MANAGING THE FISHERIES OF JAMAICA:IS CO-MANAGEMENT A VIABLE OPTION?

by

Peter EspeutResearch Fellow,

Institute of Social and Economic Research,

University of the West Indies,

Mona, Jamaica

Paper delivered to the JCXVIII Annual Conference of the Caribbean Studies Association, with thetheme "Caribbean Public Policy: Preparing for a Changing World", as a part of a Panel

entitled, "Co-Management for Sustainable Development".Jamaica Grande Hotel, Ocho Rios, Jamaica, May 24-29, 1993

2

MANAGING THE FISHERIES OF JAMAICA:IS CO-MANAGEMENT A VIABLE OPTION?

by

Peter EspeutResearch Fellow,

Institute of Social and Economic Research,University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica

ABSTRACTNot only are the fisheries of Jamaica overexploited, but non-sustainable practices such

as small mesh in traps and nets are common, and destructive methods such as dynamiting andpoison are well known. The Fishing Industry Act (1975) and The Fishing Industry Regulations(1976) have been largely ineffective in controlling overfishing and damage to the reefs and thefishery, and the fisherfolk have exhibited little interest in organizing themselves into co-operatives or other associations.

The paper examines the viability of resource co-management with the government ofJamaica and local resource-users as partners. Both The institutional capacity of the FisheriesDivision and the potential of the resource users to co-manage the Jamaican fishery is assessed.

The paper concludes that present resources available to both fishers and civil servantsare inadequate for co-management to be attempted all at once. More than money is required. Acommittment to sustainable development and a suitable legal framework as well asenvironmental NGOs with a developmental focus are both necessary for co-management of theJamaican fisheries to become a viable option.

INTRODUCTIONFish is a staple in the Jamaican diet. In 1990 Jamaicans consumed an estimated 25,564.6

mt of fishl of which 15,000.8 mt worth J$227,517,480 was imported2. Of the 10,500 mt sourcedlocally, 7,200 mt came from the capture fishery and 3,300 mt was cultivated in freshwater ponds.

The estimated domestic fish catch has varied between 8,500 and 7,000 mt over the lastfifteen years. During the same period the numbers of fishers and boats licensed has increased byan average of about 3% and there are many unlicensed fishers. The fact that there has been noincrease in catch despite the increase in fishing effort is strong indication that the fishery iscurrently overexploited. Other indications are a reduction in the mean size of the fish caught,and a change in species composition towards more trash fish.

The output from the freshwater culture of Tilapia has increased from 2.2 mt to 3363.8 mtbetween 1978-1990. Jamaica's freshwater resources are finite, and may not be able to supportmuch more of an increase in production.

Considering her relatively high per capita fish consumption (11.36 kilos) it is in Jamaica'sinterest to maximize its food fish catch to reduce imports, and this will only occur if Jamaica'sfisheries are properly managed.

1 Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Feed Statistics 1979-1991.

2 Jamaica, Statistical Institute of Jamaica Fxternal Trade 1990.

3

THE CHARACTER OF THE JAMAICAN FISHERYFISHING GROUNDS

The most useful way to categorize the Jamaican marine fisheries are as inshore andoffshore. The main difference is logistical (distance, availability of food, fuel, etc.) rather thanfishing technology or type of fish caught, which, except for the greater incidence of net fishingon the south shelf, does not vary appreciably.

The inshore fishing grounds of Jamaica are located on the island's shelves (North andSouth), and on several banks which are relatively close to shore (see Figure 1).

The north shelf is a thin strip bordering the mainland not more than 1.6 km (1 mile) wideat any point and occupies an area of 25,910 ha. A mix of fringing and barrier reefs extend, withfew gaps, from Morant Point to Negril. The sill reef and drop-off are often characterized bylarge coral pinnacles, and active reef growth has been observed to depths of 70 m.

The south shelf has an average width of 24 km (15 miles) and is approximately 150 kmlong (100 miles), with a maximum width of 64 km (40 miles); it has an area of 258,590 ha.Large reefs are restricted to the eastern part of the South Shelf, near Port Royal and the entranceto Portland Bight. Elsewhere on the south coast, coral reefs tend to be small and patchy.

The inshore banks are easily reachable from shore by man- or motor-powered canoe.Their cays are not inhabited, even for short periods. Travelling out in the early morning thefishers haul, harvest and reset pots, or, using SCUBA gear, hunt for lobster and large fish withspearguns.

Offshore fisheries include the Pedro and Morant Banks, and waters and banks outsidenational jurisdiction as far north as the Bahamas, south to Venezuela and west to Honduras andNicaragua (See Figure 2). Of all the offshore banks, the largest fishing operations occur on theMorant and Pedro Banks which lie within the territorial waters of Jamaica. These rise abruptlyfrom depths exceeding 500m to submerged plateaus of variable sizes with average depths from30-40m. On both these banks, depths of less than 20 m are encountered in areas where cays andshoals are present, particularly on the eastern fringes.

The Pedro Bank (about three-quarters of the land area of Jamaica) is the largest of thebanks, with a total size of about 804,000 ha. Located about 60 miles from Kingston, the meandepth is about 24.5m and the circumference is about 590 km. Three cays form part of the banks,two of which are inhabited by about 1,200-2,000 fishers and the other is a bird sanctuary. Packerboats travel to the Banks bringing supplies and return to the mainland after purchasing fish.

The Morant Bank is relatively small -- about 100 square miles in area. It is locatedabout 64 km (40 miles) southeast of Kingston and consists of three small cays, two of which areinhabited by about 200-500 fishers, while the third is a bird sanctuary.

FISHING GEAR

Commercial (large boat) fishing plays a minimal role in the Jamaican fishery. Almost allJamaican fishers are small-scale artisanal fishers.

The most common gear used in the Jamaican artisanal fisheries is the Z-type antilleanfishpot, a fish trap using a skeleton of mangrove, wild coffee, sweetwood or lancewood stickscovered with mesh wire of various apertures. The average size of these traps is 180x120x60 cm.Other common fishing gear are gill nets, seine nets, hook-and-line and spearguns.Unfortunately, the use of dynamite and certain toxic substances is all too common, especially onthe South Shelf.

(

MILES 2C

ST MARY WESTMORLAND

NORTH SHELF

HANOVER ST JAMES

ZRELAWNYST. ANN

ST . CATHERINEST. ELIZARETH

: ST. ANDREW

IS) ----cS :. 6 •9 :CLARENDON: 11,40&

New Bank

SOUTH SHELF California Bank

Blossom Bank

Q

PORTLAND

O

•Morant bank

ZE 2: INSHORE FISHING AREAS OF JAMAICA

oimigas B

Grappler [3

Henry lltithies0

a

0

a Norseman's Bank

Dingle Bank

Albatross Ban

%' Mackerel (Bowditch) B.0

FIGURE4: OFFSHORE FISHING AREAS OF JAMAICA

L: DMISTERIOSABANK

d 'C,CAYMAN IS.

JAMAICA;

A SWAN IS.

ROSALND BANK •O ' itIORAIfT

BANKN PEDRO BANK

GORDA BANKo '

_ . .

' 7' °BAJO •SERRANLLA NUEVO

BANK

I

Ir HONDURAS

a OSER RANA BANK

CARIBBEAN SEA

dPROVIDENCIANICARAGUA

g ‘SAN ANDRES

COSTA RICA

PACIFIC OCEAPANAMA CANAL

ISLAND SHELF COLOMBIA

TERRITORIAL WATERS

6

Table 1 shows the main fishing gear used by fishing boats during the September 1980sample survey of the Jamaican fishing industry. Pot fishing dominates, 64% of all boats beingengaged in that activity. Net fishing and line fishing are practised by 18% and 16% of all boats,while the "other" practised by the remaining 1% is mostly speargun fishing either free diving orusing SCUBA tanks. Many fishers use more than one type of gear, so it is safe to say that thefull inventory of fishing gear as used is much more than this table indicates. Not included in thisdata are a large number of subsistence spearfishers who do not use boats.

TABLE 1: MAIN TYPE OF FISHING GEAR USED BY BOATBY PARISH - SEPTEMBER, 1980

PARISH

North Shelf

I MAIN

NET

TYPE

1 POT I

OF

LINE

GEAR

I OTHER

Portland 26 182 54St. Mary 35 172 33St. Ann 19 169 31 4Trelawny 13 115 21 9St. James 54 153 47 1Hanover 37 273 96 3

South Shelf

St. Thomas 62 123 69 6St. Andrew 153 93 104 4St. Catherine 76 185 44 3Clarendon 91 170 26 1Manchester 26 135 8 1St. Elizabeth 14 250 21 -Westmoreland 84 392 65 7

TOTAL 1690 12,412 I 619 I 39

SOURCE: From Sahney (1981); Table 2.

The number of registered boats in Jamaica in 1990 is 9,539 3. The assumption may bemade that the types of gear occur in the same proportion as the boats in 1980. This means that1,751 may be said to do net fishing, 6,119 do pots, 1,570 do line fishing and ninety-nine do"other" (mostly spearfishing).

Because of the relative abundance of fish traps, fisheries management in Jamaica mustaddress the management of the trap fishery.

3 Espeut, Peter and Sandra Grant. (1990).

7

THE FISHERFOLK

Since 1975 when Jamaica's fisheries licensing regulations came into effect, about 20,000persons applied for fishing licenses, over 4,000 in the last five years4. Included in this figure areabout 1,200 persons specially registered to fish in the Pedro and Morant Banks. There are anestimated 10,000 unlicensed fishers 5.

Although very few women actually go to sea to fish, there is evidence that severalwomen, many of them fish vendors, own fishing boats and therefore participate closely in thefishing industry.

The fishers fall ito two groups: those who own boats and those who crew. The traditionalshare system is still in operation, where the catch is divided into equal portions according tocertain rules:

First, before the catch is divided, the value of fuel and food consumed is subtracted.

Second, each person -- the labour units -- receives an equal share in their own right.From boat owner (if he is present) to cox'n to lowly junior crewman, each receives thesame share for their labour.

Third, the boat receives a share which is paid to the owner, present or not.

Fourth, the owner of any special gear (like the fishing net) receives an extra share.

The share system suits the crew because without any capital outlay they can earn a tidyincome. It suits the boat owner because alone he cannot use the boat to its full potential. Someowners, however, might feel that they should receive more on their capital investment, whichmight lead to them offering a daily wage instead of a share. Interestingly, the arrangementsusually work in favour of the owner-man, for if the catch is poor, they revert to the share systemso that the owner does not incur a loss.

The share system has three advantages. First, all share the risk. If the catch is good thenall benefit; if the catch is poor then all suffer. Second, having an interest in the size of the catchincreases individual fishing effort, especially if the owner is not present. Third, productivityremains high as the partnership will expel incapable or lazy fishers and give others a try.

Many fishers practice more than one occupation. One of the earliest studies of multi-occupationality in the Caribbean was conducted by Lambros Comitas on five fishingcommunities in Jamaica6. His discussion of the subject is worth quoting at length:

"In 1958, the writer completed a study of five coastal settlements in rural Jamaicawhose inhabitants were ostensibly fishermen. At least they were so considered by thosebranches or agencies of the Jamaican government most concerned with the fishingindustry. ... Detailed occupational statistics collected indicated that ... from 63 to 79percent of all males gainfully occupied are engaged in more than one economic activity.For the most part, these individuals do not specialize in fishing but combine it with own-account work such as cultivation, or various forms of wage employment, or somecombination of the three. Concentration on fishing varies primarily with the availabilityof land and sea resources, the possibilities for wage employment, the regional demand forskills, and such factors as age and familial responsibilities. Although each settlementexists within its own micro-ecological niche, the ... settlements to be discussed share incommon economic possibilities or alternatives which are extremely limited. In some

4 Espeut, Peter and Sandra Grant. (1990).

5 Kong, Andre. (1990). Page 3.

6 Comitas (1973).

8

cases, no one alternative is sufficiently lucrative for individual full-time specialization,and therefore occupational multiplicity can become a necessity.

"Because the available alternatives in each area are not the same, a somewhatdistinctive modal form of vocational combination exists at each settlement. For example,in Long Hill the typical pattern is mixed cash and subsistence agriculture, night fishing,and occasional wage employment. In Whitehouse, the emphasis is on intensive dayfishing, subsistence agriculture, and occasional wage employment. In Duncans, wageemployment, the primary economic activity, is interlocked with a particular form of earlyhour fishing and with little dependence on agriculture. For all three settlements, despitethe dominance of one alternative, it is the obtained occupational balance whichminimizes the possibility of individual and household insecurity and from whichsignificant structural relationships develop" 7.

The fact of multioccupationality may assist the fisheries management process, as will beexplained below.

THE MANAGEMENT PROBLEMThe Surplus Production Model (SPM) is the theoretical framework within which the

management of a demersal (reef) fishery is couched. The SPM outlines a relationship betweenyield (catch) and fishing effort (number of boats, traps, nets, fishers, etc.) as in Figure 3.

Where fishing effort is low (to the left of the curve) the catch of fish will becorrespondingly low, and there will be many uncaught fish which will grow and reproduce; theaverage size of fish caught will be relatively large, and the degree of biodiversity 8 will berelatively high. As fishing effort increases, the catch will increase to a maximum level and willbe sustained at that level as long as fishing effort is not further increased. At the point ofMaximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) the breeding stocks are able to regenerate the fishpopulation so that catch levels can be maintained. If there are further increases in fishing effort,the catch of fish will eventually decline as the breeding stock is reduced, decreasing the ability ofthe fish populations to regenerate themselves; the average size of the fish caught will berelatively small, and the degree of biodiversity will have been reduced as the speciescomposition of fish shifts towards smaller, less valuable species.

7 Comitas (1973); page 164-165.

8 Biodiversity in the marine environment refers to the presence of large numbers of different species of fish, corals and other

invertebrates.

9

According to the SPM, fisheries management is fundamentally maintaining fishing effortat the desired level. Attaining MSY is not always the goal of fisheries management. Dependingon the management goal, different levels of fishing effort may be desired:

• If the purpose of managing the marine environment is to facilitate tourism (SCUBAdiving, snorkelling, etc.), then many large fish will be required for the tourists to see andphotograph; the management target, therefore, is to keep effort at a minimum, and to usethe revenue earned from tourism to pay for fish imports. The fisheries of the Bahamasand the Cayman Islands are managed to this end.

• If the goal of fisheries management is to operate a successful export fishery then size andquality as well as quantity of fish become important. Fishing effort must therefore be at alevel greater than for tourism, but not great enough to produce low quality fish. Theauthorities in Belize seek to manage their fisheries to this end.

• If the goal of fisheries management is to maximize profit, then fishing effort needs to becontrolled to a level just below that of MSY (called maximum economic yield -- MEY),since at MEY, the unit cost of production is at a minimum. Fishing effort in the BritishVirgin Islands is at about this level.

• If the goal of fisheries management is to maximize the yield of fish to be used as food forthe local population, then fisheries managers should aim for MSY. Fishing effort in theBritish Virgin Islands is at about this level.

It is not desireable that the fishing effort exceeds that for MSY. For one, it would beinefficient, as the same yield could be obtained with much lower effort. Yields would also notbe sustainable, and almost certainly will be accompanied by damage to the environment. Thelevel of fishing effort in St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Grenada, Barbados, Dominica and St.Lucia is greater than the MSY. Of all the territories in the Caribbean, the Jamaican fisherysuffers from the highest level of effort, and the lowest yield for its fishery. Overfishing inJamaica is the highest in the region, and offers the greatest challenge to fisheries management.

Jamaica's fishery is called upon to perform several functions by its users. The touristindustry requires that the SCUBA diving be good; the "commercial" artisanal fishers require thatthey make a good profit; the subsistence fishers need to eat well. These goals are mutuallyexclusive for any particular fishery, but perhaps it would be appropriate to set different goals fordifferent segments of Jamaica's fisheries.

The inshore and offshore banks are a commercial fishery for several thousand artisanalfishers. Perhaps these fisheries should be managed to MEY.

The north and south shelves should probably be zoned for different activities andmanagement goals: fish sanctuaries are needed in certain areas, where effort should be reducedto a minimum; marine parks (for tourists to SCUBA dive) are needed where possibly net fishingmay be permitted but where other types of fishing are disallowed; and fishing grounds whereeffort is managed to MEY. On the north shelf where most of the subsistence activity takes place,perhaps the target should be MSY.

10

REDUCING FISHING EFFORTThe co-management process has many strategies to choose from which may be employed

to control or reduce fishing effort. The list below is not exhaustive:

• Limiting the number of fishers: At the moment, Jamaica's fishery is an open-accessfishery; anyone can obtain a license to fish with a minimum of hassle by applying to theFisheries Division. It is possible to decide to slow down the increase of fishing effort bylimiting the number of new licenses issued, or by not issuing any new licenses. A one in-one out system will maintain effort roughly at the same level. At the same time, anypersons fishing without a license must be prevented from doing so.

• Reducing the number of fishers: It is possible to decide that when fishers die, retire ormigrate, they will not be replaced at all, or only partially replaced. Two out-one in orthree out-one in will reduce fishing effort substantially. Fishers may also be encouragedto retire or to become part time by the provision of alternate economic activity. Sincemany fishers are already multioccupational (see Comitas above) it should be possible toassist them to develop their other sources of income. Multioccupationality can also beencouraged in fishers who are now unioccupational.

• Limiting the number of boats: Limiting the number of boats in a fishery is a useful toolfor limiting fishing effort.

• Increasing the mesh size of fish traps and nets: Increasing the mesh size of fish trapsand nets may allow small fish, which might otherwise be trapped, to remain free and togrow larger.

• Reducing the number of traps: This, plus arresting any increase in the number of traps,will reduce effort substantially.

• Eliminating the use of dynamite: Prevents permanent damage to habitat.

Can co-management lead to the adoption of some or all these measures to reduce fishingeffort, and see to their implementation? That is the question before us.

THE CONCEPT OF CO-MANAGEMENTWhereas the ultimate management goals for different fishing areas in Jamaica will vary,

the proximate target for each area will be the same: the reduction of fishing effort to a particularlevel, and maintaining it there.

What is co-management? Co-management of natural resources is collaborative effortbetween the government, local communities of resource users and possibly non-governmentorganizations to achieve a mutually agreed-upon environmental goal. Co-management infisheries involves a partnership between the fishers, fisheries biologists, the governmentdepartments responsible for fisheries and the environment, and possibly a facilitatingenvironmental NGO.

The alternatives to co-management are government management, (i.e. the status quo)and community management (management by the resource-users alone). Considering thereluctance of the state to divest itself of power the latter alternative would not appear to berealistic. And so the two options are co-management and government management.

As has been said so many times before, fisheries management is mostly management ofthe fishers, rather than management of the fish. Government management usually involves thedesign and enactment of legislation by government, and the enforcement of the laws by the

11

police or fisheries wardens. A we-them scenario is often created, where the relationship betweenthe government and the police is adversarial, and is largely ineffective in terms of achievingmanagement goals.

The primary advantage of co-management is that, because the resource-users are directlyinvolved as partners in the management process, management efforts stand a better chance ofsuccess. Because the fishers actually take part in the management decisions, they are likely to beconvinced of their efficacy and importance and should co-operate. There should be less need forenforcement, but much of the enforcement that is needed should be provided by the communityof resource users in their own interest. Co-management should be more cost-effective.

Co-management is both a political and a social process: it is political because itempowers communities to take more charge of their local situation; it is social because it is acommunity that is empowered, which presumes the existence of a stable group able to representits members.

Co-management involves group formation and/or strengthening. Typically, groups ofany sort are difficult to form in rural Jamaica, and once formed, have difficulty surviving. Theviability of co-management as a strategy for fisheries management in Jamaica may well dependon the potential for group formation among fishers.

Zoning the fisheries will produce a number of management areas (e.g. the Pedro Banks,Walton Bank, Portland Bight, etc.), each of which will need its own co-management regime,involving the user-groups, the government, etc. If co-management is to work, the governmentagencies involved need to have the institutional capacity to participate effectively in such asystem.

For best results, the co-management arrangement should be enshrined in law. If the co-management regime is not vested with legal status then the community of resource users reallyhas no rights, and cannot be expected to really commit themselves to it. Legal status for co-management would represent government's committment to the process.

Successful management of any sort presupposes that the managers have access to criticalinformation. Successful fisheries management demands up-to-date biological andsocioeconomic information in the mands of the managers. In a co-management situation allpartners -- fishers as well as as government -- must have this information, and therefore amechanism must be in place to provide it.

In this sort of arrangement, conflicts are inevitable. A mechanism for conflict resolutionwhich does not give any party an unfair advantage, must be established.

Co-management has tremendous advantages over management by either the governmentalone or the community alone. The sharing of ideas and resources between all parties can lead toeffective management of Jamaica's fisheries resources.

THE CAPACITY OF THE GOVERNMENTAs a prelude to discussing the viability of co-management as an option for fisheries

management, the capacity of the government to enter into such a partnership must be assessed.

The Jamaican government agency responsibile for the environment is the NaturalResources Conservation Authority (NRCA), embracing the Beach Control Authority and theWildlife Protection Agency. The NRCA falls under the Ministry of the Public Service. It is thisagency which has the responsibility for declaring fish sanctuaries and marine parks.

The agency responsible for fisheries is the Fisheries Division (FD) of the Ministry ofAgriculture. They are responsible for enforcing the Fishing Industry Act (1975) and the Fishing

12

Industry Regulations (1976) which regulates the licensing of fishers and boats, the size and typeof species which may be caught, and establishment of closed seasons.

Certainly there needs to be more co-operation between these two agencies than there is atpresent. In fact I have recommended elsewhere that they both be brought under the samegovernment ministry so that their activities and programmes may be co-ordinated 9.

The FD was established not to manage the fisheries of Jamaica but to expand anddevelop the fishing industry, and the Fishing Industry Act (1975) reflects this. The FDadministers a loan scheme for the procurement of boats, engines and gear, and sells subsidizedboat gas to registered boat owners. Although it issues"fishing licenses" there are no conditionswhich apply, and there is no "license" fee; the issuing of the "licenses" is automatic. What isreally operated is a Fisheries Registration System.

The FD is headed by a Director, and has a Deputy with six Fisheries Officers. There arealso twelve "Fisheries Instructors", who primarily sell the fuel on the beaches. At present thereis an acting director, and all the other posts are vacant, due largely to the abysmally low salarieswhich those posts attract.

The FD does not, at present, have the institutional capacity to participate in extensive co-management arrangements. If co-management of the fisheries is accepted as a managementstrategy then additional resources will have to be providedlo. In addition, special training for FDstaff in the sociological and anthropological issues surrounding fisheries management will berequired.

The rationale for the existence of the FD needs to be changed giving it the mandate forfisheries management. If co-management is going to be attempted -- at least in some sites --legal instruments will have to be devised.

THE CAPACITY OF THE FISHERSThe success of co-management is going to rest largely with the capacity of the fishers to

accept management responsibility and to implement agreed-upon decisions. What skills andresources do the fishers have to contribute to this partnership?

The fishers possess vital information about the location of reefs and their productivity, aswell as local knowledge of the timing of spawning aggregations and the passing of pelagicspecies. They also know each other, and who is damaging the environment using dynamite andtoxic substances. They have a real contribution to make towards fisheries management.

However there are certain disadvantages. Typically, fishers have not had the benefit ofmuch formal education, and many are not able to read and write. This will limit their ability toaccess some of the information they will need to properly participate in fisheries management.The fact that some fishers are economically disadvantaged and socially marginalized means that,in order to survive, they may use environmentally damaging methods, and will confound themanagement efforts.

Low community cohesion is a feature of Jamaican rural life. Individualism and atomismcombined with a low level of resources usually lead to excessive competition for power, whichmeans that community organizations are difficult to form and sustain. The prevalence of theshare system, however, indicates that there is some foundation in co-operation on which to build.

9 Espeut, Peter and Sandra Grant. (1990).

10 Elsewhere I have argued that if a reasonable license fees are charged for fishers and boats, the additional revenue will finance the

necessary changes in the FD.

13

Fishers in Jamaica have not sustained any interest in fishing organizations, which areprerequisites for successful fisheries management. At present the only fishers' organizations aresix lukewarm fishing co-operatives: at Whitehouse (Westmoreland), Calabash Bay and GreatBay (St. Elizabeth), Rocky Point (Clarendon), Old Harbour Bay (St. Catherine) and Hope Bay(Portland); but at one time there were at least five others: in Manchioneal (Portland), Milk River(Clarendon), Falmouth (Trelawny), Port Royal and Kingston.

The rationale for co-operatives in Jamaica is weak. In Belize, which exports 95% of thevalue of its catch, the co-operatives are absolutely essential, for how else could a fisher disposeof all of his lobster, conch and finfish catch? But in Jamaica, which imports two-thirds of thefish consumed locally, marketing of even the smallest fish is not a problem. Marketing is not arationale for fishers' organizations.

Obtaining fishing gear at duty-free or reduced prices (after bulk purchases) was an earlyrationale for Jamaican fishing co-ops. Some of these co-ops were quite small, and could notachieve economies of scale separately. After the smaller co-ops banded together and formed thelarger Jamaica Co-operative Union (JCU) which has achieved economies of scale, the rationalefor local fishing co-ops has disappeared. The JCU sells to anyone with a fishing license, andthere is no special benefit to being a co-op member.

The government distributes benefits (loans, subsidies, etc.) through the FD and the JCUwithout reference to co-op membership, and there are no benefits which co-ops offer whichcannot be obtained otherwise.

Being partners in co-management on behalf of the fishers could give the fishing co-ops anew lease on life. One advantage would be that co-operatives already have a preferred statusunder the law, and their rules could be drawn up in such a way as to provide for a managementfunction.

IS CO-MANAGEMENT A VIABLE OPTION?There are two ways that this question may be interpreted. One is to consider whether, if

all the partners had the necessary resources, co-management would be a viable option to achievefisheries management goals. The other is to consider whether co-management is a viable option,bearing in mind that the necessary resources may never become available.

It is my belief that co-management is a viable option to achieve sustainable fisheriesmanagement, but that the proper legal framework and certain resources need to be available tofishers and the Fisheries Department for these efforts to have a chance of success. Indeed, co-management may be the only approach which will be able to achieve the goal of a reduction infishing effort; for entry into the fishery to be limited or reduced, of if a fish sanctuary or marinepark were to be established, the fisherfolk would have to agree, since the only way the fisherycan be properly policed and the regulations obeyed is if they co-operate.

Neither the Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Agriculture nor the fishers can beexpected to be organized and ready to participate in co-management, and much groundwork andpreparation will be required. Aside from recruiting Fisheries Officers to fill the vacancies, allthe FD staff will have to be trained in co-management principles -- how to share managementresponsibility with fishers -- for the old ways of managing will not be compatible with the new.

The fishers will need much more. They will need to be assisted to organize into a groupwhich can take part in a management partnership. They will need to be involved in a two-wayeducation process where they can share what they know about the fishery and at the same timecan learn some socioeconomics and fisheries biology. This group formation, maintenance andeducation process should be ongoing for many years. It needs to continue long after the co-management process has begun. Fisheries management of this sort is really rural development.

14

The Fisheries Division in Jamaica does not possess the rural development skills to assistthe fishers to become ready for co-management. In any case, it is more appropriate for thisfunction to be performed by an non-governmental organization which can better advise the localgroup how best to work with the government. The NGO should possess skills in both ruraldevelopment (the social sciences) and the environment (the biological sciences), and would itselfbecome a partner in the co-management process.

Co-management should first be pilot-tested in one or two communities. Of course veryfew of the necessary components will be in place, and so teething pains are to be expected. TheNGO hopefully should be able to assist the fishers with the conceptualization of the necessarylegislation, and the formulation of the final product.

Co-management offers the best opportunity for managing Jamaica's fisheries sustainably.It is time that these ideas move out from theory into practice.

15

REFERENCES

AIKEN, Karl A. and Milton 0. HAUGHTON. "A Management Plan for the JamaicanFisheries". (mimeo). Prepared for the Ministry of Agriculture, Science andTechnology, Kingston, Jamaica. 1987.

. "Regulating Fishing Effort: The Jamaican Experience". Presented at the 40th Annual Gulfand Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Curacao, Netherlands Antilles, November,1987.

. "Status of the Jamaican Reef Fishery and Proposals for its Management." A paperpresented at the 38th Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. Martinique,November, 1985.

COMITAS, Lambros. "Occupational Multiplicity in Rural Jamaica." in COMITAS, Lambrosand Lowenthal, David. (eds). Work and Family Life: West Indian Perspectives.New York: Anchor Press. 1973.

ESPEUT, Peter and Sandra GRANT. "An Economic and Social Analysis of Small-ScaleFisheries in Jamaica". FAO Reprt. 1989.

HAUGHTON, Milton 0. "The Obstacles to Fisheries Management in Jamaica". NAGA, theICLARM Quarterly, 10 (3):17. Manila, 1987.

JAMAICA. The Fishing Industry Act. 1975 (Act 17 of 1975).

JAMAICA. The Fishing Industry Regulations. 1976 under TileEiahingIniusiaAci,1225 (Act17 of 1975).

JAMAICA, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, DATA COLLECTION AND STATISTICSBRANCH, Livestock and Feed Statistics 1979-1989. Data Bank and EvaluationDivision, July 1990.

JAMAICA, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES DIVISION. The Jamaican FishingIndustry: An Outline. (Mimeo). June 1975.

. "Register of Fishermen and Fishing Vessels".

. "The Status of Fisheries Development in Jamaica." 1982.

KONG, G. Andre. "The Jamaican Fishing Industry: Its Structure and Major Problems".(mimeo). 1990.

MUNRO, John L. and Ian R. SMITH. "Management Strategies for Multi-Species Complexes inArtisanal Fisheries". Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute.36:127-141 (1984).

SAHNEY, A.K. "Sample Survey of the Fishing Industry in Jamaica, 1981." Data Bank andEvaluation Division, MOA. Kingston. 1982.

STEVENSON, D.K. "Management of a Tropical Fish Pot Fishery for Maximum SustainableYield". Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 30:95-115.1978.