149Dessalines, Jean-Jacques, 53, 66, 78–9,

81, 83, 85, 87–88, 92, 126, 151, 185Devastations, the, 27–9, 34–5development, 195, 210dictatorship, 9, 118, 150, 167, 177, 191difference, 4, 9, 13, 14, 16, 24, 25, 26,

43, 150, 163, 198, 208, 215Domination, the Haitian, 9, 97, 103,

109, 122, 142, 127Dominican Genealogical Society, 206Dominican military, 194Dominican Republic, 1, 143, 214Dominicanization of the Border, 149,

151, 154, 198Du Casse, Jean, 42, 46duality, 5, 10, 12, 189, 215Duarte, Juan Pablo, 97, 106, 112, 149Duvalier, 9, 25, 162; François, 9, 141,

153, 155–8, 204; Jean Claude, 9,141, 158–61, 192–4

Duvergé, Antonio, 113–14

earthquakes, 30, 41, 107ecological degradation, 57, 155education, 104–5, 208El caso domínico-haitiano, 154emancipation, 67, 74, 96, 99–100, 106embargos, 98, 203–4encomienda, 47, 100, 145England, 42, 54, 108, 120, 142Era de Francia en Santo Domingo, 83Estado Independiente de Haití

Español, 95Estimé, Dumarsais, 5, 151–3ethnocentrism, 154, 163, 170, 178ethnohistorical processes, 3, 6, 8, 12,

15, 26, 140export, 36–7, 55, 57, 79, 84, 91, 93, 98,

101, 125, 154expropriations, 108, 142

Family Pact of 1761, 48, 56Fédération des Amis de la Nature, 194

Fernández de Fuenmayor, Ruy, 38Fernández Leonel, José, 208Fernando VII, 91, 93Ferrand, Jean Louis, 76, 79, 82, 84–5,

91, 93, 115filibustier, 33, 178; see FREEBOOTERFloreal law, 79, 87foreign debt, 149, 152France, 42, 44–5, 55–7, 66–7, 69–72,

74, 98, 108, 113, 115–21, 142,161, 210

Francis I, 17, 30Franco-Spanish War, 69French Assembly, 67, 74French Revolution, 52, 63frontier, 2, 10, 17, 20, 29, 33, 43, 44, 49,

52, 129, 145, 149, 210

Gagá, 14–15, 16, 172, 200García, Joaquín, Viscount of Choiseul,

59, 67, 76, 73, 113garrisons, 53, 199Geffrard, Fabre, 89, 111, 120, 123geography, 19, 20, 24, 54, 112, 174,

178, 180, 215; see alsoPOLITICAL GEOGRAPHY

Girondins, 64, 67González, Ignacio María, 127–8Gran Colombia, 95, 106grands-blancs, 54, 61, 63, 69, 76Guadeloupe, 82, 87Guardia Nacional, 131, 144Guarico, 42, 45, 46, 64Guayubín, 59, 122

Haiti, 1, 52, 62, 134, 172, 174; and theDomination, 25; emigrationfrom, 191; as labor source, 9, 81,133, 141, 144–5, 147, 154–5, 168,190–1, 193; occupation by, 96;and the state, 78, 87

Haitian Revolution, 8, 24, 43, 54Haitian-American Sugar Company

(HASCO), 132haitianización, la, 90, 98

INDEX 265

harvest, 134, 147, 148, 159, 168,195–6, 203

hateros, 36, 49, 57–8, 74, 76, 78, 89, 91,94–5, 98, 103, 105, 107, 117, 119,122, 125

Hédouville, Gabriel-Théodore-Joseph,71

hegemony, 9, 25, 145, 186Hérard-Rivière, Charles, 108Heureaux, Ulises, 127–8, 130Higüey, 32, 88, 99Hincha, 49, 113, 118, 122, 132, 149Hispaniola, 19, 57, 70, 145, 174, 179Hispanity, 145, 154hommes de couleur, 64, 67houngan, 55, 60

identity, 3–5, 7, 9–10, 16, 163, 215ideology, 5, 7, 11, 13, 150, 202immigration, 4, 79, 119, 120, 133, 146,

151, 159indemnification, 102, 107, 116Independence Day, 144, 146, 205independence, 76, 79, 85, 91–2, 94,

109, 112, 141, 178Independencia Efímera, la,106insular system, 2, 4, 6–9, 10–11, 13, 16,

24, 25, 28, 49, 52–3, 70, 140, 155,157, 162, 165, 176–8, 186, 189,190, 195, 207, 214

interdependence, 2, 3, 8–9,16, 24–5,41, 120, 143, 165, 190, 192, 209,212, 215

intermarriage, 43, 109

Jamaica, 39, 55, 79, 125, 133Jimaní, 152, 199, 212Jimenes, Juan Isidro, 130–1joint free zone, 159Joseph, Dalbemar Jean, 130Junta Central, 102, 108, 113

Kerverseau, General, 72, 76, 83–3, 93,Krèyol, 21, 51, 147, 172, 200; see also

PATOIS

La Banda del Norte, 27Las Caobas, 113, 118, 122Las Matas de Farfán, 114, 118, 123,

135, 194latifundios, 75, 76, 78, 87–8, 90, 97, 119Lavalas, 188, 195, 213; Fanmi, 210, 212Laveaux, Etienne, 64, 67–9La Vega, 47, 88, 90, 96, 123Law, of Floreal, 30, 77; of

Immigration, 128; on theColonization of the Frontier, 131

Le Cap, Haïtien, 78, 83Leclerc, Victor-Emmanuel, 76, 87Leconte, Cicinnatus, 126, 130, 132Lemba, Sebastián, 32, 33, 47Leonel Fernández, José, 205, 209, 214Les Cayes, 61, 107Levasseur, M. de, 113–14linkages, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 14, 56,

189, 212livestock, 36, 37, 50, 55, 56, 101,

118, 150Lomé IV Convention, 207, 210López de Castro, Baltasar, 27–8Louis XIV, 40–1, 54L’Ouverture, François Dominique

Toussaint, 52, 66–7, 69–71, 73–4,78, 112, 122, 145, 151, 166, 182

L’Ouverture, Paul, 52, 75lumber, 84, 103Luperón, Gregorio, 45, 122–3, 125, 128Lysius Salomon, Louis Félicité, 129

madames sara, 199Magloire, Paul Eugène, 151, 153Malpasse, 152, 155Manicheanism, 11–12, 140manieles, 32, 60Manifest Destiny, 115, 131Manifestación de Independencia, 108Manzanillo, 130, 139mapping, 25, 26, 180, 215markers, 26, 192, 199, 207, 211, 213Marrero Aristy, Ramón, 166, 167,

170, 186

266 INDEX

marronage culturelle, 186marronage, 17, 46, 54, 56, 60, 186Marte, Matías, 205Massacre River, 78, 115, 139, 181massacre, 21, 48, 58, 59, 148; of 1937,

25, 139–40, 147–8Mejía, Hipólito, 189, 210, 214Mercado Modelo, 14, 204migration, 12, 13, 14, 190, 135,

158, 194Moca, 88–9, 123modernization, 74, 98, 208monopoly, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 42,

44, 144Monte Plata, 89, 99Montecristi, 21, 35, 49, 56, 31, 34,

83, 95, 118, 122–3, 125, 132, 146,150, 178

Montero, Hernando de, 35Morfy, Guillermo de, 47mulatto/a, 45–6, 49, 50, 62–3, 69, 75–7,

83, 85, 87–8, 94, 100, 102, 105,114, 149, 151, 164, 200; elite, 90,100, 106, 174

narrative, 50, 52; of liberation, 53nation, 5, 6, 11, 15, 19, 26, 86, 214national identities, 7, 14, 18, 25, 170nationalism, 9–11, 23–4, 52, 87, 122,

145, 150, 174, 177, 182, 192nation-state, 12, 99, 109, 111–12,

162, 192negrismo, el, 171négritude, la, 5Neiba, 20, 96, 211, 213Netherlands, 30, 199Nigua, 64, 72, 99Nissage-Saget, 126Nord Alexis, Pierre, 126, 129Northern Band, 31Northwest Line, 123, 130, 188Núñez de Cáceres, José, 95, 106

oligarchy, 95, 102, 119, 125, 141Operation Dechoukaj, 192

Organization of American States(OAS), 152, 156, 206

Osorio, Antonio de, 34–5Other, the, 5, 10, 13–14, 18, 24, 25, 31,

53, 54, 99, 107, 163, 165, 176Otherness, 170, 173, 179, 186, 199Ouanaminthe, 64, 122, 129–30, 132,

139, 144, 150, 157, 212Ozama Fortress, 73, 93Ozama, 33, 36, 43, 84–5, 108

parcellization, of Haitian lands, 23,75, 100

Partido de la Liberación Dominicana(PLD), 197

Partido Reformista Social Cristiano(PRSC), 204

Partido Revolucionario Dominicano(PRD), 157, 204

pastoral mode of production, 31, 49,97, 61, 63, 100, 103

patois, 99, 173, 175peasantry, 6, 20, 90, 100, 102–3, 142,

149, 150, 160, 202Pedernales, 21, 59, 131, 146, 199,

211–12Peña Batlle, Manuel Arturo, 153, 164Peña Gómez, José Francisco, 204–5Pérez Caro, Ignacio, 42, 47Pétion, Alexandre Sabès, 53, 76, 81,

89, 91petit-blancs, 62, 64, 67Petite Goâve, 59, 60, 213Pierrot, Louis, 108, 115 Piña, Elías, 152–3, 199, 212pirates, 33, 37–8, 40–1Plaine du Nord, 20, 51, 55, 62plantations, 27–8, 37, 42, 45–6, 49, 58,

61, 75, 77, 87, 98, 100, 102, 133,136, 142, 155, 169–70, 189, 203

poesía negra, la, 171–2Poesía Sorprendida, La, 166, 177–8political geography, 142–3Pons, Moya, Frank, 144, 149population, 22, 23, 93, 117, 191

INDEX 267

Port-au-Prince, 12, 19, 20, 22, 23, 61,76, 88, 104, 115, 118, 121–2, 128,144, 146, 153, 156–7, 161, 185,192, 199, 205, 209–10, 213

Port-de-Paix, 39, 69, 78Pouancey, Seigneur de, 41Praslin Movement, 106Préval, René, 206, 209, 213Price-Mars, Jean, 11, 79, 112, 116, 153primitivism, 163–4, 166, 172privatization, 197, 214property ownership, 13, 97, 100Puello, José Joaquín, 97, 115Puerto Plata, 36, 40, 96, 123–4, 129Puerto Rico, 35, 55, 91, 121, 124, 128,

134, 142, 172, 195, 197, 199,208–9

Québécois Committee for the Rightsof Haitian Workers, 191

Quisqueya, 3, 96, 181

ranchers, 27, 49, 58, 60, 75, 100, 104,152; see also HATEROS

rayano, el, 179, 198Real Cédula, 34, 46recolonization, 82, 112, 119Reconquista, la, 29; 91–3repatriation, 187–8restoration, 25, 82, 124Rigaud, André, 64, 66Rivière-Hérard, Charles, 107, 112, 115Robles, Andrés de, 41, 44Rochambeau, Donatien-Marie-Joseph

de, 78, 83, 86Rosario Sánchez, Francisco, 106Roumain, Jacques, 150Roume, Philipe, 71, 73Rueda, Manuel, 14, 163, 166, 178,

186, 201

Sagás, Ernesto, 10, 161, 162, 188Saint-Domingue, 11, 24, 36, 37, 48–51,

54, 56–7, 76–7, 87, 104Saint-Denys de Juchereau, 106–7

St. Thomas, 115, 129Salnave, Sylvain, 122, 125Samaná, 33, 39, 40, 41, 71, 76, 89, 92,

96, 97, 99, 108, 125, 127San Cristóbal (St. Kitts), 38, 99, 114San Juan de la Maguana, 36, 41, 58, 96,

123, 135San Lorenzo de los Mina, 33, 56San Miguel, 56, 90, 122San Pedro de Macorís, 89, 132, 134,

188, 197San Rafael, 66, 68, 122Sánchez Ramírez, Juan, 91–2Santa María, 114, 151, 184Santana, Pedro, 97, 112–17, 122Santiago de los Caballeros, 35, 36, 40,

42, 56, 78, 83, 88–90 95–5, 107,113, 120, 123–4, 134, 197

Santo Domingo, 22, 24, 28, 31, 30, 35,36–7, 41, 47, 52, 61, 69, 73, 76, 81,83–5, 89, 92–3, 99, 104, 124, 134,179

Senghor, Leopold Sédar, 171Seybo, 99–100shantytowns, 23, 150, 195; see

BIDONVILLESsituado, el, 36, 41, 89slave revolt, 14, 18, 32–3, 47 slavery, 13, 45, 50, 77, 84, 114–15, 135,

168, 186, 188, 208slaves, 7, 11, 14–15, 17, 27, 31, 32, 35,

37, 42, 44, 48–9, 52, 54, 57–8, 60,68, 70, 73, 77, 88, 96, 101–2, 115,154, 165, 170, 200, 209

Solano Bote, José, 55, 58, 59Sonthonax, Léger Felicité, 53, 64, 67Soulouque, Faustin, 112, 115–18sovereignty, 96, 108, 112–14, 119–21,

124, 126, 143, 183Spain, 28, 45, 56–7, 67–8, 70, 108,

115–16, 124, 199spatial organization, 6, 24state, the, 5, 19, 24–5, 26, 100, 109,

140–3, 147, 162, 183, 195, 197,207, 209, 214

268 INDEX

subsistence farming, 42, 90–1sugar plantations, 15, 20, 28, 31–3, 37,

39, 45–7, 57, 61–1, 84, 87, 91, 94,98, 100, 127–9, 133, 134, 147, 152,155, 161, 168, 191, 194, 196; andindustry, 104, 133, 190, 195

sugar mills, 134, 136, 154syncretism, 14–15, 36, 200

Tarin de Cussy, 41, 42, 46taxation, 31, 49, 98, 101, 104–5,

133, 158territory, 6, 23, 99, 154, 164, 183;

expansion of, 112, 141tobacco, 34, 37, 41, 43, 49, 56, 61–2,

84, 92–3, 101, 103–5, 125, 188,191, 188

Tortuga, 33, 39, 40, 41, 55, 74,178, 190

trade, 39; embargo, 90; restrictions, 37transnationalization, 10, 141, 162, 192,

209Treaty, of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 114; of

Paris, 71, 93; of Tordesillas, 17Trinitaria, La, 106; trinitarios, los,

104–05Trouillot, Michel-Rolph, 5, 47, 86

Trujillo Molina, Rafael Leónidas, 9, 25,131, 141, 144, 153, 156, 158, 162,164, 167, 177, 188, 198

United Nations, 154, 187, 212; U. N.Human Rights Committee, 191

United States, 12, 20, 22, 72, 79, 84, 90,97, 114, 116–17, 120, 123, 126,131, 139, 142, 161, 191–4, 197,199, 202, 210; U. S. Departmentof Agriculture, 159; U. S.occupation, 9, 25, 118, 134,136–7, 144, 152, 166, 171

Vásquez, Horacio, 130, 136, 143Vásquez, Juan, 71, 89Venezuela, 194, 202, 210Vincent, Sténio Joseph, 143–4, 148Vodoun, 15, 68, 168, 170, 172, 175,

177, 200, 204

War of Restoration, 3, 122–3War of Succession, 45, 126

Yunén, Rafael Emilio, 161, 207

Zorrilla de San Martín, Pedro, 49, 55

INDEX 269

Documents

Notes - link.springer.com978-1-4039-7380-1/1.pdf · Notes Preface and Acknowledgments 1. Antonio Benítez-Rojo, The Repeating Island: The Caribbean and the Postmodern Perspective.Trans