New York City Microclimate PolicyApplying Green Infrastructure to Mitigate Environmental Health Impacts caused by the Urban

Heat Island Effect and Heat Waves

A Platform for Climate Change Resiliency in New York City

Client: New York City Council

07.31.12

Academic Advisors: Professor Alec Appelbaum & Professor Jaime L. Stein

Technical Advisor: Professor Paul S. Mankiewicz, Ph. D.

Michael A. Catalano

MS, Urban Environmental Systems Management, Candidate 2012

Pratt Institute, School of Architecture

Graduate Center for Planning and the Environment

Programs for Sustainable Planning and Development

1. Introduction: Why New York City needs a Microclimate Policy

The creation of a healthy microclimate starting with vulnerable populations

The health costs related to environmental heat exposure are high and are projected to increase

due to the effects of climate change in New York City, especially for the most vulnerable

populations; ages 65 and older.1,2 The New York City Urban Heat Island Effect (UHIE) is one of

the main factors contributing to longer durations of intense temperatures leading to heat exposure

in the region. In general, the UHIE is created by a geographic area with low levels of vegetation

and therefore increased levels of solar radiation collected by thermal mass (brick, concrete,

pavement etc.) and impervious surfaces. In NYC we retain heat (energy) that is gained during the

day and unlike the suburbs, nighttime cooling does not provide similar relief. 3

New York City is currently in the position to integrate vegetated surfaces better known as green

infrastructure back into the urban environment as a site-specific UHIE mitigation measure.

Green infrastructure, when strategically implemented at scale, has the ability to regulate

localized temperature as well as mitigate surface and air temperature fluctuations by removing

excess heat. This is accomplished through the partitioning of incoming radiation into sensible

and latent heat. process incorporating both shading and heat loss through evapotranspiration

lowers the thermal input and removes heat from urban surfaces and atmosphere.4

The City of New York, including New York City Council, Mayor’s Office of Long Term

Planning and Sustainability, and the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene are aware of the

health threats affiliated with over exposure to excessive heat and the negative impacts it can have

on the city’s infrastructural and environmental systems.5 Local law #21, adopted in 2007, and

amended in 2011, has been one approach the City of New York has taken toward abating the

UHIE. This law requires that all new roof replacements, with some exceptions such as roofs

replacements under 50%, shall receive a new roof surface that is energy star rated at minimum or

have an initial solar reflectance of 0.7. 6 Concurrently the City of New York has covered 2.8

million square feet of roof with a white highly reflective coating through the NYC cool roofs

2

programs.7 Currently, the City of New York also recognizes the potential for ecological systems

to provide services that help mitigate the cost of environmental burdens. Two programs that stem

from PlaNYC are “Million Trees” and the DEP Green Infrastructure (GI) plan. Million trees, a

PlaNYC initiative, sets out to mitigate bad air quality and the urban heat island effect to reduce

the health impacts by planting trees in all five bouroughs. 8,9 These two programs have common

grounds, trees (especially enhanced tree pits), green roofs, and green walls which address

stormwater, air pollution can create a microclimate to mitigate the heat island effect for

vulnerable poplulations living in high density housing.

2. What is a Microclimate?

Positive and Negative microclimates

A microclimate is defined by a locale with a distinct difference in air temperature when

compared to the greater climate condition.10 Microclimates are created naturally by geographical

changes in the environment such as costal zones, topographical differences in altitude, and man-

made environments however, it is biological systems and plant communities that effect

regulatory control in temperature.11 The UHIE is by definition a microclimate, and unlike a

positive microclimates, it is an environmental burden that has consistently caused deaths every

summer in NYC, regionally and globally. 12 The New York City Urban Heat Island effect is

defined by its higher average ambient temperature increase of 7° Fahrenheit and may be as

much as 10° F warmer over its surrounding suburban counterparts.13,14 This is attributed to the

increase in thermal mass (eg. building materials), decrease in tree and ecological density,

decrease in available water, decrease in pervious surfaces, and other thermal pollution sources.15

Positive microclimates create a comfort zone, a place of retreat from the hot urban environment.

A large tree canopy in a public park can be a great example of how shade and evaporation work

symbiotically to drop local tempertures. Concentrated Green Infrastructure investments have the

ability to decrease local and regional air temperature and therefore create a positive micro-

climate environment around urban structures.

3. Microclimate Policy should directly address the NYC Urban Heat Island Effect as an Environmental Health Threat

The Urban Heat Island Effect (UHIE) has caused several issues during the summer months for

the past 100 years in New York City.16 This environmental phenomenon has threatened the health

and lives of New York City residents and is predicted to increase up to 95% from 1990 levels by

2050.17 The UHIE intensifies summer temperatures making hot days more severe and nighttime

temperatures extremely dangerous for vulnerable populations especially during heat waves of

two or more consecutive days.18 The microclimate temperatures around urban structures may

vary when compared to ambient temperature readings during hot days. 19 This means that some

individuals may be at a higher risk of being exposed to extreme heat, an example is, people

living on the top floor of a high-rise building. These individuals may feel the effects of increased

heat.20 In general, the Heat Island effect is blamed for a large part of the summer peak electricity

demand as it relates to cooling loads and can co-linearly be blamed for the dirty fuels and

excessive pollution released during these times. During hot days the UHIE can create bad air

quality days in New York City. The UHIE traps the air pollution from cars, buildings and power

plants creating ground level ozone and smog.21

The Heat Island effect in New York City threads a fragile line between life and death due to the

sustained increase in levels of ambient temperature, long term heat exposure and increased levels

of air pollution. In August 2011, the New York Times reported 19 deaths in NYC due to high

ambient temperature where Hyperthermia or Heat Stroke was listed as the main cause of the

death due to environmental heat.22 The culmination of consecutive days with high daily and

nighttime temperatures does not allow for the human body to dissipate excess heat. Consistently

high temperatures increase stress-related levels on the cardiovascular system as the body

attempts to maintain homeostasis.23 A death caused by environmental heat is declared when a

human’s body temperature is 105°F degrees or higher.24 During the NYC summer of 2006, more

than 140 people died from heat related illnesses, 40 directly from environmental heat and 100

more were identified as being triggered by over exposure to heat.25 One Philadelphia study

4

concluded that 196 premature heat related mortalities could be averted if green infrastructure was

integrated throughout the city over a 40-year period by addressing combined sewer overflow and

would save over 1 billion dollars in human lives saved.26

4. Vulnerable Populations & Climate Change

Environmental heat exposure is uncomfortable for all, but for many people it can cause early

death, heat stroke and can exacerbate existing health conditions such as heart attack, stroke,

asthma, diabetes and psychiatric conditions.27 Senior citizens (ages 65 and above) young

children, pregnant women, and populations with existing medical conditions (especially in

environmental justice communities) are considered to be the most vulnerable populations.28 In

2011, New York City’s Health Advisory #8 documented 160 hospital admissions, 440 emergency

department visits (May to September), 152 heat stroke deaths (1997-2010), a 6.5 % increase in

cardiovascular, and pulmonary disease, during 12 extensive heat waves causing an increase of

1,090 additional estimated deaths related to heat.29 One estimate concluded that there are over

300 heat related excess deaths on average during a New York City summer.30 Adults above the

age of 65 are shown to be 5 times more at risk to die or suffer from heat stroke than populations

younger than 65 years of age.31 As of 2010, NYC has 989,191 residents that are 65 years and

older or 12.1% of the total NYC population out of the total 8,175,133.32 New York City contains

twenty-seven Naturally Occurring Retirement Communities (NORCs); 43,820 are senior citizens

living in high density housing between four borrows.33

Global average temperatures have been projected to increase 2.5 to 10.4 degrees F, (1.4 to 5.8 C)

which will exacerbate the urban heat island effect, and in one estimate, will result in 1,040 more

heat related deaths by 2099, not accounting for the projected increase in baby boomer population

reaching 65 years of age.34 In the coming years heat waves are expected to increase in duration

and frequency, the number of 90°F plus days are expected to increase from the 1971-2000

baseline of 14 days per year, to 23 to 29 days in 2020. By 2050 it is predicted to be 29 to 45 and

by 2080, it is expected to be 37 to 64 or over 2/3 of the summer months.35 Using the

precautionary principle alone, NYC should create a more robust policy to bolster a long term

resiliency plan for the city.36 The estimated projected days above 90 degrees creates a real sense

of urgency to mitigate the UHIE especially for geographic areas with a high density of at risk

populations such as Naturally Occuring Retirement Communities.

5. Microclimate Creation can happen with Green Infrastructure

Green Infrastructure can be defined as using natural or ecological systems (trees, plants, soils,

water and sun) to help manage something that was previously managed by manmade systems.

New York City plans on using green infrastructure to manage storm water runoff. The New York

City Department of Environmental Protection is in the process of implementing green

infrastructure projects in the most stressed areas of the combined sewer system as a means to

mitigate 40% of the combined sewer overflow by 2030.37 There is a commitment of $2.4 billion

in public and private funding for Green Infrastructure over the next 20 years.38 The goal is to

manage 10% of the city’s impervious surfaces by collecting one inch of rainwater which is

estimated to remove 1.5 billion gallons of Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) events annually by

2030.39,40 CSO’s are a major problem in New York City. This occurs when rain water mixes with

raw sewage overloading the sewer system to the point that it is released into the New York City

waterways.41 The direct intended benefit of GI is a cleaner NYC harbor GI has many other

quantifiable benefits related to energy efficiency, such as lowering energy usage at the

wastewater treatment plant, lowering building energy use, and producing cleaner air (removal of

pollutants). GI also reduces greenhouse gases, increases in real estate values, restores ecological

systems (ecological productivity and biodiversity), and creates microclimates to mitigate the

UHIE by increaesing evapotransporation and shade.42,43,44

6

6. The Health Costs related to New York City’s Urban Heat Island Effect

Value of a Statistical Life

In 2006 alone, New York lost an estimated $1 billion dollars, if the EPA’s value of a statistical

life (VSL) of 6.9 million dollars were applied to the 140 moralities attributed to environmental

heat and excessive deaths thought to be triggered by heat.45 $276,000,000 is directly attributed to

the 40 deaths caused by heat stroke. Based on the 2011 heat advisory data, (previously referred

to) the total value of statistical life lost between 1997-2010 is $8.5 billion dollars. This 1,242

includes the deaths due to heat stroke and deaths triggered by excessive environmental heat. If

we were to look at the predicted effects of climate changes and the impact on health as it relates

to heat in NYC, the cost of lives would exceed $7.7 billion dollars in heat related deaths alone by

2099. (46,47). Although there are currently efforts in place to mitigate the environmental health

costs such as cooling centers and the cool roofs program, 2011 still saw an early life loss of

$131,100,000 due to the 19 mortalities caused by environmental heat exposure.48

7. Creating Microclimates with Green Infrastructure

Review of Evapotranspiration and Shade Applied Benefits to Urban Structures via Green

Infrastructure

GI has the capacity to be integrated into the urban landscape through different topographical,

structural and growing configurations. Some well known applications are; green roofs on

buildings; enhanced tree pits at the sidewalks or open spaces; green walls on the facades of

buildings, bio-swales alongside walkways or open spaces; rain gardens in open space; and plant-

able pervious pavement for parking lots etc.49 The combination of these green infrastructure

techniques should be applied aggressively to the impermeable surfaces of the structures and

landscapes that intend to comfortably support vulnerable populations. These systems are

extremely important in providing NYC with higher rates of evapotranspiration or natural

cooling. The lack of evapotranspiration in urban environments has been concluded to be “the

most significant factor contributing to the urban heat island. Therefore green roof technology

offers the possibility of much greater impact on the urban heat island effect than reflective roofs

alone”. (Doug Bangting, et al, 2005)50 This statement can be partially explained by the Bowen

ratio. The Bowen Ratio, is a ratio of latent heat loss (evaporation) to sensible heat loss

(convection) and is affiliated with the cooling performance of different landscape systems.51 For

instance, deserts have the highest Bowen ratio of 10, second highest are Urban areas at 5. To the

other extreme are highly productive landscapes, such as irrigated field in April at .28-.30, the

amazon rainforest during the wet season at 0.17 and the Huaihe River Basin (paddy) has a

Bowen Ratio 0.06.52 (See Apendix A for chart) The lower the ratio means the higher amount of

heat loss is occurring via latent heat (evaporation) as opposed to sensible heat (convection). 53

Convection is when hot air rises and cold air takes its place. 54 Evaporation is the process in

which liquid water changes phase from liquid to vapor and during that process, removes heat. 55

Evaporation is an extremely efficient way to remove excessive heat which can be seen when

comparing landscape systems to it’s affiliated Bowen Ratio.56 As an example, when 1 ml of

water evaporates, 580 calories of energy (heat) is removed from the surrounding environment

when the temperature outside is 86° F.57 In one study conducted in Toronto, researchers predicted

that the entire city temperature would cool from 0.2°- 1.4° F, before irrigation, if 50% of the

available surface were covered with a green roof.58 With irrigation, the entire city would cool by

3.5° F and the microclimate created would cool a further reaching geographic area by 1°- 2° F

even though the results are said to be unexpectedly low.59 In a green roof study done in Japan,

evaporative cooling on a roof had the ability to reduce heat flux by 50%.60 It has also been

shown that indoor temperatures can be 7°F cooler than outside temperatures of 86°F when a

green roof is applied.61 In a Canadian study, heat flow was reduced by 75% through the green

roof.62 It should be noted that Toronto has created a green roof mandate requiring that new roofs

recieve a green roof.63

NYC has the capacity to irrigate green infrastructure on hot days to maximize cooling potential.

This should be beneficial due to the abundant amount of potential gray water that can be

captured and dedicated toward irrigating green infrastructure in the summer.64 The irrigation will

allow for nighttime cooling which then allows for more people to recover from a hot day, thereby

8

potentially mitigating heat related deaths.65 In one health study, for every 1.8°F increase in

temperture there is a 1% increase in all-cause mortalities and a 3% increase in respiratory

mortality.66

9. Example Green Infrastructure Investment and Water Calculation

Green Infrastructure Investment for Seward Park Co-op

Adapting the Urban Environment to create safe microclimates is an investment that should be

used to hedge against the high health costs that will continue to increase as climate change

progresses. Due to available online data, Seward Park Co-op located on the Lower East Side can

be used as an example and indicator of how much a full investment would cost. Considered a

NORC community, it consists of four 21 story towers, supplying 1,728 units with approximately

5,164 residents.67 Each building has a roof of 23,056 sf. and a wall area of 259,980 (including

windows and doors). An estimated green roof would cost around $391,952 for the entire 23,056

area at a $17.00 per square foot.68 Green walls would cost around $8.00 a square foot and would

consist of a total investment of $2,079,840.69 To create a complete micro-climate environment

around all four Seward Park Coop buildings, a total estimated investment of $9,887,168 would

be needed. This investment can be viewed as a $1,915 health insurance investment per resident

living in the Seward Park Co-op.

Irrigation requirement for one Seward Park Co-op Building

As a rough water estimate, in order to drop the temperture of one Seward Park Coop Building by

1°C or 1.8°F, 2,918 gallons of water would need to be evaporated per day.70 2,918 gallons of

water per day equates to aproximately 88.4 tons of AC.71,72 This would be like supplying each

person with 2.26 gallons of water per day to cool their portion of the building.

If we estimate that a full 1/5” of water evaporates per day over the entire surface area of the

building via green walls and green roof, this would be equivalent to providing 1,060 tons of AC

to one building and could use up to 35,000 gallons of water.73,74 (See Apendix A for calculations)

This would equate to around 27 gallons of water per person per day to achieve maximum cooling

benefits.

10. Microclimate Policy Recommendations

Based on existing research, green infrastructure provides natural cooling benefits. The cooling

potential of GI can be optimized by increasing it’s concentration, consistency and surface

coverage. The ability for urban areas to be cooled on hot days depends on the amount of

evaporation that is taking place. Many NORC Buildings are surrounded by trees but still have

large areas of exposed building or parking lot surface area collecting solar radiation on hot days.

NORC’s are housing one of NYC’s most vulnerable populations to extreme heat therefore

increased attention and investment should be made to alter the physical environment for the

better. The idea is to mitigate the environmental burden (UHIE) locally with green infrastructure

to save lives while also achieving many co-benefits. The following recommendations are steps

toward creating a microclimate policy and program in NYC;

• Create a Policy that addresses the lack of evapotranspiration around urban structures and

most specifically the structures that house vulnerable populations living in NORC

developments.

• Pilot a Microclimate program for a NORC development;

Utilize the power and momentum of the DEP Green Infrastructure and Million Trees

NYC program to push forward this policy

• Implemention should start in “high risk areas” such as Norcs and New York City Housing

Authority (NYCHA) properties. Criteria to prioritize initial Microclimate investments;

Environmental Justice communities; High impervious surface areas; the total number of

at risk populations living in densely populated communities, and the projected number of

at risk populations (baby boomers) living in high density housing in the years to come.

10

• Plan on utilizing the maximum amount of surface area currently contributing to the urban

heat island by maximizing the concentration of Green Infrastructure such as exposed

building facades, roofs, sidewalks, parking lots, and under utilized grass surfaces etc.

• Create opportunities for green infrastructure to achieve the smallest Bowen Ratio to

optimize evaporative cooling

• Integrate gray water retention systems to supply a sufficient amount of irrigation to the

Green Infrastructure; this will optimize cooling capacity during summer months and hot

days; retrofit existing planted areas, trees pits and gardens with gray water irrigation

systems

• Maximize opportunities for GI to provide shade on high thermal mass surfaces

• Create a Microclimate creation goal for High Density Senior housing; e.g. by 2020 all

NORC’S should have installed a Green Roof and one Green Wall, by 2030 all walls are

greened, etc.

11. Conclusion

The capacity for irrigated green infrastructure to cool ambient and surface temperatures is far

greater than high albedo surface techniques and has a significant amount of co-benefits that

completely justify a significant return on investment. The cost of a human life lost alone can

justify the return on investment. The cost of a Green Infrastructure investment for one person

equals $1,900 vs losing a life valued at 6.9 millions dollars by the EPA. The cost of green

infrastructure per person is minimal compared to the cost of losing a life. If you calculate human

lives saved, energy savings (local and remote), water pollution reduction, real estate values,

ecological productivity and biodiversity, the return on investment for Green Infrastructure far

exceeds the initial cost. An investment in Green infrastructure in New York City has already been

proven to be cost effective; the 2.4 billion dollar DEP Green Infrastructure plan is proof that GI

can save the city money.

New York City has plenty of thermal mass (e.g. concrete) which leads to increased temperatures

presently. Green infrastructure can remove the heat caused by the UHIE and mitigate future heat

related illness and mortalities. At this juncture, New York City is in the position to institute an

evidence-based approach and mandate that Green Infrastructure be integrated into the Urban

Environment as a UHIE mitigation strategy. New York City should strengthen its’ stance by

creating a stronger climate change resiliency plan and implementation strategy that builds upon

current programs to explicitly address a safer and healthier living environment.

12

Appendix A

Bowen Ratio Chart 75

Calculations Evaporation and Water Requirements 76,77

NOTES

14

1 Dan Lashof, Kim Knowlton, Ed Chen, Laurie Johnson and Dr. Larry Kalkstein,“Killer Summer Heat: Projected Death Toll from Rising Temperatures in America Due to Climate Change”, NRDC Issue Brief, IB:12-05-C (2012): 1-8, accessed July 12, 2012, www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/killer.../killer-summer-heat-report.pdf

2 Rupa Basu, and Samet M. Jonathan, “Relation between Elevated Ambient Temperature and Mortality: A Review of the Epidemiologic Evidence”, Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 24, No. 2, (2002): 190 - 191, accessed July 15, 2012, http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/2/190.full

3 Cynthia Rosenzweig1*, William Solecki2, Lily Parshall1, Stuart Gaffin1, Barry Lynn1,Richard Goldberg1, Jennifer Cox2, Sara Hodges2 “Mitigating New York City’s Heat Island with Urban Forestry, Living Roofs and Light Surfaces”, Columbia University, New York, NY, Hunter College, New York, NY, 2006: J32 accessed June 12, 2012, http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/news/20060130/103341.pdf

4 Doug Bangting, Jame Li, Paul Missios,Angela Au, Beth Anne Curri, Michael Verrati,“ Report on the Environmental Benefits and Costs of Green Roof Technology for the City of Toronto”, Dept. of Architectural Science, Ryerson University, (2005): 9, accessed July 17, 2012. http://www.toronto.ca/greenroofs/pdf/fullreport103105.pdf

5 __, The City of New York, “NYC Hazards: Extreme Heat”, NYC Office of Emergency Management, accessed July 21, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/oem/html/hazards/heat.shtml

6 __, The New York City Council, “Local Law no.21, To amend the administrative code of the city of New York and the New York city building code, in relation to roof coating standards.”, Local Laws of the City of New York, 2011:1-5, accessed July 28th, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dob/downloads/pdf/ll21of2011.pdf

7 __, New York City, NYC Cool Roofs, accessed July 28, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/coolroofs/html/home/home.shtml

8__, New York City, Million Trees NYC, accessed July 28, 2012, http://www.milliontreesnyc.org/html/home/home.shtml

9 __, New York City, Million Trees NYC map, accessed July 28, 2012, http://milliontreesnyc.org/downloads/pdf/mtnyc500k.pdf

10 __, Cornell University, Cornell Gardening Resources, Microclimates, accessed July 28, 2012http://www.gardening.cornell.edu/weather/microcli.html

11 Paul Mankiewicz, “Integrating Ecosystems with Urban and Industrial Landscapes”, TEDxKrakow, video, (2010) accessed July 17, 2012, http://www.ted.com/tedx/events/748.html

12 Killer Summer Heat, Projected Death Toll from Rising Temperatures in America Due to Climate Change, NRDC, accessed July 1, 2012, http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/killer-heat/files/killer-summer-heat-report.pdf

13 Cynthia Rosenzweig1*, William Solecki2, Lily Parshall1, Stuart Gaffin1, Barry Lynn1,Richard Goldberg1, Jennifer Cox2, Sara Hodges2, “Mitigating New York City’s Heat Island with Urban Forestry, Living Roofs and Light Surfaces”,Columbia University, New York, NY, Hunter College, New York, NY, 2006: J32, accessed June 12, 2012, http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/news/20060130/103341.pdf

14 Ibid.

15 Paul Mankiewicz, “Integrating Ecosystems with Urban and Industrial Landscapes”, TEDxKrakow, video, (2010) accessed July 17, 2012, http://www.ted.com/tedx/events/748.html

16 Cynthia Rosenzweig1*, William Solecki2, Lily Parshall1, Stuart Gaffin1, Barry Lynn1,Richard Goldberg1, Jennifer Cox2, Sara Hodges2“Mitigating New York City’s Heat Island with Urban Forestry, Living Roofs and Light Surfaces”,Columbia University, New York, NY, Hunter College, New York, NY, J32, accessed June 12, 2012, http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/news/20060130/103341.pdf

17 Kim Knowlton, DrPH, Barry Lynn PhD, Richard A. Goldberg, MS, Cynthia Rosenzweig, PhD, Christian Hogrefe, PhD, Joyce Klein Rosenthal, MSUP,MPH, and Patrick L. Kinney ScD, “Projecting Heat-Related Mortality Impacts Under a Changing Climate in the New York City Region, 2007 AMJ Public Health, accessed July, 30, 2012http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2040370/

18 __, New York City, “NYC Hazards: Extreme Heat”, NYC Office of Emergency Management, accessed July 21, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/oem/html/hazards/heat.shtml

19 Rupa Basu, and Samet M. Jonathan, “Relation between Elevated Ambient Temperature and Mortality: A Review of the Epidemiologic Evidence”, Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 24, No. 2(2002): 191, accessed July 15, 2012, http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/2/190.full

20 Joyce Klein Rosenthal, Rob Crauderueff and Majora Carter, “Urban Heat Island Mitigation Can Improve New York City’s Environment: Research on Impacts of Mitigation Strategies”, Sustainable South Bronx (2008): 6, accessed July 29, 2012, http://csud.ei.columbia.edu/sitefiles/file/SSBx_UHI_Mit_Can_Improve_NYC_Enviro%5B1%5D.pdf

21 Ibid.

22 Andy Newman,”19 Have Died of Heat This Summer, City Say”, The New York Times, (August 31, 2011): accessed June 14, 2012, http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/31/summer-heat-caused-19-deaths-city-says/

23 Rupa Basu, and Samet M. Jonathan, “Relation between Elevated Ambient Temperature and Mortality: A Review of the Epidemiologic Evidence”, Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 24, No. 2(2002): 191, accessed July 15, 2012, http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/2/190.full

24 Andy Newman,”19 Have Died of Heat This Summer, City Say”, The New York Times, (August 31, 2011): accessed June 14, 2012, http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/31/summer-heat-caused-19-deaths-city-says/

25 Perez-Pena, “Heat Wave Was a Factor in 140 Deaths, New York Says” The New York Times(2006) accessed May 22, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/16/nyregion/16heat.html

26 __, “The Value of Green Infrastructure, A guide to Recognizing Its Economic, Environmental and Social Benefits”, CNT, American Rivers, (2010): 47, accessed June 23, 2012http://www.americanrivers.org/library/reports-publications/the-value-of-green-infrastructure.

27 Nancy Clark, Nathan M. Graber, Katherine Wheeler, New York City“2011 Health Advisory #8, Heat-Related Morbidity and Mortality in New York City” New York City Department of Mental Hygiene, (2011) accessed June 1, 1-3, 2012, http://www.emblemhealth.com/pdf/HAN_heat_Memorial%20Day_2011_final-taf.pdf

28 Ibid.

29 Ibid.

30 Joyce Klein Rosenthal, Rob Crauderueff and Majora Carter, “Urban Heat Island Mitigation Can Improve New York City’s Environment: Research on Impacts of Mitigation Strategies”, Sustainable South Bronx (2008): 6, accessed July 29, 2012, http://csud.ei.columbia.edu/sitefiles/file/SSBx_UHI_Mit_Can_Improve_NYC_Enviro%5B1%5D.pdf

31 Ibid.

32 __, State & Country Quick Facts, U.S. Department of Commerce United States Census Bureau, last revised June 06, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/36/3651000.html

16

33 Interboro Partners, “NORCS in NYC”, UrbanOmnibus, (March 17th 2010): website, accessed July 11, 2012, http://urbanomnibus.net/2010/03/norcs-in-nyc/

34 Peter Altman, Dan Lashof, Kim Knowlton, Ed Chen, Laurie , Johnson and Dr. Larry Kalkstein, Killer Summer Heat: Projected Death Toll from Rising Temperatures in America Due to Climate Change, NRDC, 2012: accessed July 1, 2012, http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/killer-heat/files/killer-summer-heat-report.pdf

35__. New York City, PlaNYC, A Greener, Greater New York, (2011): 154, accessed May 05, 2012, http://nytelecom.vo.llnwd.net/o15/agencies/planyc2030/pdf/planyc_2011_planyc_full_report.pdf

36 Roberto Andorno, The Precautionary Principle: A New Legal Standard for a Technological Age, JIBL Vol 01, (2004): accessed July 15, 2012, http://uzh.academia.edu/RobertoAndorno/Papers/444661/The_Precautionary_Principle_a_New_Legal_Standard_for_a_Technological_Age

37 __,“NYSDEC & NYCDEP Reach Innovative Draft Agreement to Improve New York Harbor Water Quality”, NYC DEP, (October 19, 2011) accessed July 15, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/press_releases/11-94pr.shtml

38 Ibid.

39 “NYC Green Infrastructure Plan, A Sustainable Strategy For Clean Waterways”, PlaNYC, NYC Environmental Protection, (2010): 1- 11, accessed June 10, 2012, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/green_infrastructure/NYCGreenInfrastructurePlan_ExecutiveSummary.pdf

40 __, “NYSDEC & NYCDEP Announce Groundbreaking Agreement to Reduce Combined Sewer Overflows Using Green Infrastructure in New York City”, NYS DEC, (March 13, 2012) accessed July 15, 2012, http://www.dec.ny.gov/press/80919.html

41 “NYC Green Infrastructure Plan, A Sustainable Strategy For Clean Waterways”, PlaNYC, NYC Environmental Protection, (2010): 1- 11, accessed June 10, 2012 http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/green_infrastructure/NYCGreenInfrastructurePlan_ExecutiveSummary.pdf

42 “NYC Green Infrastructure Plan, A Sustainable Strategy For Clean Waterways”, PlaNYC, NYC Environmental Protection, (2010): 1- 11, accessed June 10, 2012 http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/green_infrastructure/NYCGreenInfrastructurePlan_ExecutiveSummary.pdf

43 __, “The Value of Green Infrastructure, A guide to Recognizing Its Economic, Environmental and Social Benefits”, CNT, American Rivers, 2010: 3-13, accessed June 23, 2012http://www.americanrivers.org/assets/pdfs/reports-and-publications/the-value-of-green-infrastructure.pdf

44 Paul Mankiewicz, “Integrating Ecosystems with Urban and Industrial Landscapes”, TEDxKrakow, video, (2010) accessed July 17, 2012, http://www.ted.com/tedx/events/748.html

45 Kevin R. Cromar, Jason A Schwartz,“Residual Risks, The Unseen Costs of Using Dirty Oil in New York City Boilers” Report #5, Institute for Policy Integrity, New York University School of Law, January 2010: 19, accessed July 30, 2012, http://policyintegrity.org/documents/ResidualRisks.pdf

46 Ibid.

47 Killer Summer Heat, Projected Death Toll from Rising Temperatures in America Due to Climate Change, NRDC, accessed July 1, 2012, http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/killer-heat/files/killer-summer-heat-report.pdf

48 Andy Newman,”19 Have Died of Heat This Summer, City Say”, The New York Times, (August 31, 2011): accessed June 14, 2012, http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/31/summer-heat-caused-19-deaths-city-says/

49 Paul Mankiewicz, “Integrating Ecosystems with Urban and Industrial Landscapes”, TEDxKrakow, video, (2010) accessed July 17, 2012, http://www.ted.com/tedx/events/748.html

50 Doug Bangting, Jame Li, Paul Missios, Angela Au, Beth Anne Curri, Michael Verrati,“ Report on the Environmental Benefits and Costs of Green Roof Technology for the City of Toronto”, Dept. of Architectural Science, Ryerson University, (2005): 13, accessed July 17, 2012, http://www.toronto.ca/greenroofs/pdf/fullreport103105.pdf

51 Stuart Gaffin, Cynthia Rosenzweig, Lily Parshall, Daniel Hillel, Jake Eichenbaum-Pikser, Adam Greenbaum, Reggie Blake, David Beattie, Robert Berghage, Quantifying Evaporative Cooling from Green Roofs and Comparison to other Land Surfaces, Greening rooftops for Sustainable Communities, 2006: 1-12, Email message Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, July 23, 2012

52 Ibid.

53 Ibid.

54 Ibid.

55 Ibid.

56 Paul S. Mankiewicz, Peter Spartos and Eric Dalski, “Green Roofs and Local TemperatureHow Green Roofs Partition Water, Energy, and Costs in Urban Energy-Air Conditioning Budgets”Living Architecture Monitor, (2009): 20-25, accessed May 08, 2012, http://www.nxtbook.com/dawson/greenroofs/lam_2009winter/index.php?startid=20#/24

57 Ibid.

58 Ibid.

59 Ibid.

60 Ibid.

61 Ibid.

62 Doug Bangting, Jame Li, Paul Missios,Angela Au, Beth Anne Curri, Michael Verrati,“ Report on the Environmental Benefits and Costs of Green Roof Technology for the City of Toronto”, Dept. of Architectural Science, Ryerson University, (2005): 9, accessed July 17, 2012. http://www.toronto.ca/greenroofs/pdf/fullreport103105.pdf

63 __, Toronto, Green Roof Bylaw, City of Toronto 2012, accessed July 29, 2012http://www.toronto.ca/greenroofs/overview.htm

64 Paul S. Mankiewicz, Peter Spartos and Eric Dalski, “Green Roofs and Local TemperatureHow Green Roofs Partition Water, Energy, and Costs in Urban Energy-Air Conditioning Budgets”Living Architecture Monitor, (2009): 20-25, accessed May 08, 2012, http://www.nxtbook.com/dawson/greenroofs/lam_2009winter/index.php?startid=20#/24

65 Basu, Rupa, Samet, Jonathan M.,“Relation between Elevated Ambient Temperature and Mortality: A review of the Epidemiologic Evidence”, From the Departmentt of Epidemiology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, John Hopkins University, Baltimore, Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 24, No.2 (2002): PAGE Web June 24, 2012, accessed June 24, 2012,http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/2/190.full

66 Ibid.

67 __, AFL-C10 Housing Investment Firm, 2012 accessed July 29, 2012,http://www.aflcio-hit.com/wmspage.cfm?parm1=368

68 Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 19, 2012

69 Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 19, 2012

18

70 Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 30 2012

71 Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 30 2012

72 Paul S. Mankiewicz, Peter Spartos and Eric Dalski, “Green Roofs and Local TemperatureHow Green Roofs Partition Water, Energy, and Costs in Urban Energy-Air Conditioning Budgets”Living Architecture Monitor, (2009): 20-25, accessed May 08, 2012, http://www.nxtbook.com/dawson/greenroofs/lam_2009winter/index.php?startid=20#/24

73 Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 30 2012

74 Paul S. Mankiewicz, Peter Spartos and Eric Dalski, “Green Roofs and Local TemperatureHow Green Roofs Partition Water, Energy, and Costs in Urban Energy-Air Conditioning Budgets”Living Architecture Monitor, (2009): 20-25, accessed May 08, 2012, http://www.nxtbook.com/dawson/greenroofs/lam_2009winter/index.php?startid=20#/24

75 Stuart Gaffin, Cynthia Rosenzweig, Lily Parshall, Daniel Hillel, Jake Eichenbaum-Pikser, Adam Greenbaum, Reggie Blake, David Beattie, Robert Berghage, Quantifying Evaporative Cooling from Green Roofs and Comparison to other Land Surfaces, Greening rooftops for Sustainable Communities, 2006: 1-12, Email message Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, July 23, 2012

76 Paul S. Mankiewicz, Peter Spartos and Eric Dalski, “Green Roofs and Local TemperatureHow Green Roofs Partition Water, Energy, and Costs in Urban Energy-Air Conditioning Budgets”Living Architecture Monitor, (2009): 20-25, accessed May 08, 2012, http://www.nxtbook.com/dawson/greenroofs/lam_2009winter/index.php?startid=20#/24

77 Paul Mankiewicz, PhD, email massage to author, July, 30 2012

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