Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation: The Theory of 16 Basic Desires

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Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation:

The Theory of 16 Basic DesiresSteven Reiss

The Ohio State University

Review of eneral !sycholo"y# $%% '# 1()*1)+,

Please send reprint requests to: Steven Reiss, 321 McCampbell Hall, 1581 odd rive,!"io State #niversit$, Columbus, !H %321&'12()* email: reiss*+osu*edu

September, 2&&2

Revised: -ebruar$, 2&&3

. Cop$ri/"t Steven Reiss, 0ll Ri/"ts Reserved o part o t"is document ma$ be

reproduced, copied, distributed or stored it"out ritten permission rom t"e aut"or*



-.stract

4"ite 1(5(6 proposed t"at certain motives7suc" as curiosit$, autonom$, andpla$ called intrinsic motives or Ms6 9 "ave common c"aracteristics t"at distin/uis"

t"em rom drives* "e evidence t"at master$ is common to Ms is anecdotal, not

scientiic* "e assertion t"at ;intrinsic ena//erates t"esi/niicance o pleasure in "uman motivation and e>presses t"e "edonistic allac$ o

conusin/ consequence or cause* ot"in/ "as been s"on scientiicall$ to be common to

Ms t"at dierentiate t"em rom drives* 0n empiricall$ testable t"eor$ o 1) basicdesires is put ort" based on ps$c"ometric researc" and subsequent be"avior validation*

"e desires are lar/el$ unrelated to eac" ot"er and ma$ "ave dierent evolutionar$

"istories*

2



Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation:

The Theory of 16 Basic Desires

Motives are reasons people "old or initiatin/ and perormin/ voluntar$ be"avior*

"e$ indicate t"e meanin/ o "uman be"avior, and t"e$ ma$ reveal a person?s values*

Motives oten aect a person?s perception, co/nition, emotion, and be"avior* 0 person"o is "i/"l$ motivated to /ain social status, or e>ample, ma$ be observant o mar@s o

social distinction, ma$ t"in@ oten about issues pertainin/ to ealt", ma$ especiall$ enamples include a c"ild pla$in/ ball or p"$sical e>ercise and a student readin/ aboo@ out o curiosit$* n eac" o t"ese e>amples, t"e /oal is desired or its on sa@e* n

contrast, means are indicated "en a person perorms an act or its instrumental value*>amples include a proessional at"lete "o pla$s ball or a salar$ and a student "o

studies to improve a /rade* n eac" o t"ese e>amples, t"e /oal salar$, /rade6 is desired

because it produces somet"in/ else* 0 person mi/"t see@ a salar$, or e>ample, as ameans o en"ancin/ social status, or "i/" /rades as a means o pleasin/ a parent*

0n anal$sis o a person?s be"avior ma$ identi$ a series o instrumental acts

olloed b$ one or more end /oals t"at complete t"e ;be"avior c"ain*= -or e>ample, aperson ma$ ta@e a second tra

salar$ to purc"ase "ealt" care instrumental motive6, and desire t"e "ealt" care to beneit

"is or "er amil$ end /oal6* "is e>ample o a simple be"avior c"ain s"os t"reebe"aviors, to motivated b$ instrumental /oals and a t"ird motivated b$ an end /oal*Do/icall$, onl$ /oals t"at are desired or t"eir on sa@e can serve as t"e ;end= o a

purposeul e>planation o a series o "uman acts*

"e number o instrumental motives is or all practical purposes unlimited* !nl$ima/ination limits "o man$ dierent a$s individuals can pursue t"e end /oal o, sa$,

poer* Eenerall$, t"ere seems to be little or no point to listin/ instrumental motives

because no matter "o compre"ensive a list "appens to be somebod$ can probabl$ima/ine an additional instrumental motive t"at as overloo@ed and could be added to t"e

list* n contrast, t"e number o ends is limited b$ "uman nature* 0 central issue or

ps$c"olo/$ s"ould be to identi$ and classi$ t"e end purposes o "uman be"avior,

because ends indicate t"e ultimate /oals o muc" o "at people do*o t"eoretical perspectives "ave been advanced concernin/ end /oals* Multi'

aceted t"eor$ "olds t"at t"e various end /oals are lar/el$ unrelated to eac" ot"er,

per"aps to t"e point "ere t"e$ are /eneticall$ distinct sources o motivation it"dierent evolutionar$ "istories* Multi'aceted t"eorists include p"ilosop"ers "o "ave

su//ested lists o t"e most undamental motives o "uman nature e*/*, SpinFoa,

1(%(B1)+56, ps$c"olo/ists "o "ave put ort" evolutionar$ t"eories o motivation e*/*,

3



Mcou/all, 1(2)6, and ps$c"olo/ists "o "ave su//ested t"eories o "uman needs e*/*,

Murra$, 1(386*

n contrast, unitar$ or /lobal t"eorists "old t"at end /oals can be proitabl$reduced to a small number o cate/ories based on common c"aracteristics* #nitar$

t"eorists see@ t"e underl$in/ ps$c"olo/ical principles t"at are e>pressed b$ diverse

motivational events* "e ancient Eree@ p"ilosop"ers, or e>ample, reduced end /oalsinto cate/ories e>pressin/ t"e needs o t"e bod$, mind, and soul e*/*, Plato, 1())B3+5

AC6* Hedonists distin/uis"ed beteen end /oals associated it" pleasure en"ancement

versus pain reduction Russell, 1(%56* -reud 1()3B1(1)6 reduced motives to se>ual anda//ressive instincts*

oda$, some social ps$c"olo/ists classi$ end /oals into to /lobal cate/ories,

called drives and intrinsic motives Ms6* "e distinction "as been inluential 7 1,(21

sc"olarl$ publications on intrinsic motivation M6 appeared durin/ t"e period o Ganuar$1()+ to Ma$ 2&&2 source:PsychInfo6* M "as been investi/ated in social ps$c"olo/$

e*/, R$an eci, 2&&&6, developmental ps$c"olo/$ e*/*, Harter, 1(816, clinical

ps$c"olo/$ e*/*, isenber/er Cameron, 1(()6, or/aniFational ps$c"olo/$ e*/*,

Hou@es, Ganssen, Gon/e, iamine "o various end /oals relate to eac" ot"er* 4eill consider t"e meanin/ o t"e concept o ;M= and ill as@, ;4"at, i an$t"in/,

ample, are circular it" respect to

eac" ot"er: ;Reards stren/t"en be"avior,= and ;0n$ event t"at stren/t"ens be"avior is

a reard*="e concept o drive as introduced to escape rom t"e circularit$ o t"e la o

eect Aron, 1()1*6 nstead o identi$in/ ;reards= as an$ stimulus or satis$in/

event t"at stren/t"ens be"avior, drive t"eorists deined ;reard= as a reduction in a stateo deprivation* "e statements, ;drive reduction stren/t"ens be"avior,= and ;drive

reduction occurs "en a state o deprivation is lessened,= are not circular it" respect to

eac" ot"er*Hull 1(%36 reco/niFed our t$pes o drives7"un/er, t"irst, se>, and escape rom

pain* n man$ animal learnin/ e>periments investi/ators induced drives b$ deprivin/

animals o an important need prior to t"e e>periment* "e deprivation o ood, or

e>ample, establis"es ood as a poerul reard, increasin/ t"e animal?s motivation to

%



learn responses t"at produce ood S@inner, 1(386* Muc" o animal learnin/ t"eor$ is

based on t"e results o ps$c"olo/ical studies it" ood'deprived or ater'deprived

animals*2

II, UNIT-R2 IM T0OR2

"e unitar$ construct o M as put ort" as an alternative to drive t"eor$* "e

initial insi/"t as t"at man$ o t"e motives not e>plained ell b$ drive t"eor$ 9 motivessuc" as e>ploration curiosit$6, autonom$, and pla$ '' "ave common properties* o a

lar/e e>tent, unitar$ M t"eor$ initiall$ represented an attempt to s"o t"e essential

dierences beteen drives and "at ps$c"od$namic t"eorists "ave called ;e/o motives*=n t"e past, t"e distinction beteen drives and Ms "as been t"ou/"t to "ave a

p"$siolo/ical basis, at least accordin/ to some publis"ed remar@s* "e /eneral idea as

t"at drives suc" as "un/er and t"irst arise rom ;tissue needs= involvin/ ;perip"eral=

components o t"e nervous s$stem, "ereas Ms arise rom ps$c"olo/ical or co/nitiveprocesses involvin/ primaril$ central neural activit$* eci 1(+56, or e>ample, rote

t"at t"e primar$ eects o M ;are in t"e tissues o t"e central nervous s$stem rat"er t"an

in t"e non'nervous s$stem tissues= p* )16* "is p"$siolo/ical paradi/m or

distin/uis"in/ drives rom Ms ala$s lac@ed scientiic supportK indeed, e no @not"at it is p"$siolo/ical nonsense* Motives suc" as "un/er and t"irst, or e>ample, involve

si/niicant central nervous s$stem or co/nitive activit$ Aerntson Cacioppo, 2&&&6*Aot" t"e be"aviorist concept o ;drive,= and t"e concept o M as ;non'drive,= "ave no

precise p"$siolo/ical meanin/, and ori/inall$ ere put ort" at a time "en little as

@non about t"e p"$siolo/$ o motivation*

-, M-ST0R2

4"ite?s 1(5(6 paper on competence motivation master$6 as ar/uabl$ t"e start

o t"e current era o sc"olars"ip on M* 4"ite 1(5(6 asserted t"at e>ploration,

manipulation, and pla$ are not drives ori/inatin/ rom states o deprivation partiall$because t"e$ are not related to ;visceral needs comparable to "un/er, t"irst, or se>=

1(5(, p* 3&16* >ploration and pla$ ;cannot be re/arded as leadin/ to an$ @ind oconsummator$ response= p* 3&16* He urt"er ar/ued t"at motives t"at are not drives"ave ;ver$ vital common properties= p* 3186* n particular, suc" motives are concerned

it" ;eective interactions it" t"e environment, under t"e /eneral "eadin/ o

competence= p* 31+6* 4"ite?s motive or competence "as been variousl$ calledeffectance motivation, competence motivation, and mastery* eci 1(+56 later embraced

4"ite?s "$pot"esis t"at competence motivation is a common propert$ o non'drives,

deinin/ M as be"avior ;"ic" a person en/a/es in to eel competent and sel'

determinin/= p* )16*4"ite appreciated t"e need to validate "is idea o eectance motivation* He

rote, ;o doubt it ill at irst seem arbitrar$ to propose a sin/le motivational

conception in connection it" so man$ diverse @inds o be"avior* 4"at do e /ain b$attributin/ motivational unit$ to suc" a diverse arra$ o activities= 4"ite, 1(5(, p* 3186*

He cited bot" Pia/et 1(526 and anecdotal observations to support "is "$pot"esis t"at

eectance motivation is common to e>ploration, manipulation, and pla$*4"ite speculated on t"e development o eectance motivation* He su//ested t"at

in bot" inants and $oun/ c"ildren ;it seems sensible to conceive o eectance motivation

as undierentiated* Dater in lie it becomes proitable to distin/uis" various motives suc"

5



as co/niFance, construction, master$, and ac"ievement* t is m$ vie t"at all suc"

motives "ave a root in eectance motivation= 4"ite, 1(5(, p* 3236*

Some o t"e appeal o 4"ite?s t"eor$ is su//ested b$ t"e be"avior o $oun/animals and c"ildren* Loun/ lion cubs, or e>ample, sometime seem to be burstin/ it"

ener/$ 9 t"e$ /et into misc"ie, pla$ it" t"e ot"er cubs, e>plore t"eir environment, and

"ave a tendenc$ to ander aa$ rom t"e /roup* n ot"er ords, t"e$ e>press sel'assertive ener/$ as pla$, e>ploration, manipulation, a desire or p"$sical e>ercise, and a

desire or autonom$* "e$ create a stron/ impression t"at t"ese be"aviors are lin@ed b$

a common motive o sel'assertion*0necdotal observations, "oever, do not constitute scientiic evidence* 0s ar as

e could determine, no researc"er "as presented scientiic tests o t"e "$pot"esis t"at

master$ is t"e aim o e>ploration, autonom$, and pla$* 4"ite 1(5(6 cited as evidence

or "is "$pot"esis anecdotal e>amples o c"ildren at pla$ and "is interpretations o "att"ose c"ildren ere reall$ aimin/ or it" t"eir be"avior* 0lt"ou/" "is interpretations

ere reasonable and per"aps even insi/"tul, t"e$ did not rise to t"e standards o

scientiic evidence* Part o t"e diicult$ it" 4"ite?s "$pot"esis is t"e lac@ o

quantiication and measurement, "ic" are to pillars o a scientiic approac"* 0s Harter1(816 put it, ;"e /lobal nature o t"is construct eectance motivationN "as made it

diicult to operationaliFe* 4"ite?s ormulation does not readil$ lend itsel to anempirical test*= p* 3&16*

4"ite did not develop a measure o competence motivation* He did not assess

correlations beteen competence motivation and various Ms, s"oin/ t"at t"e$ aresi/niicantl$ "i/"er t"an correlations beteen competence motivation and drives* 4"ite

did not propose speciic studies to test "is concept* He did not sa$ "at mi/"t alsi$ "is

t"eor$* He developed some interestin/ ideas, but "e did not put ort" scientiic support

or t"ose ideas*Ia/an 1(+26 reco/niFed t"e need to develop measures o eectance motivation*

He su//ested t"at t"e$ be developed based on principles similar to t"ose used in t"e"ematic 0pperception est Murra$, 1(%36* o suc" measure, "oever, "as beenvalidated* "e validit$ o t"e "ematic 0pperception est, moreover, "as been called

into question Oubin, ron, Sc"umer, 1()56* oda$, e researc"ers use t"e 0 or

ot"er stor$'tellin/ tec"niques to measure motivation*4"ite?s ar/ument t"at master$ is a common element o t"e Ms is based on a ver$

broad interpretation o competence motivation* He deined competence motivation so

broadl$ it includes nearl$ all motives* !ne could ar/ue, or e>ample, t"at drives also

e>press a desire to interact eectivel$ it" t"e environment* n "un/er, or e>ample,people ant to become eective "unters to ind ood* Some people spend a considerable

amount o ener/$ to become se>uall$ eective in attractin/ ot"ers* A$ puttin/ ort" a

suicientl$ /eneral deinition o competence motivation, it seems possible to ar/ue t"atnearl$ an$ collection o diverse motives ma$ "ave common elements*

"e "$pot"esis t"at eectance motivation is undierentiated at birt" and later

dierentiates into t"e various Ms "as not been tested* obod$ "as observed t"epredicted process o dierentiation o master$ motivation* obod$ "as conducted

measurements o eectance motivation in an undierentiated state and in its predicted

dierentiated orm, s"oin/ t"at t"e ormer is lin@ed to t"e later*

)



n conclusion, c"ildren s"o a need to eel competent and master t"eir

environments* "is need, called master$, is important in c"ild"ood development and in

"uman be"avior /enerall$* "e relations"ip beteen master$ and ot"er e/o motives,"oever, is not ell understood* Researc"ers need to develop met"ods to e>plore more

ull$ 4"ite?s "$pot"esis t"at master$ is t"e aim o important e/o motives suc" as

e>ploration, manipulation, and autonom$*A, INTRINSI3 !40-SUR0S

ntrinsic pleasure is anot"er common c"aracteristics o Ms, accordin/ to unitar$

t"eorists* "is viepoint "olds t"at people are motivated to en/a/e in activities t"e$e>pect to e>perience as pleasurable* 4"en t"e pleasures are in"erent to t"e be"avior or

activit$ itsel 9 suc" as drain/ or its on sa@e7M is imputed R$an eci, 2&&&K

4einer, 1((56* 4"en t"e pleasures are e>ternal to t"e be"avior or activit$7suc" as

drain/ or a Eood Pla$er 0ard7e>trinsic motivation M6 is imputed* 0s eci andR$an 1(856 put it, ;4"en people are intrinsicall$ motivated, t"e$ e>perience interest and

enperience

lo= p* 3%6* 4einer 1((56 deined M as a source o motivation arisin/ rom t"eenjoyment o an activit$*

B1, -R0 IMs !40-SUR0-B40J M t"eorists ma$ "ave erred in embracin/"edonism 9 t"e p"ilosop"$ t"at pleasure motivates be"avior* !ver t"e centuries, sc"olars

"ave s"on a number o si/niicant limitations o pleasure t"eories* 0pplied to t"e

concept o intrinsic pleasures, or e>ample, e ma$ question "et"er or not M t"eorists"ave e>a//erated t"e e>tent to "ic" certain activities reall$ are pleasurable*

M t"eorists ar/uabl$ "ave e>a//erated t"e motivational si/niicance o

intellectual pleasures* "e$ "ave "eld t"at ever$bod$ is born it" t"e potential to entrinsic incentives suc" as /rades Io"n, 1((36* n order tomotivate students in sc"ool, unitar$ M t"eorists advise teac"ers to ind a$s to ma@elearnin/ un Depper and Cordova, 1((26 and to tap into students? natural curiosit$*

M t"eorists "ave presented little scientiic evidence to support t"e "$pot"esis t"at

ever$bod$ is born it" t"e potential to enamples oadolescents and adults s"o t"at man$ people react to intellectual activities as i t"e$

ere unpleasant* People oten sustain t"ou/"t on a problem or no more t"an brie

periods o timeK t"e over"elmin/ maamples are ar/uabl$

si/ns t"at intellectual activit$ is naturall$ unpleasant under man$ circumstances or i

en/a/ed in or more t"an a e minutes at a time*M t"eorists ma$ "ave put ort" a misleadin/, almost romanticiFed description o

t"e inquir$ process* "e inquir$ process is not ala$s pleasurable and oten involves

si/niicant ne/ative emotions* Man$ scientists "ave ritten about t"e a/on$ o t"ecreative inquir$ process and t"e emotional ups and dons o researc"*

4"ereas M t"eorists "ave said t"at t"e ps$c"olo/ical aim o inquir$ is

intellectual pleasure, t"e multiaceted t"eor$ e propose later in t"is article implies t"at

t"e aims o inquir$ are learnin/ and @noled/e* #nder our viepoint, "i/"l$ curious

+



people desire @noled/e and understandin/ so stron/l$ t"e$ pursue t"e inquir$ process

even "en t"e$ must endure an>ieties, severe criticism, devastatin/ ailures, and ot"er

rustrations* Inoled/e is t"e end /oal o curiosit$, but t"in@in/, e>ploration, andproblem solvin/ are not necessaril$ pleasurable* "in@in/ can be rustratin/, e>ploration

can arouse ear Games, 1(5&B18(&6, and problem solvin/ can be rustratin/*

n conclusion, one problem it" t"e concept o intrinsic pleasures is t"at itimplies t"at intrinsicall$ motivated be"avior is more en



trait curiosit$ as virtuall$ nil, r *&5, 1,15%* Since "i/"l$ autonomous people are

not necessaril$ "i/"l$ curious, "o can autonom$ and curiosit$ be about t"e same t"in/

master$6J

D, 3ON34USIONS

4"ite 1(5(6 put ort" t"e t"esis t"at Ms suc" as curiosit$, autonom$, and pla$"ave common c"aracteristics pressed a multiaceted t"eor$ o end

motivation ;doin/ somet"in/ or its on sa@e*=6* 0ristotle, or e>ample, identiied 12

end motives: conidence, pleasure, savin/, ma/niicence, "onor, ambition, patience,sincerit$, conversation, social contact, modest$, and ri/"teousness* escartes

1(58B1)3+6, on t"e ot"er "and, listed si> ;passions o t"e soul*= He rote, ;"ere areonl$ si> intrinsic motivesN "ic" are simple and primitive, viF*, onder, love, "atred,

desire, Q= p* 2(16* Games

1(5&B18(&6 and Mcou/all 1(2)6 reco/niFed beteen 8 and 2& ;instincts*= 3 4"enps$c"od$namic ps$c"olo/$ /ained inluence, Murra$ 1(386 reinterpreted Mcou/all?s

list o instincts into a list o 2& basic ps$c"olo/ical needs*% Maslo 1(%36 also put ort"

a t"eor$ o diverse "uman motives*

Some ps$c"olo/ists "ave ta@en stron/ e>ception to eorts to develop lists o endmotives* Critics "ave ar/ued t"at 8 to 2& undamental motives are too man$ to be studied

proitabl$ -reeman, 0nderson, 0Fer, Eirolami, Scotti, 1((86* Aiolo/ists stud$ scoreso enF$mes, and c"emists stud$ 115 elements* Since e do not sa$ t"at biolo/ists stud$;too man$= enF$mes, or t"at c"emists stud$ ;too man$= elements, "$ s"ould e t"in@

t"at 8 to 2& basic motives are ;too man$= or ps$c"olo/ists to stud$J Scientiic rules

permit ps$c"olo/ists to stud$ as man$ undamental motives as can be identiied* 4e donot ant to invent a motive or ever$ be"avior, o course, but e also do not ant to

proceed based on invalid, preconceived notions o "o man$ motives t"ere are*

volutionar$ t"eor$ su//ests a multi'aceted model o Ms* 4"en e consider

t"e various Ms, t"e$ seem relevant to dierent survival needs, su//estin/ possibl$distinct motives controlled b$ dierent /enes* icac$, or e>ample, motivates buildin/

nests and ot"ers orms o s"elter, "ic" "ave t"e survival value o protectin/ animals

rom "ars" environmental elements* 0utonom$ 9 t"e desire or reedom 9 motivatesanimals to leave t"e nest "en t"e$ come o a/e, spreadin/ t"e searc" or ood over a

lar/er /eo/rap"ical area* "ese considerations su//est at least a possibilit$ o separate

evolutionar$ "istories, "ic" supports t"e idea t"at Ms are multiaceted*

-, -3TORI-4 STUDI0S O 0ND MOTI/-TION

Since 1((5, "ave been developin/ a list o diverse Ms, variousl$ called t"etheory of 16 basic desiresorsensitivity theory* M$ /raduate students and "ave been

(



/at"erin/ evidence s"oin/ t"e reliabilit$, actorial validit$, and be"avioral validit$ o

t"is list* A$ validatin/ a variet$ o lar/el$ unrelated end motives "at people see@ or

its on sa@e6, m$ collea/ues and "ave sou/"t to s"o t"at end motivation is, in act,multiaceted*

Reiss and Havercamp 1((), 1((86 deined basic orundamentalmotivesto "ave

t"ree eatures: 16 end purposes Ms6, 26 universal motivators, and 36 ps$c"olo/icalimportance* "e criterion o ps$c"olo/ical importance is intended to ocus multiaceted

t"eor$ on be"aviors t"at "istoricall$ "ave been central to ps$c"olo/ical personalit$

t"eor$* atin/, or e>ample, is considered to be ps$c"olo/icall$ important becauseaspects o culture, man$ ever$da$ activities, and some clinical disorders are concerned

it" ood and ood preparationK on t"e ot"er "and, t"irst is not considered to be a

undamental motivator because it does not account or a si/niicant amount o ever$da$

be"avior o interest to ps$c"olo/ists* 4it"out t"e criterion o ps$c"olo/ical si/niicance,t"ere ma$ be scores o basic motives additional to t"ose considered in t"is article,

includin/ one or eac" biolo/ical need*

4e be/an our eort to identi$ t"e basic motives o "uman be"avior b$

developin/ a list o ever$ motive e could ima/ine* 4e consulted a variet$ o reerencesources and as@ed collea/ues or su//estions* 4e obtained ideas rom Murra$?s 1(386

t"eor$ o needs, motivational studies, ps$c"opat"olo/$ articles and boo@s, andps$c"iatric classiication manuals* 4e pared don our initial list o items b$ eliminatin/

redundancies and motives t"at "ave relativel$ little ps$c"olo/ical si/niicance* 0s a

result o t"is process, an initial list o nearl$ 5&& items as reduced to 328 items*Reiss and Havercamp 1((86 as@ed researc" participants to rate "o important

eac" o t"e motives e identiied as in determinin/ t"eir be"avior* nitiall$, e

conducted our actor studies 3 e>plorator$ studies and 1 conirmator$ stud$6, eac" it"

a dierent sample o participants* "e combined total o 2,55% people included people odiverse a/es 12 to +)6 and stations in lie e*/*, "i/" sc"ool students, colle/e students,

militar$ people, ast ood or@ers, seminar$ student, "uman service providers, nursin/"ome residents6* "e results o an initial conirmator$ actor stud$ supported a 15'actorsolution* Aased on t"ese results, e constructed a sel'report instrument, called t"e Reiss

Proile o -undamental Eoals and Motivational Sensitivities* "e initial version o t"e

instrument assessed 15 undamental motives*4e developed a scale to assess Savin/, or t"e desire to collect, "ic" as added

as a si>teent" actor because e became convinced t"at collectin/ is an end motive e

"ad overloo@ed* n a stud$ o 512 adults solicited rom sources in urban and rural !"io,

Havercamp 1((86 conirmed t"e 1)'actor solution t"e ori/inal 15 actors plus savin/6to t"e revised 128'item Reiss Proile instrument*

n conclusion, "en people ere as@ed to sel'report t"eir motives, t"e$ reported

1) actor'distinct cate/ories o ps$c"olo/icall$ si/niicant end motives Ms6* 0n$ eortto reduce t"is list to onl$ a e cate/ories ould result in t"e loss o si/niicant

inormation, and t"is s"ould produce a vastl$ inerior s$stem compared to t"e ull 1)

basic desires6 or anal$Fin/ and predictin/ people?s be"avior*Reliability of Factors* est'retest reliabilities or t"e Reiss Proile "ave been

reported Reiss Havercamp, 1((8K Reiss Havercamp, in press6, it" mean r?s o *83

ran/e *8& to *()6 or to ee@ reliabilit$ and *8& ran/e *)( to *886 or our ee@

reliabilit$* "ese test'retest reliabilities e>ceed t"ose reported or some personalit$ tests

1&



suc" as t"e MMP'2 Autc"er, a"lstrom, Era"am, elle/en, Iaemmer, 1(8(6* "e$

support t"e "$pot"esis t"at t"e Reiss Proile assesses trait motives*

Reiss and Havercamp 1((86 reported Cronbac"?s alp"a coeicients o internalreliabilit$ or eac" o 15 scales all e>cept savin/*6 "e median alp"a value as *8)

ran/e *+& to *(26, su//estin/ /ood internal reliabilit$ or t"e Reiss Proile scales*

Social Desirability* Havercamp and Reiss in press6 assessed t"e socialdesirabilit$ o t"e Reiss Proile it" a sample o 1+1 under/raduate student volunteers,

"o completed bot" t"e Reiss Proile and t"e Marloe'Crone Social esirabilit$ Scale

MCSSK Crone Marloe, 1()&6* "e r values computed beteen t"e MCSSandeac" o t"e Reiss Proile scales ran/ed in absolute value rom *&1 to *3( Mdn* *&(, M

*1)6* -or sa@e o comparison, Gac@son 1(8%6 reported correlations beteen t"e

Personalit$ Researc" -orm PR-6 and social desirabilit$ scales ran/in/ rom *&1 to *%%

Mdn *2&, M *226* "ese results s"o t"at t"e Reiss Proile sel'reports areminimall$ aected b$ social desirabilit$*

Universal values. 0dditional support or t"e multiaceted model comes rom

researc" on values* -actorial studies o values s"ould produce results similar to actorial

studies o end /oals because, as a matter o lo/ic, all end /oals are values, and ultimatevalues are potentiall$ motivatin/, or reasons to insti/ate be"avior* Aecause ends and

values are lo/icall$ related ideas, or centuries motivation as studied under t"e topic oet"ics 9 or e>ample, 0ristotle?s lecture notes on motivation ere publis"ed in "is boo@,

ichomachean !thics*6

"ese considerations impl$ t"at empiricall$'derived lists o basic desires anduniversal "uman values s"ould be similar* n a series o studies anal$Fin/ surve$ data

rom (+ samples rom %% countries, Sc"artF 1((%6 identiied 1& universal values* 0ll

ten o Sc"artF?s universal values correspond to basic motives in Reiss?s s$stem*

Sc"artF?s value o poer, or e>ample, alls under Reiss?s motive called poer*0dditional ;matc"es= are Sc"artF?s value o ac"ievement and Reiss?s motive o poerK

Sc"artF?s "edonism and Reiss?s social contact are similar because eac" includes un'lovin/ be"aviorK Sc"artF?s e>citement is t"e opposite o Reiss?s tranquilit$ t"e samemotive but assessed rom dierent ends o a continuum6K Sc"artF?s sel'directin/ alls

under Reiss?s motive o independenceK Sc"artF?s value universalism is Reiss?s motive

o idealismK Sc"artF?s benevolence alls under Reiss?s motives o amil$ and socialcontactK Sc"artF?s tradition alls under Reiss?s "onorK t"e value o conormit$ as deined

b$ Sc"artF alls under Reiss?s motive or ven/eanceK and Sc"artF?s value o securit$

alls under Reiss?s motive o order* "e to bodies o researc", t"us, produced

si/niicantl$ similar results, s"oin/ t"e multi'aceted nature o ultimate values or Ms*

T0OR2 O 16 B-SI3 D0SIR0S

See able 1

Reiss?s t"eor$ o 1) basic desires, "ic" is summariFed in able 1, is put ort" as

a multiaceted model o M, alternative to t"e unitar$ models o M* H$pot"esis 1 is t"at

eac" o t"e 1) basic desires is a trait motive* 4it" t"e possible e>ceptions o t"e motives

11



o idealism and acceptance, t"e 1) basic desires motivate animals as ell as people

H$pot"esis 26* "eoreticall$, t"e 1) basic desires are considered to be /eneticall$

distinct it" dierent evolutionar$ "istories H$pot"esis 36* "e satiation o eac" basicdesire produces an intrinsicall$ valued eelin/ or imiFe t"eir

e>periences o t"e 1) intrinsic plainin/ a

person?s be"avior are t"ose t"at are unusuall$ stron/ or unusuall$ ea@ compared toappropriate norms* -or e>ample, some people devote muc" o t"eir time to satiatin/ t"eir

desire or curiosit$, ot"ers see@ poer, and still ot"ers are out or reven/e* "ose basic

desires t"at are neit"er stron/ nor ea@ compared it" appropriate norms are /enerall$

less important in e>plainin/ a person?s be"avior* "e satiation o a basic desire is ala$stemporar$K soon ater e satis$ a basic desire, t"e motive reasserts itsel and needs to be

satisied a/ain* 0ter e socialiFe, or e>ample, t"e desire or social contact ma$ reassert

itsel it"in "ours*

ac" basic desire is t"eoreticall$ re/arded as a continuum o potential motivationanc"ored b$ opposite values H$pot"esis )6* 0s s"on in -i/ure 1, t"e t"eor$ o 1) basic

desires "olds t"at individuals are motivated to aim or a point o moderation called asetpointorsensitivity6 '' in ot"er ords, people /enerall$ are motivated to e>perience "at

0ristotle called a moderate mean* Most people aim or a moderate de/ree o poer, a

moderate de/ree o status, a moderate de/ree o @noled/e, and so on or eac" basicdesire* ndividual dierences, "oever, are si/niicant H$pot"esis 56* n -i/ure 1, or

e>ample, Henr$ aims or a loer de/ree o social contact t"an does Ga@e* 4"en t"e

amount o social contact Henr$ or Ga@e e>perience is less t"an t"e$ desire, t"e$ are

motivated to socialiFe* 4"en t"e amount o social contact t"e$ e>perience is about "att"e$ desire, t"e$ are temporaril$ satiated* 4"en t"e amount o social contact is more

t"an t"e$ desire, t"e$ are motivated to be alone to balance out t"eir e>periences*

i"ure 1, The .asic desire for social contact as a continuu7 of end 7otivation,

!rivate84oner999999999999999999999999999999999999Socia.le

Henr$ Ga@e

Suppose t"at Henr$ and Ga@e attend a part$ t"at lasts t"ree "ours* Henr$ ent mornin/ alone to

balance "is e>perience toard a lo avera/e amount o social contact, "ereas Ga@e /oes

to t"e nearest bar to @eep t"e part$ rollin/*"e t"eor$ o 1) basic desires "olds t"at "at is motivatin/ are discrepancies

beteen t"e amount o an intrinsic satisier t"at is desired and t"e amount t"at as

recentl$ e>perienced H$pot"esis +6* 4"en a person e>periences more poer t"an "e or

12



s"e desires, t"e individual is motivated to be submissive or a period o time to balance

e>perience toard t"e desired rate* 4"en a person e>periences less poer t"an "e or s"e

desires, t"e individual is motivated to be domineerin/ or a period o time* "us, aperson "o /enerall$ "as a poerul personalit$ ma$ at times be motivated to be

submissive, and a person it" a submissive personalit$ ma$ at times be motivated to be

dominant*0ccordin/ to t"e t"eor$ o 1) basic desires, ven/eul people are motivated to

e>perience "i/" de/rees o vindication, competition, contentiousness, conlict, and

a//ression, "ereas peacema@ers are motivated to e>perience lo de/rees o t"esee>periences* 4"en a ven/eul person e>periences a period o time 9 sa$ a e da$s 9

t"at are conlict ree, t"e individual is motivated to /et into ar/uments, i/"ts, and

competitions* "e lon/er t"e period o time t"at is conlict ree, t"e stron/er becomes t"e

motivation to pic@ a i/"t it" somebod$* t"e individual ;/oes too ar= and provo@esmore o a i/"t t"an "e or s"e "ad anticipated, t"e person becomes motivated b$

peacema@in/ be"avior to balance e>perience bac@ toard t"e individual?s 0ristotlean

mean de 4aal, 1(8(6* !n t"e ot"er "and, peacema@ers are /enerall$ conlict'avoidant

and motivated to e>perience a belo'avera/e de/ree o strie* 4"en peacema@erse>perience even ordinar$ amounts o ever$da$ strie and conlict, t"e$ become motivated

to ma@e peace* "eir tolerance or strie is muc" belo t"at o t"e avera/e individual*0s as noted previousl$, basic desires or/aniFe our attention, co/nitions, eelin/s,

and be"avior into a co"erent action or "ole H$pot"esis 86* 4e pa$ attention to stimuli

t"at are relevant to t"e satisaction o our desires, and e tend to i/nore stimuli t"at donot satis$ our desires* 0 person it" a stron/ desire or ven/eance, or e>ample, is

attentive to possible insults or provocations, "ereas a person it" a ea@ desire or

ven/eance ma$ not even notice an insult* 0 person it" a stron/ desire or order pa$s

attention to "o neat and clean a room is and notices "en t"in/s are out o place* ncontrast, a person it" a ea@ desire or order ma$ not even notice "en dirt$ dis"es are

in t"e sin@ or t"e "ouse is a mess*/-4ID-TION O 16 B-SI3 D0SIR0Sn science e c"oose t"e competin/ t"eor$ t"at potentiall$ e>plains t"e most data*

Multiaceted t"eor$ seems to "ave si/niicant /eneralit$ o application: Reiss 2&&&b6 "as

s"on "o it is at least t"eoreticall$ possible to "old t"at "uman relations"ips, careers,amil$ lie, sports, and spiritualit$ are or/aniFed to satiate t"e 1) basic desires* "e 1)

basic desires also "ave been applied to ps$c"opat"olo/$ Reiss Havercamp, 1(()6 and

to mental retardation $@ens Rosner, 2&&&K 4iltF Reiss, in press6* Reiss?s model

o 1) basic desires as developed in t"e tradition o compre"ensive personalit$ t"eories,but unli@e previous /lobal personalit$ t"eories, Reiss?s model is testable*

s sel'report a valid basis to determine t"at motives are multi'acetedJ o people

validl$ sel'report t"eir motivesJ 0re t"e$



Stron/ Tocational nterest Alan@* -or colle/e student populations, t"e PR-scale or

dominance predicts social be"avior Gaccard, 1(+%6 and participation in student activities

Pierce Sc"artF, 1(+16* -urt"er, t"e Reiss Proile scale or tranquilit$ "as beencorrelated it" t"e Reiss'pstein'Eurs@$ 0n>iet$ Sensitivit$ nde> 0SK Peterson

Reiss, 1((26 because o si/niicant overlappin/ item content Havercamp Reiss, in

press6* $alidated Profiles* 0 series o studies ere conducted to evaluate "o t"e 1)

motives are related to be"avior* Since motivation "as diverse applications, t"ese studies

evaluated issues as varied as spiritualit$, sports, and c"oice o club or colle/e ma



sensitivit$ point is e>perienced as aversive* n unitar$ M t"eor$, "oever, autonom$ is

e>plicitl$ re/arded as a ercise, social contact, amil$, ven/eance, poer, and lo curiosit$* 0s as e>pected,

t"e sin/le most important correlate o sports participation as t"e intrinsic enercise

beteen students "o "ad pla$ed Fero versus to or more varsit$ sports as about a ullstandard deviation* 0lt"ou/" t"e association beteen intrinsic en "ad an absolute value o less t"an *2, indicatin/ t"at t"e scales ere lar/el$unrelated* "e most stron/l$ related scales are poer and status, r *58K ven/eance and

status, r*5%K and "onor and idealism, r*%8* "ese results support a multi'aceted

approac" to end motivation and ar/ue a/ainst unitar$ t"eories*

/, 3ON34USIONSSince antiquit$ sc"olars "ave debated "et"er or not "uman motives can be

reduced to a e /lobal cate/ories* 0ncient Eree@ p"ilosop"ers, or e>ample,

15



distin/uis"ed beteen motives associated it" t"e bod$ suc" as "un/er and t"irst6

versus t"ose associated it" t"e intellect suc" as curiosit$, moralit$, and riends"ip6* n

t"e earl$ part o t"e tentiet" centur$, -reud 1(1)B1()36 ar/ued t"at all motives areultimatel$ about se>* Hedonists, on t"e ot"er "and, reduced all motives to pleasure

see@in/ versus pain avoidance*

"e concept o M can be vieed as a modern e>ample o t"e eort inmotivational reductionism* M t"eorists divide motives into /lobal cate/ories called

drives also called e>trinsic motivation6 versus intrinsic motivation 9 drives are about

biolo/ical survival needs, "ereas Ms pertain to "at some "ave called ;e/o motives*=Hun/er, t"irst, and pain avoidance are paradi/m e>amples o drives, "ereas curiosit$,

autonom$, and pla$ are paradi/m e>amples o Ms*

4"ite 1(5(6 put ort" t"e t"esis o commonalities amon/ Ms ''' speciicall$, "e

ar/ued t"at Ms are about competence master$6* n advancin/ "is idea o competencemotivation, 4"ite e>plicitl$ ac@noled/ed t"at "is t"esis seems implausible because "e

as assertin/ commonalities amon/ a diverse collection o motives* 0lt"ou/" man$

embraced 4"ite?s ideas because t"e$ seemed to broaden t"e stud$ o motivation to

include e/o motives, 4"ite 1(5(6 oered no scientiic evidence to support "is t"eor$ ocompetence motivation 9 "e developed no measure, conducted no studies to test "is idea,

and did not su//est an$ speciic studies t"at mi/"t conirm or alsi$ "is "$pot"esis* nt"e it$ $ears since 4"ite rote "is article, no scientiic evidence "as emer/ed directl$

s"oin/ t"at competence motivation is t"e underl$in/ t"eme o diverse e/o motives suc"

as pla$, curiosit$, and autonom$* -urt"er, no scientiic evidence "as been put ort"directl$ supportin/ 4"ite?s "$pot"esis t"at Ms "ave a common ori/in 9 t"ere is no direct

scientiic evidence or t"e "$pot"esis t"at people are born it" ;undierentiated=

competence motivation, "ic" later is maniested as t"e motives o master$, autonom$,

pla$, and curiosit$* -urt"er, t"e distinction beteen drive motivation arisin/ rom t"eor/ans or perip"er$, versus intrinsic motivation arisin/ rom t"e CS or brain, is

p"$siolo/ical nonsense*"e "$pot"esis t"at ;intrinsic enperienced depends on a person?s

motivation 9 or e>ample, mountain climbin/ can be pleasant "en one desires p"$sical

e>ercise but unpleasant "en one is tired and desires rest* "us, it is not mountainclimbin/ per se t"at is pleasurable but t"e potential t"e activit$ "olds or satiatin/

motives, suc" as t"e motive or p"$sical activit$ or t"e motive or ac"ievement*

Do/icians sa$ t"at pleasure is usuall$ a non'motivational b$product o satiatin/ motives,not t"e aim o t"e motive Russell, 1(%56*

0 number o empirical considerations ar/ue a/ainst unitar$ t"eor$ and in avor o

multiaceted t"eories* Human individualit$ ma$ be too diverse to be described

adequatel$ in terms o /lobal cate/ories suc" as M and M* Man$ people "o are

1)



stron/l$ motivated toard pla$ are not necessaril$ stron/l$ motivated b$ intellectual

curiosit$ or autonom$* curiosit$ and autonom$ bot" are motivational because o a

universal desire or competence, "$ are some people motivated muc" more b$ curiosit$t"an autonom$ or vice versaJ t is unclear "o observations o suc" individual

dierences can be made consistent it" t"e t"eor$ t"at pla$, curiosit$, and autonom$ are

reall$ about t"e same motive, a desire or competence*Reiss and Havercamp?s researc" on 1) undamental desires provides additional

evidence o t"e multiaceted nature o end motivation* "is t"eor$ provides a

compre"ensive anal$sis o individual dierences in trait motives* 0 series o actorialstudies "ave conirmed t"e 1)'actor model Reiss Havercamp, 1((86K similarl$, values

lo/icall$, values e>press end motives6 also "ave been s"on to be multiaceted

Sc"artF, 1((%6* Competence is onl$ one o t"e values people "old 9 it is not t"e

common root o diverse values* People also value ends suc" as status, social contact,reven/e, p"$sical activit$, and autonom$*

vidence or multiaceted t"eor$ e>tends si/niicantl$ be$ond t"e initial actorial

studies su//estin/ 15 and 1) actor solutions or basic motivation* ine o t"e 1) basic

motives "ave been validated a/ainst criterion be"avior outside laboratories ande>periments see Havercamp Reiss, in press6* Concurrent validit$ and social

desirabilit$ studies also support t"e multiaceted model*"e sensitivit$ model "olds t"at 1) /eneticall$ distinct desires Ms6 combine to

determine man$ ps$c"olo/icall$ si/niicant motives* "e model supports numerous

predictions about be"avior and provides standardiFed measures suc" as t"e Reiss Proilesel'report version6 needed to test t"e validit$ o t"e predictions* -uture researc" is

indicated to stud$ t"is model and t"e role o t"e 1) basic desires in "uman be"avior* "is

t"eor$, i valid, s"os t"e multiaceted nature o "uman Ms* Researc"ers stud$in/

unitar$ M t"eor$ need to s"o t"e$ can predict be"avior as ell or better t"an Reiss?smodel b$ reducin/ t"e 1) motives to one or to cate/ories* n contrast, multiaceted

t"eorists need to continue to s"o t"at be"avior is better predicted and e>plained it" acompre"ensive, multiaceted list o Ms t"an is possible it" a reductionism approac"*

1+



OOTNOT0S

1>ample based partiall$ on empirical indin/s o a correlation beteen

motivation or status and motivation or ealt" see Reiss Havercamp, 1((86*2nducin/ drive prior to e>periments lessens t"e inluence o individual

dierences in motivation trait motives6, "ic" ill later ar/ue is t"e @e$ to

understandin/ and predictin/ muc" o "uman be"avior* Go"n "as a muc" stron/erappetite t"an Sam, or e>ample, t"is ma$ be evident under man$ circumstances, but less

so "en bot" Go"n and Sam are si/niicantl$ deprived o ood and e>tremel$ "un/r$*

"e t$pical be"aviorist animal learnin/ e>periment as poorl$ suited or observin/ t"e

eects o individual dierences in motivation Reiss Havercamp, 1(()6*3 n t"e Games'Mcou/all t"eor$, a "uman instinct is an automaticall$ occurrin/

desire or motive, not a ri/id pattern o unlearned be"avior* "e idea is t"at people do not

deliberatel$ c"oose t"eir ps$c"olo/ical needs* 0s 0ristotle 1(53B33& AC6 put it,

people ;c"oose means, not ends*= 0ristotle as ma@in/ a valid point in lo/ic i anindividual attempted to c"oose an end, t"e option t"at is c"osen ould be instrumental to

t"e criteria on "ic" t"e c"oice as based*6 n contrast, Games and Mcou/all erereportin/ anecdotal observations o "uman be"avior*

% Henr$ 0* Murra$ 1(386 ac@noled/ed t"e ori/in o "is amous list o needs

"en "e rote, ;"is classiication o needs is not ver$ dierent rom lists constructedb$ Mcou/all, Earnett, and a number o ot"er riters= p* 8%6*

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-merican Psycholo#ist, 55, 11)3'11)%*Csi@sFentmi"al$i, M* 1((&6* Flo+ %he psycholo#y of optimal e/perience* e Lor@:

Harper Ro*

eC"arms, R* 1()86* Personal causation* e Lor@: 0cademic Press*

eci, * D* 1(+56* Intrinsic motivation* e Lor@: Plenum*eci, *D*, Ioestner, R*, R$an, R* 1(((6* 0 meta'anal$tic revie o e>periments

e>aminin/ t"e eects o e>trinsic reards on intrinsic motivation* Psycholo#ical

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behavior* e Lor@: Plenum*

escartes, R* 1(58B1)3+6* %he passions of the soul* e Lor@: Modern Dibrar$*

18



e 4aal, -* 1(8(6* Peacemain# amon# primates* Cambrid/e, M0: Harvard

#niversit$ Press*

$@ens, *M*, Rosner, A*0* 1(((6* Redeinin/ be"avioral p"enot$pes: Personalit$'motivation in 4illiams and Prader'4illi S$ndromes* 0merican Gournal o Mental

Retardation, 1&%26, 158'1)(*

isenber/er, R*, Cameron, G* 1(()6* "e detrimental eects o reard: M$t" orrealit$J -merican Psycholo#ist, 51, 1153'11))*

-reeman, I* 0*, 0nderson, C* M*, 0Fer, R* H*, Eirolami, P* 0*, Scotti, G* 0* 1((86*

4"$ unctional assessment is enou/": a response to Reiss and Havercamp*-merican ,ournal of &ental Retardation, 1&3, 8&'(1*

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Press*

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Murra$, H*0* 1(386*!/plorations in personality+ - clinical and e/perimental study of

fifty men of colle#e a#e* e Lor@: !>ord #niversit$ Press*

Peterson, R* 0*, Reiss, S* 1((26* -n/iety sensitivity inde/ revised test manual*4ort"in/ton: S Publis"in/*

Pia/et, G* 1(526* %he ori#ins of intelli#ence in children* e Lor@* e Lor@:

nternational Press* rans* b$ M* Coo@6*Pierce, R* 0*, Sc"artF, 0* G* 1(+16* Personalit$ st$le o student activists* %he

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Reiss, S*, Sus"ins@$, D*4* 1(+56* !ver



able 1 9 Reiss?s 1) Motives

Motive Na7e Motive -ni7al Behavior Intrinsic eelin"

poer desire to inluence incl*Deaders"ipK related to

master$6

dominant animal eats

more ood

eicac$

curiosit$ desire or @noled/e animal learns to indood more eicientl$

and learns to avoid pre$

onder

independence desire to be autonomous motivates animal toleave nest, searc"in/ orood over lar/er area

reedom

status desire or social standin/incl* desire orattention6

attention in nest leads to

better eedin/s

sel'importance

social contact desire or peer

companions"ip desireto pla$6

saet$ in numbers or

animals in ild

un

ven/eance desire to /et even incl*desire to compete, to

in6

animal i/"ts "en

t"reatened

vindication

"onor desire to obe$ atraditional moral code

animal runs bac@ to "erd

"en stared at b$ pre$

lo$alt$

idealism desire to improvesociet$ incl* altruism,

ercise desire to e>ercisemuscles stron/ animals eat moreand are less vulnerableto pre$

vitalit$

romance desire or se> incl*courtin/6

reproduction essentialor species survival

Dust

amil$ desire to raise onc"ildren

protection o $oun/acilitates survival

Dove

order desire to or/aniFe incl*desire or ritual6

cleanliness ritualspromote "ealt"

stabilit$

eatin/ desire to eat nutrition essential orsurvival

satiation avoidance o

"un/er6

acceptance desire or approval unclear: animal sel'conceptJ

sel'conidence

tranquilit$ desire to avoid an>iet$,ear

animal runs aa$ rom

dan/er

sae, rela>ed

savin/ desire to collect, valueo ru/alit$

animal "oards ood and

ot"er materials

oners"ip

21

Documents

Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation: The Theory of 16 Basic Desires