NEUROLINGUISTIC PROCESSINGAND BRAIN FUNCTION: A G,

MARTIN R. GITTERMAN- SEMANTICS PERSPECTIVE tL.THBR F. s,Hs ..o ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' ^ FUNCTION A GENERAL

ONE OF ALFRED KORZYBSKI'S MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS was his recognitionof the difference so often confiised between the world of words and non-words. One of the numerous examples of the possible confusion between wordsand non-words, or in Korzybski's terminology the verbal and non-verbal levels,is the word news. Consider, for instance, the Chinese students' demonstrationin Beijing during the summer of 1989. The actual events that occurred therecan be considered the news in the world of non-words. Dan Rather's accountof the student protest on the CBS Evening News is a higher order abstractionoi^news and exemplifies the world of words. Finally, if one person gives anaccount of these events based upon hearing Rather's broadcast and readingabout them in the New York Times and the tabloid New York Post, it representsa still higher order of abstraction of the news in the world of words.

On the nonverbal level, Korzybski suggested, general semantics provides amethod for the receive-education (i.e., rehabilitation of the nervous system)of individuals handicapped by the misevaluations engendered by the faultyAristotelian influences of their language and such pernicious and erroneousinfluences as the "is of identity" "allness," and "either-or" misevaluations, amongothers. By means of indexing, dating, multi-valued orientation techniques, anddelayed responses, Korzybski sought to train individuals how to incorporatescientific habits of evaluation and, therefore, attain healthier (saner) behaviorby improving human nervous system fiinction. Clearly, what Korzybski wastalking about was how the brain's neurolinguistic processing profoundlyinfluences human behavior.

Words may indeed have important psychological consequences. As Korzybskipointed out they are neurophysiological events that alter brain fiinction and.

* Professors Luther F. Sies and Martin R. Gitterman conduct research and teach at LehmanCollege of the City University of New York.t This study was funded in part by PSC-CUNY Grant #668434 from the Research Founda-tion of the City University of New York.

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therefore, for better or for worse all aspects of human behavior. Korzybski fur-nished an example of how linguistic stimuli could produce specific nervoussystem reaaions by describing an incident occurring at St. Elizabeth's Hospital,Washington, D.C. He reported how once, when a physician introduced himto an immobile patient "frozen" in a catatonic state, a dramatic incident resulted.When the physician introduced Korzybski to the catatonic patient as "the Polishscientist," the patient immediately sprung at Korzybski. The patient's "signalreaction" to the word "Polish," which designated for him a group of thoroughlydespised people, suggested a distinct change in the nervous system producedby hearing the word "Polish." As violent as the reaction was, the verbal stimuliw s^ a neurolinguistic event indicating an unhealthy nervous system function.

During Korzybski's lifetime, there was little evidence from the physical orlife sciences to support the foundations of general semantics theory. This sit-uation has changed during the past two decades. Medical literature now con-tains examples of how specific languages and their modalities (speaking, listen-ing, reading, or writing) may affect human nervous system function. Theliterature of neurology, for example, contains some case studies that suggestspecific linguistic influences may affect brain function. Most dramatic, per-haps, is the example of language-induced epileptic seizures. Geschwind hasreported a case in which epileptic seizures could be triggered by three modal-ities of language, i.e., reading, writing, and speaking.(6) Even more relevant,perhaps, is Stevens' account of a patient whose epileptic seizures were triggeredby reading, but in which different languages showed marked variation in theirability to trigger seizures. Apparently, the focus and, possibly, the patterns ofneural excitation may differ depending on the language utilized and the modal-ity by which it is employed. From this evidence, however, few have suggestedthat linguistic behavior permanently alters the brain's functioning structures.

In the past, distinguished social scientists from such diverse disciplines asanthropology, linguistics, psychology, and sociology have suggested, however,that society and culture play an important role in influencing the higher cog-nitive processes of individuals living in a particular cultural setting. We couldfind none of them, however, that ever questioned whether the actual site andpattern of neural organization of cognitive functions in the brain can beinfluenced by nonbiological factors such as linguistic behaviors.

American linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf are best knownfor their theory of the relationship of language and thought known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Their hypothesis states that differences in cognition andbehavior can result from differences between languages. Speakers of differentlanguages, the theory suggests, perceive, think, and act in uniquely differentways because of the patterns imposed upon them by their language. The ideathat a particular language forces its possessor to perceive, think, and act in acertain way is not a new one. It has also been known by such names as theWhorfian hypothesis, the Korzybskian hypothesis, the Weltanshauunghypothesis, the linguistic relativity hypothesis, and the Sapir-Whorf Korzybski

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hypothesis.Other scholars have expressed somewhat similar views. Wilhelm von Hum-

boldt not only claimed thought without language was impossible, but wenton to state that human thought is constrained by the language we use. Thisseems to be echoed by twentieth century philosopher Wittgenstein's frequentlyquoted assertion: "The limits of my language are the limits of my world." Cas-sirer has pointed out and illustrated the possible constraints language imposesupon its possessor.(4) Then, too, Bronowski argues that humans possess a cog-nitive base upon which language builds and enhances.(3)

In the U.S.S.R., V>^otsky and Luria performed experimental studies to deter-mine the possible effects of social and cultural conditions upon human cog-nition. Both were influenced by the thought of French sociologists Emile Durk-heim and Lucien Levy-Bruhl. Durkheim believed that the collective effectsof society shaped the mental life of its individual members, and his subsequentwork was conducted within this framework. Levy-Bruhl, operating with a simi-lar viewpoint some years later, studied "primitive cultures," and concluded thatindividual thinking was the product of collective cultural beliefs held by societyin general. Individual cognitive processes, he thought, were influenced by col-lective society.

None of the theoretical or experimental researchers discussed above, how-ever, ever suggested that nonbiological factors could influence the actual siteand pattern of the organization and function of cognitive processes in the humanbrain. Biological factors, in fact, generally have been identified as the majordeterminants of the organization of language in the brain and its functionalprocesses. Recent studies, however, suggest some possible contributions of non-biological influences mostly of the linguistic naturethat influence languageorganization and function by humans. Tone languages and bilingualism, forexample, are two possible nonbiological infiuences that have been identified.An interdisciplinary group that includes investigators from neurology, linguis-tics, and language pathology appears to be a fruitful means for discovering lin-guistic determinants of brain flinction.

"One of the most dependable findings in neurophysiology," according toBrookshire, "is that the left hemisphere is primarily responsible for speech andlanguage in almost all right-handed individuals," and for right-handers, at least,it has generally been agreed that the left hemisphere of the brain is dominantfor speech and language. For this reason, it general has been assumed thatdamage to the right cerebral hemisphere will not produce aphasia. Aphasiais a condition that may produce differential disturbances of all aspects of lan-guage behavior (speaking, reading, writing, and listening) that sometimes fol-lows brain damage. It is the speech and language disorder laymen usually iden-tify following a "stroke."

Each of the brain's cerebral hemispheres apparently has its own specializedfunction. Studies suggest, for instance, that the nondominant (for speech andlanguage) right hemisphere is responsible for vocal tone, rhythm, and inflec-

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tions, as well as their perception and pattern recognition. Ross reported thatsome patients with right hemispheric damage typically spoke in a flat mono-tone even about the most emotionally charged topics.(9) Ross used the wordaprosodia to refer to such problems of vocal pitch, melody, rhythm, and into-nation as a right hemispheric version of aphasia. The right hemisphere's rolein input and output processing related to pitch suggests the importance of inves-tigating the relatively rare phenomenon o^crossed aphasia.

Crossed aphasia refers to those cases in which language (aphasic) disordersfollow cerebral lesions on the same side as the dominant hand. That is, right-handed persons would experience aphasic disorders following damage to theirright cerebral hemisphere. Its prevalence has variously been reported as from1.8 percent to 2.6 percent. This disorder provides a potentially valuable meansto study the influences of certain features of language {such as tone) upon theorganization of language in the brain. Specifically, medical studies by Apriland Tse and April and Han reported two cases of crossed aphasia in nativespeakers of Chinese.(1,2) This caused them to hypothesize that since the tonalinflection of Chinese spoken language may be processed to a greater extent inthe right hemisphere than are nontonal languages such as English, there istherefore a higher incidence of crossed aphasia among Chinese speakers. If thereis a greater incidence of crossed aphasia in native speakers of Chinese, it mayindicate that Chinese, because it is a tone language, may significantly influencestructural functioning of their brain.

Spoken Chinese is a tonal language in which tone has a specific semanticfunction. In English and other western languages, vocal tone and inflectionhave only peripheral functions; in Chinese, however, pitch conveys specificmeaning. The same word in Mandarin Chinese, for example, may have fourdifferent meanings depending upon the pitch used to diflerentiate them. Inthe Cantonese dialect, by contrast, there are nine diflerent pitch levels usedto convey meaning. Since the right hemisphere is responsible for many aspectsof tone processing, the nature of the Chinese language makes it worthy of inves-tigation to determine whether the brain function of its speakers differs signi-ficantly from those of nontonal languages. If it can be determined that thereis a greater incidence of crossed aphasia among native speakers of Chinese, itmay indicate that contrary to present thought, language may indeed changethe modes and patterns of neurological processing in the brain and even thesite of its primary function. Although there is at present insufficient evidenceto determine if this is the case, the variable of bilingualism is also worthy ofinvestigation to better understand possible nonbiological influences on howlanguage is organized in the brain.

It seems clear that any attempt to gain a fuller understanding of languageorganization in the brain must include an investigation of subjects who are bilin-gual. If it is the case that the two languages of bilinguals are not representedin the same area of the brain, then it would appear that another major nonbi-ological determinant of language representation exists (i.e., first as opposed to

332 Et cetera WINTER 1989

second language). Fortunately, researchers have begun to address this issue.Galloway suggests that the right hemisphere may play more of a role in

processing language in bilinguals than it plays in monolinguals.(5) This beliefis motivated by research revealing that a right hemisphere lesion will cause apha-sia in bilinguals more often than in monolinguals. Obler reports similar flndingsabout the possible increased role of the right hemisphere in language processingin bilinguals (see Hakuta for a concise discussion of this issue.(8,7) Hakutawisely cautions, "One should be carefiil, however, not to interpret these studiesas showing that one language is contained in the left hemisphere, the otherin the right. Indeed, it is very rare that one finds right-hemisphere dominancein either of the two languages. Usually the picture is one of less right-hemisphere dominance in one language than in the other, but in most cases,the left hemisphere is the dominant one." The crucial factor seems to be thatthe two languages may be represented in different areas of the brain.

Vaid and Genesee suggest that other variables must also be assessed in anattempt to determine the role of the right hemisphere in language processingin bilinguals.(11) They suggest that the degree of right hemisphere participa-tion may be affected by when the second language was acquired, how it wasacquired (formally or informally), and the degree of mastery of the second lan-guage.

Clearly, all hypotheses discussed here are subject to much additional research.Doubtless some researchers would argue that any claims based on currentfindings are, at best, premature. Nevertheless, it should be apparent that aninvestigation of determinants of language representation in the brain mustaddress the issue of bilingualism.

We are currently studying what unique neurolinguistic processes, if any, arepresent in speakers of tone language and those who are bilingual. Our inter-disciplinary research team includes a semanticist/language pathologist (Sies),a linguist (Gitterman), and a neurologist (Dr. Sun-Hoo Foci, Chief ofNeurology,Beekman BYI Hospital, New York City). The data collected on crossed aphasiaand bihngualism may provide additional insights as to how the nature of a lan-guage's neurolinguistic processing may affect the structure, organization, andfunction of the human brain. Evidence of this nature may provide additionaldata supporting some of Korzybski's fundamental concepts.

NOTESGeschwind, N., "Language-Induced Epilepsy" in Selected Papers on Language and the

Brain. R. S. Cohen andM. W. Wariofsky, eds. (Boston, MA: D. Reidel, 1974),p. 189-199.

Stevens, H., "Reading Epilepsy" New England youmal of Medicine, 257, 1957, pp.165-170.

Brookshire, R., An Introduction to Aphasia (Minneapolis: BRK Publishers, 1986),p. 30.

Ross, E., "The Aprosodias" Archives ofNeurology, 38, 1981, pp. 561-569.

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Hakuta, K.., Mirror of Language: The Debate on Bilingualism (New York: Basic Books,1986), pp. 88-89.

REFERENCES

1. April R. and Han., "Crossed Aphasia in a Right-Handed Bilingual Chinese Man"Archives of Neurology, 37, 1980, pp. 341-346.

2. April, R. and Tse, P., "Crossed Aphasia in a Chinese Bilingual DextraF Archivesof Neurology, 54, 1977, pp. 766-770.

3. Bronowski, J., The Identity of Man (Garden City, N.Y.: Natural History Press,1971).

4. Cassirer, E., An Essay on Man (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1944).5. Galloway, L., Conmbutions of the Right Cerebral Hemisphere to Language and Com-

munication: Issues in Cerebral Dominance with Special Emphasis on Bilingualism,Second Language Acquisition, Sex Differences and Certain Ethnic Groups, Un-published Ph.D. Dissertation (Los Angeles, CA: University of California at LosAngeles, 1981).

6. Geschwind, N., "Language-Induced Epilepsy." In Selected Papers on Language andthe Brain R. S. Cohen and M. W. Wartofsky, eds. (Boston, Nih: D. Reidel, 1974).

7. Hakuta, K., Mirror of Language: The Debate on Bilingualism {New York: BasicBooks, 1986).

8. Obler, K., "Right Hemisphere Participation in Second Language Learning." InIndividual Differences and Universals in Language Learning Aptitude, ed. K. Diller(Rawley, MA: Newbury House, 1979).

9. Ross, E., "The Aprosodias" Archives of Neurology, 38, 1981, pp. 561-569.10. Stevens, H., "Reading Epilepsy" New England Journal of Medicine, 257,1957, pp.

165-170.11. Vaid, J. and Genesee, E, *TsJeuropsychological Appmaches to Bilingualism: A Crit-

ical Review" Canadian Journal of Psychology, 34, 12980, pp. ^^21-AM.