Prva lekcija- neki uvod, Viki nije rekla o cemu prica

We may say that translation is an old activity although translation is a recent study. The first notable translations of the modern civilization were Roman translations of Greek texts (odyssey G-L) the most widely translated text of the middle ages was the Bible. In the period of the renaissance the language which was the most translated from was Italian. In that period in Serbia the texts which were the most translated were ecclesiastical, historical texts and texts on nature. Translation studies is a discipline devoted to the study of the theory and phenomena of translation. It is multilingual and interdisciplinary and embraces large varieties of languages. A number of linguistic fields, comparative literature (finding a common ground of numerous languages), communication studies, cultural studies, psychology, information technologies etc. The term translation has several meanings. There is a difference between translation (written) and interpreting (oral). In English translation means both the process of translation and the product of this process. The text which is translated is the target text and the language translated into is the target one, and the text which is translated is the source text and the language from which is translated is the source language. There are 3 types of translation as a process : 1. Intro-lingual (unutarjezicni) – rewording, the translation of verbal signs by means of some other signs within the same language. (Prevodjenje na znakovni jezik) Occurs when one summarizes a text or rewrites a text. 2. Inter-lingual (medjujezicni) or translation proper. A translation of verbal signs of one language by means of the verbal signs of some other language. 3) Intersemiotic – it is a translation of verbal signs by the means of the signs of a non-verbal system. Occurs when one translates a text into music, film, etc. Translation studies has become an academic discipline due to the influence and needs and the nature of the G-T teaching method, comparative literature and contrastive linguistics. In the US it was promoted in the 60-s especially literary translation through translation workshops, because comparative literature needed translation since literature is studied across cultures and literary traditions. Another area which had an impact on translation studies is contrastive analysis which is the study of two languages in contrast. In an attempt to identify general and specific similarities and differences between them. The first profound account of translation studies was given by James Holmes who described the nature of translation studies (TS). The description of these studies is the following: on a most general scale TS are divided into pure and applied. Pure TS are divided into theoretical and descriptive. Theoretical TS is divided into general and partial, and finally partial theoretical pure TS is divided into 1. Medium-restricted 2. Area –restricted 3. Rank –restricted 4. Text-type restricted 5. Time-restricted 6. Problem-restricted. Descriptive TS is divided into product oriented, process oriented, function oriented. Finally applied TS is divided into translation training, translation aids, and translation criticism. General theoretical TS deals with the descriptions which would involve every type of translation in order to generalize about the translation as a whole. Partial theoretical is restricted according to the following parameters: medium restricted TS refers to the medium through which translation is produced which in modern times usually refers to human and machine or it may also refer to whether the translation is written or oral and whether oral is simultaneous or consecutive.

Area restricted TS is restricted to specific languages or specific cultures ( zasto se prevode neke knjige a ne neke druge). This area restricted studies may also relate to cultural studies, contrastive linguistics and stylistic studies. Rank restricted is restricted by the linguistic level by which something is translated. There are studies which were primarily concerned with translating words, some others are concerned with translating sentences and others are concerned with translating texts. Text type restricted studies deal with specific types of texts, technological, scientific, literary, poetry, drama, manuals, and specific discourse register and computers and in that sense the most prominent types of TS are literary, technological, and business. Time restricted means that it is restricted to specific period and involves the history of translation. Problem restricted deals with translation problems such as equivalence or translation universals which may apply to all languages. Descriptive TS which are product oriented examine existing translations and it involves the analyzing and describing a pair of source text and target text. Function oriented descriptive TS deals with the function that translation may have in the recipient language community and it promotes the study of context, so that they are in a way sociologically oriented. Process oriented descriptive TS is concerned with psychology of the translation that is with what is going in the mind of translator while translating. Applied TS includes translation training such as teaching methods, testing technologies and circular design. Translation aids includes dictionaries and information technology. Translation criticism includes the evaluation of translation and reviews of published translations.

Translation studies – week 2

A professional translator has access to:

target language knowledge text type knowledge (has to be able to discern between different types of

texts – linguistic and textual features) source language knowledge (be fluent in the language he translates from;

subject area knowledge (especially technical translation)) extralinguistic knowledge, encyclopedic, real-world contrastive (to differentiate the features of 2 languages)

Translation competence involves:

Grammatical competence – the knowledge of the grammatical rules of both languages, including vocabulary, word-formation, spelling, sentence structure – syntax; necessary to express and understand the literal meaning of utterance

Discourse competence – the ability to combine form and meaning to produce unified spoken or written texts in different genres; this

competence involves achieving cohesion in form – necessary for producing well-structured sentences by means of grammatical elements, which facilitates the interpretation of text (pronouns, logical connectors, discourse markers) and achieving coherence in meaning – the relationship between different meanings in a text – which adds to the logic of the content; also involves achieving communicative functions in different types of discourse

Sociolinguistic competence – the ability to understand and produce utterances in a specific social context; the context is limited by topic, the social status or roles of participants and by the purpose of the communicative act or the function of the text

Communicative competence (in both languages) – the translator has to be able to comprehend the text in the source language and express his ideas in the target language

Extralinguistic competence – the knowledge of the theory of translation, translation procedures/methods, linguistic fields, cultural knowledge, encyclopedic knowledge

Transfer competence – involves the ability to perform the process of transfer of form and content from the target language to the source language and vice versa by choosing the most appropriate translation method and procedure

Professional competence – the knowledge and skills related to translation practice – the use of new technologies, dictionaries, machine-readable texts, the use of new translation policy and professional conduct

Strategic competence – the translator has to have a strategy when solving problems he encounters during the translation process; involves detecting problems, decision-making in solving the problems and revising his own translation and correcting errors

Psycho-physiological – cognitive faculties (logical thought, memorizing, creativity, critical judgement

Literary competence – the ability needed to interpret literary texts

Translation competence is comprehensive knowledge of the source and target language including the pragmatic dimensions and the ability to integrate the 2 monolingual competences on a higher level

Translator

o a born bilingual person is not necessarily a translator because he may lack analytical skills in analytical and linguistical sense since he may not be well-acquainted what are … and he may not be able to easily decide upon what linguistical unit should be in a given context or translation process

o In terms of processing the source text there are different types of processing techniques translators use

Contextual – global translators – prefer translating texts (both spoken and written) where minute accuracy is not important but a general appropriateness – escort (?) interpreters prefer literary over technical translation

Linear translator – prefer specializing in a specific subject area Sequential translator – prefers translating or interpreting at meetings

where speakers have prepared texts, so that they themselves are prepared and they avoid spontaneous contexts (for example court interpreting – don’t know what the speaker will say)

Abstract translator – prefer working in academic contexts where they teach translation and translation theory

Concrete translators – prefer to process the source text on their own and in that way they learn to translate on their own rather than being taught how to translate; try to master translation process by learning how to do it, through trial and error

Translation process:

- translate

- edit

- sublimate

1st – Translator acts and probably translates intuitively by relying on his translation competence

2nd – Translator thinks about what he has done, tests his solutions against what he knows about the 2 languages (subject matter, reading audience…) and corrects errors

3rd – Translator sublimates what he has learned from the process so that translating eventually becomes his 2nd nature

The phases suggest that the translator is at the same time:

1) a professional as he solves complicated linguistic and translation problems by applying appropriate procedures

2) a learner who solves problems on a daily bases which ensures personal and professional growth expertise and interest

The aim of the process of translation – it should include reproducing as closely and accurately as possible lexical and grammatical features at the source text by finding adequate equivalents in the target language and at the same time preserving factual information of the source text (he should retain the form and content of the source text)

Translation process:

1) Translation means rendering the meaning of the text into another language in a way that the author intended the text …

2) rendering the source text into the target text to ensure that: the meaning of the 2 will be similar the structures of the source text will be preserved as closely as

possible, but not so closely that the target language structures will be distorted

The extent to which the source text features are preserved – 2 methods:

semantic translation – concentrates on aesthetic values and preserves the author’s individual language and cultural components

communicative translation – concentrates on the message and its aim is to retain the original purpose as closely as possible (uputstva, udžbenici…)

Textual approach to translation

o originates in the systematic functional linguistics and text linguistics which is concerned with the analysis of written texts; by the influence of text linguistics the focus on word and sentence as translation units has moved on to the text itself

Text linguistics – interested in how texts function as internally coherent systems and how texts function in larger sociological contexts. It is closely related to discourse analysis and literary criticism (… how texts create meaning and how these meanings provide insight into other aspects of culture and society

* studies texts in 2 ways:

as a product within text grammar as a process within the theory of texts

* From the product study they study cohesion, coherence, the organization of the topic and its communicative function. From the process studies it studies text production and interpretation

Trece predavanje – 01.11.13. Translation errors

The origin of a translation error is usually translation problem which has not been shown appropriately. This omission can occur at any stage of translation process meaning that it can occur even in the phase reading comprehension of the source text and the errors also, indicate the appropriateness of the techniques the translator uses or competence or incompetence. Very often translator mistakes of linguistic solutions for translational solution, which means that in translation what is linguistically equivalent is not necessarily translational equivalent this is because the process of translation is complex and demanding and involve numerous factors which do not include only linguistic equivalent. The possible sources of translation errors may be inappropriate rendering, translations which affect the target text on a larger scale to the extent that it may be misunderstood, such renderings affect the content of the target text and include countersense (nonsense, addition/omission of information). Loss of meaning and inappropriate linguistic variation in style, dialect, register, etc., and to inappropriate renderings which affect the expression in the target language and they include spelling, grammar, vocabulary, text and style. By some other criterion errors are divided also into 2 groups into referential and linguistic. Referential mistakes include mistakes related to information or facts about the real world; whereas, linguistic mistakes stem from the translator’s lack of proficiency in the target language. Translation evaluation has suggested that there are 4 categories of the sources of errors: 1) correct interpretation and incorrect translation. It suggests that the translator has produced translation which has errors due to his lack of communicative competence which is required for comprehension of any text in the source language. 2) Incorrect interpretation and incorrect translation. This kind of translation that is the target text has errors at 2 levels and the level of the comprehension of the source text and the level of proficiency of the target language. 3) Incorrect interpretation and the omission of translation, 4) relationship, correct interpretation and correct translation no source of errors. In this case of the correct interpretation and correct translation the translator correctly interprets the content of the source text and correctly translates into the target language. Types of translation errors: 1) misinterpretation – the information loss or distortion caused by the comprehension of the source text or the lack of cultural knowledge, 2) incorrect meaning occurs when meaning is attributed to a word or a segment of the source text which it doesn’t have, 3) false friend which is a word of the source language in its form resembles the word in the target language but whose meaning is completely different, 4) interferences (negative) – introduction of the feature of the source language into the target text (structure recenica), 5) loss – a disappearance of an element of meaning of the source text which results in the reduction of the form of the expression, in the reduction of stylistic features in the target language (kitnjasto – flowery), 6) omission – is a failure to translate a necessary element of information from the source text, 7) undertransaltion is the

exclusion of any explanation or amplification from the source text. 8) Over-translation is the addition of an unnecessary explanation of a source text segment that should have remained implicit. 9) addition – occurs when the translator adds information or a stylistic feature to the target text which is non-existent in the source text.

Translation quality assessment

This kind of assessment evaluated the quality of translated texts usually to measure the efficiency of the text with regard to the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic function of the source text within the given context either social or cultural, and with regard to expressive potentials of both the source and the target language. There are several parameters by which one may access the quality of translation. 1) Text function and textual features through which one compares the structures of the source text and target text, the narratives and the function they have. If the source text is didactic the target text should have the same function. 2) Formal correspondence involves the comparison of the arrangement of textual elements in both texts, division into paragraphs and punctuation. 3) Coherence involves a comparison of the logical structure of the elements of the logical structure of the elements of the content and the logical line or reasoning in both texts. 4) Cohesion - involves comparison of pragmatic or discoursal elements of textual organization such as pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, conjunctions, logical connectors. 5) Pragmatic parameters through which one compares the texts with regard to their intended effect or purpose so the target text should have the same effect as the source text. 6) Lexical properties through which the texts may be compared with regard to the lexical meaning, connotation, emotions, or with regard to social variations: such as jargon, collocational language formal language, and so on. 7) Syntactic property involves word order, tense, sentence structure, etc.

Textual approach

Text can be understood as an instance of spoken or written language use and is a relatively self-contained unit of communication. There are seven criteria of textuality which are the principles of communication through texts. These are: cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality. There are also some basic principles of textual communication which are : efficiency, effectiveness, appropriateness. The principle of efficiency requires that the text should be used with a minimum effort. The principle of effectiveness requires that the text should leave an impression on the reader, so that it presupposes the use of creative language whereas the principle of efficiency presupposes the use of simple language. In some cases however texts which meet the effectiveness principle may produce the communication breakdown. The principle of appropriateness requires a kind of balance between the previous two principles.

Cohesion

It refers to the way in which linguistic elements of a text are meaningfully interconnected in a sequence. It is carried out by means of preference which includes personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns, lexical cohesion / organization which includes synonymous lexemes of the same lexical field, conjunctions such as but, yet, because, since, and so on.

Coherence

It is a sub-surface level of textual organization. It is concerned with the way in which meanings or ideas of concepts are established in a text and developed further. This includes relations such as cause and consequence manifested by and, so; condition-consequence relation realized by if, unless; the relation of contrast such as however, although; the relation of addition furthermore, moreover; instrument and achievement by, by means of.

Intentionallity

It refers to the intention of the sender of the message of the author. Coherent, reasonable text to achieve a certain goal so that the text performs a certain function

Acceptability

It relates to the receiver’s expectations that the text should be of some relevance to them.

Informativity

If the text is acceptable for he receiver than it is in a way informative in the given situation.

Situationallity

If the text is acceptable and informative, it is applicable to the given situation. If the text has this feature of situationallity, than the author is concerned with the situation which the text may be relevant

Intertextuality

Refers to the way in which the use of some texts affects the use and knowledge of some other texts. It affects the use and acceptance of the given text.

Generally this approach views use text as the minimum unit of communication (narodna knjizevnost, forma I reci, brzalice) text types – the type of a text in translation is important because it is a kind of a guideline for applying a certain translation strategy.

Functional approach

It is especially dominant with the German translation exports and translators. Within this approach K. Reiβ insisted upon the equivalence between the source text and the target text by viewing the text as the key level at which the

communication takes place, and at which the equivalence may be achieved. She has clarified different types of texts according to the function they have in the situation they are used. The functions of the text are the following:

1. Informative – based on playing communication of facts. Such texts contain pieces of information on a subject (scientific knowledge and opinion). The language used to translate such informative texts should not be metaphorical but logical and referential. The focus should be on the topic of the source text.

2. Expressive – quite opposite to the previous one. Centered around the creative composition, creativity in expressive texts. the author does not use the referential or informative potential of the text but its esthetic dimension so focus is not on the content but on the form to a smaller extent and on the expression on the larger extent (expression of feelings).

3. Operative texts – demand operation. Such texts require some action on the part of the reader. They appeal to thereader in a sense that they read the text as a kind of instruction or to – do (how to behave) For example recipes, instructions for use, manuals. Such texts are usually written in a form of imaginary dialog.

4. Audio-medial texts such as films, adds, visual and spoken, in which linguistic forms are supplemented with images, sound, music and such.

Depending on the text type K. Reiβ suggests specific methods to apply in translation : 1. The translation of informative text should transmit the full content of the target text with all the references and the contents. It should be in plain prose, without redundant information, and with some explanation if needed, meaning it should use more words if necessary to preserve the information provided.

2. The translation of an expressive text should transmit the esthetic and artistic form of the source text in a way that translator should adopt the standpoint or the voice of the author of the source text.

3. The translation of operative text should produce the desired response in the reader of the translation just as the source text did in the reader.

4. The translation of audio-medial text should also be accompanied by audio-visual supplements. The followers of the functional approach to translation developed the so called Skopos theory. (u prevodu sa grckog znaci purpose). What is important in this theory is not the form but the purpose the translation has when produced and the purpose of the translation action taken. This theory specifically applies to technical texts whose purpose determined the methods and techniques of translation and the translator should produce the text which is functionally adequate for the given situation/aim. What is crucial for the translator is not the form / vocabulary / grammar/ the voice of the author, but the reason why the source text is to be translated, and what is the purpose of the target text or translation. Within this theory there are certain rules, for example, the translation text must be internally coherent, the target text must be coherent with the source text if the purpose of the target text demands so the information

of the culture of the source text may be omitted or left out. The relevance of coherence is indicated by the so called coherence rule which says that the target text should be interpreted so as to be coherent with the receivers situation that it must be of semblance, logical, so that in the given circumstances and in regard to their --- the receivers should be able to understand it so that the text fulfills its purpose. Nord has discussed 2 types of translation methods which depend on the function or the purpose of the text. These are documentary and instrumental. In documentary texts the target text should serve as a document of a source text culture. It allows for almost no modification of the source text. Documentary text is used in literary translations, in which the reader of the translation should have access to the ideas of the source text , and the authors standpoint. In such translations the linguistic items such as vocabulary are retained and translation retains the local colour of the source text culture and society. Instrumental translation should serve as a message which is independent from the source text and its culture. It should fulfill its purpose without the reader being aware of that it is translation. The text should read as if it is the original. For example, the translation of the computer manual in Serbian should also instruct the reader as it did with the English readers. This instrumental translation is also a kind of functional preserving translation method. This translation is for example applied to the translation of brochures, travel guides, guide books. Sometimes the translation is instrumental if it is concerned with adapting the text to the certain kind of audience (the translation of Gulliver’s travels for children).

29.11.13. Cognitive Pragmatic Approach

Relevance theory (RT)

From the perspective of RT translation is an example of a communication centered around a cause and effect model which promotes the processes inter-protection and inferences (citanje izmedju redova, namece se implicitno). Successful communication bearing in mind that translation is a kind of communication as well depends on the speaker’s or writer’s making sure that his/her intention to inform is grasped by the receiver. This is said to be that this is achieved by making the stimulants which is words, gestures, intonation, optimally relevant to the extent necessary for the receiver to derive. Adequate effect without spending unnecessary effort to the principle guiding a successful communication is the maximum effect with minimum effort. Mainly the speaker or the writer gives the so called communicative clues which make the inferencing possible. Translators are also faced with the similar situation while translating and by deciding what is actually relevant in a text they have the following possibilities: they need to decide whether it is possible and how it impossible to retain and transfer the informative intention of the writer, whether to translate descriptively or interpretively and at what the degree is the target text resemblance to the source text should be. These decisions are based on the translator’s ability to evaluate the cognitive environment of the reader to succeed in translation and communication. The translator must share some basic assumptions with the reader and his intention must agree with a reader’s

expectations. Regarding the cognitive sight of this approach we can say that the translation studies and the translation process have shifted its focus from text to mental process, to cognition, to understanding. Translation is seen as a special instance of communication which largely depends on the decision making of the translator which depends on his inferences. The process of inferencing is crucial cognitive activity in any act of domination such as reading and translating. Inferencing means deriving conclusions from evidence and one’s line of reasoning rather than from explicit statement. To understand what is on hearers, readers and translators engage in inferencing speaking of translation. Satisfactory translation must guide the receivers of the translation towards appropriate inferences and therefore the translator must decide what to say and how to say to achieve the goal. Example: Dickens: “It was the best of times it was the worst of times.” The process of inferencing presupposes the relevance of context in this case the context is mental, cognitive rather than situational or cultural and it involves assumptions. So these assumptions make the cognitive environment. If the writer and the reader or the translator or the writer and the translator share this cognitive environment it means that they share assumptions on a certain topic, event. Then the translation will be successful and the translator will not be involved in unnecessary effort also if translator and the receiver of the translation share relevant assumptions then the receiver of the translation will not be involved in the unnecessary effort. When deciding which steps to take that is which strategy to apply the translator can choose between the direct and the indirect translation. This difference between the two refers to the situations in which the translator is either free to elaborate or summarize or he has to stick closely to the content of the text. Translations which are done by means of indirect translating should survive on their own and involve any change which the translator considers necessary to maximize the relevance for the readers. The most important relationship between the source text and the target text is not in the formal similarities, according to this theory, of their formal features but in the resemblance of their intended interpretation which is achieved through communicative clues which the translator has to take notice of, interpret and transfer to the target text so that the interpretation of the source text is the same as of the target text of the translation. In guiding the reader in the process of inferencing, i.e. what is relevant, stylistic features are also important, not in themselves, not as aesthetic or expressive elements, but as communicative clues. Speaking of communicative clues relevance theory places great importance on the stimulus which triggers the process of inferencing and has an effort on the success of the communication. It considers such stimulus as an element of communication which yields/provides cognitive effect in the sense of applied meaning. Speaking of language stimulus is regarded important due to its specific linguistic features or phonic substance as in poetry for example, a communicative clue is also stress in some languages through which the speaker achieves emphasis. For example, some communicative clues which are not attainable in the target language can be substituted by communicative clues of different kind, of different structure. For example, stress from the source language can be substituted by some syntactic means, for example, by wh-sentences such as what is important is or what is impaired in him is his hearing,

or cleft sentences - it is his hearing that is impaired. It is the setting of the scene that is significant.

Iza kolokvijuma

The postcolonial turn in translation theory

In cultural approaches to translation the center of attention of both those who translate and those who criticize translation as shifted from the text and the speaker and writer and reader to the larger context of the translation process and translation policy which is culture and society. The researchers interested in the literature of the most advanced civilization is piac in the literature of the advancing nations, especially those which were once the colonies of those “advanced civilizations” such as India, Latin America and so on, have taken a postcolonial stand on the translation theory and criticism as well. Postcolonialism is generally taken to cover studies of the history of the former colonies’ studies of powerful European empires. Resistance to the colonizers and to the colonists’ powers, political, economical, cultural and finally the studies of the imbalance of the power relation which is evident also in the translation practice of the colonizers. The fact is that former colonizing powers such as UK in the US tend to avoid translating texts of non western civilizations which they cannot adapt to their own and also even when they translate the literature of those nations they tend to adapt the texts to their own cultural traditions and values which shows their indirect attempt to colonize through translation. The most prominent researcher of the translation practice of the former colonizers is Gayatana Spivak. She has come to the conclusion that generally speaking the translations of all non American literatures or non English literature and they’re characterized by a kind of a non natural language which she calls translatese and all translations of this kind tend to eliminate the identity of politically less powerful individuals and cultures. “In the act of wholesale translation into English there can be a betrayal of the democratic ideal into the law of the strongest. This happens when all the literature of the third world gets translated into a sort of translates so that the literature by a woman in Palestine begins to resemble in the field of the prose by something of a man in Taiwan.” She believes that the politics of translation nowadays gives prominence to English and other languages, to the former colonizers when translating texts from the cultures of the less powerful and less developed countries. The translators into English very often fail to transfer the differences in their views/values/customs because the translator tends to assimilate the text(s) so that it is more accessible to the English readers. In that sense she makes a link between the colonization and translation which is based on the argument that translation plays an important role in the process of covert colonization and decimating, spreading and ideologically adapted image of the colonized peoples. She makes a comparison of the process of colonization by depicting the colony as an inferior translation copy whose identity is overwritten by the colonizer that is in this place by the translator. The central interest of the postcolonial theory in general and postcolonial approach is power relations. The researchers into the postcolonial

theory see literary translation as a sample of a discourse which reflects the colonial rule. In fact, the discourse of the East (in metaphorical sense) has been rewritten so that it has eventually produced an image of the East, which is false, but which has come to stand for truth. (some of them, Niranyana has even criticized the translation theory in general because of the western piac in that sense she has a number of reasons why this orientation has in a way stained the theory of translation).

1. Translation theory has never taken into account the power imbalance about different languages to many concepts of translation theory need to be reconsidered such as the text, the author, the meaning.

2. They are all viewed as unproblematic mainly from the point of view of language theory.

3. The humanistic nature of translation is questionable since in the colonial context translation builds the dominating image of the former colonizers that is of the powerful civilizations, into the discourse of the western cultures.

There is yet another stand on the role of translation and the translator in society promoted by Venuti. He criticizes contemporary tendencies in translation practice in the same manner as the postcolonial view does. He uses the term “the invisibility of the translator” when he describes the activity of the translator of the contemporary Anglo-American culture. Anything that this invisibility is produced by piac factors by the manner in which translators themselves tend to translate fluently into English in the way they tend to produce readable translation and this invisibility is produced by the translated text one usually read in the target culture. “Translated texts, whether prose or poetry, whether fiction or non-fiction are judged acceptable by most publishers, reviewers and readers when it reads fluently. When the accents of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent giving the appearance that it reflects the foreign writer’s personality or intention or the essential meaning of the foreign text – the appearance in other words that translation is not in fact the original. He speaks of two strategies in translation domestication and foreignization. They concern both the choice of texts to be translated and the translation method to be applied. He concludes that domestication is the dominant strategy in Anglo-American cultural translation policy. This strategy is not to be favored because in his words it involves an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to AA cultural values. This strategy minimizes the foreigners of the target text, so anything that is foreign or non AA should be concealed. On the other hand, foreignization entails choosing a foreign text and developing a translation method along the lines which are excluded by dominant cultural values in the target language.” He says that it is a valuable method of restraining the ethnocentric balance of translation. In his view this strategy is a kind of resistance and it includes the style which makes visible the presence of the translator by highlighting his efforts not to conceal the foreign identity of the source text and his effort to protect the source text from the influence or the ideological dominance of the target culture. (AA) Some other sociologically oriented researchers of translation have spoken of some tendencies

in translation which are deforming the target text and reduce variation in the text. These tendencies are the following:

1. Rationalization involves syntactic structures, sentence structures and word order.

2. Clarification translators into the language of dominant cultures tend to clarify even those segments of translation which should remain implicit on purpose.

3. Expansion – very often the target text is longer than the source text. This is due to piac translations and additions which reduce the original author’s voice.

4. Ennoblement is seen in the tendency of certain translators to write translations in a more elegant style. This leads to the alienation of the oral rhetoric of the source text language and culture.

5. Qualitative empowerment which results in translators replacing culturally specific or ethnically specific words.

6. Quantitative empowerment – the translators reduce the lexical variety of the original.

7. The destruction of rhythms both in poetry and in prose. The destruction of the vernacular which involves the piac of the local color or speech of the source text or language patterns which has had an important role in establishing the setting of the text.

8. Finally the effacement of the super imposition of languages. In this way, the translator tends to erase the traces of different forms, variety of the language that exists in the source text (dialects, sociolects, idiolects, reduces them) and in the other variety peculiar to the individual society subgroups and ethnic minorities.

Court interpreting

It is a kind of legal interpreting. In many countries the right to a translator or interpreter at court is institutionalized whenever the suspect, a witness, do not speak the language of the court, even with the minority languages. This is important especially because ordinary people whose native tongue is not that of the court, stand small chance of understanding such as specialized language. There are besides court several other contexts in which legal interpreting may take place such as: police interview, custom officers, immigration authorities. The first case of court interpreting was the trial which took place after the Second World War at Ninberg. As far as the strategies which are important while interpreting in court are concerned, they rely on traslators’ ethic and responsibility to maintain fidelity, impartiality and confidentiality which means that the interpreter does not reveal what has been said in court:

When interpreting the words of a witness, the words of a witness should be preserved entirely and transferred without being altered and he should render the sentence and words as closely as possible. What is important in the context of interpreting, the suspect’s or the witness’s words is that one’s liberty, freedom, dignity or even life is at stake so the translator should not under/overtranslate or interpret one’s words. Finally the words, whether wrongly or properly translated had a large impact on the judge’s or the jury’s decision. The right an interpreter belongs to the so called language rights. This right should be followed even in trials in which the suspect should be both legally present and also linguistically present (it means that he should at least be able to hear or understand). His linguistic presence includes his ability to hear or understand what others are saying so that he can follow the procedures. If he was not linguistically present, he cannot defend himself only due to his inability to understand what is going on which in a way violates human rights. Aboriginal populations in Australia and the US also have a right to an interpreter and this right was actually initiated by instances in which the linguistic behavior and the pragmatic competence of the Aboriginal people in Australia was taken to mean that they actually do not speak because they are guilty. In the US, for example, the rights to read to the one who is being arrested must be communicated in his own language so that the policeman even carries the cards with the translations of those rights in various languages. In the proceedings, various types of interpreting various translation may be used, such as consecutive and simultaneous interpreting and even the translation of the documents used in the procedure.

Machine aided translation

In machine aided translation, the translator refers to the sources or references or corpora in dictation or grammar books or software which is machine-readable or electronic. One of the most important sources of a linguistic data which is useful for the process of translation are corpora. Several types of corpora:

1. Monolingual – contains a set of texts written in one language which are useful in the piac that the translator may refer to them to check the nature of the phrase. British national corpus (university in Lancaster, free)

2. Bilingual corpora – contains similar texts in two languages which are mainly useful for researching terminology.

3. Parallel corpora – contains a set of source text and translation text pair.

4. Genuine translation corpora – the translator may check the translation strategy.

There are also some other tasks performed in the machinated translation, for example, editing, which is usually done by a special software for word processing, for example, spelling check, grammar check, punctuation check. Then, finding solutions in a software such as bilingual dictionaries.