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Basic MotivationConcepts


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After studying this chapter,you should be able to:

1. Outline the motivation process.

2. Describe Maslows need hierarchy.

3. Contrast Theory X and Theory Y.

4. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors.

5. List the characteristics that high achievers

prefer in a job.

6. Summarize the types of goals that increaseperformance.

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After studying this chapter,you should be able to:

7. Explain the job characteristics model.

8. State the impact of underrewarding

employees.

9. Clarify key relationships in expectancy

theory.

10. Explain how the contemporary theories of

motivation complement each other.

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MOTIVATIONThe willingness to exerthigh levels of effort to

reach organizationalgoals, conditioned by theefforts ability to satisfysome individual need


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The Motivation Process

Unsatisfied Need

Reduction of Tension

Tension

Drives

Search Behavior

Satisfied Need

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Defining Motivation

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Motivation

The processes that account for an individualsintensity, direction, and persistence of effort towardattaining a goal.


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Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of fiveneedsphysiological, safety,social, esteem, and self-

actualization; as each need issubstantially satisfied, the nextneed becomes dominant.

Self-Actualization

The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.


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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Lower-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfiedexternally; physiologicaland safety needs.

Higher-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied

internally; social, esteem,and self-actualization

needs.

E X H I B I T 61Source: Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed,, by A.H. Maslow, 1970.Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.


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Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Theory X

Assumes that employees dislikework, lack ambition, avoidresponsibility, and must be

directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y

Assumes that employees likework, seek responsibility, are

capable of making decisions,and exercise self-direction andself-control when committed toa goal.


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Theory X and Theory Y

Theory YTheory X

Work is Natural

Self-

Direction

Seek

Responsibility

Good DecisionsWidely Dispersed

AvoidWork

Must be

Controlled

Avoid

Responsibility

Seek Security 69


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Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory

Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction,while extrinsic factors are associated withdissatisfaction.

Hygiene Factors

Factorssuch as company policyand administration, supervision,

and salarythat, when adequatein a job, placate workers. Whenfactors are adequate, people willnot be dissatisfied.


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Comparison of Satisfiers

and Dissatisfiers

Factors characterizing

events on the job that led to

extreme job dissatisfactionFactors characterizing

events on the job that

led to extreme job

satisfaction

E X H I B I T 62Source: Reprinted by permission ofHarvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time:How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, SeptemberOctober 1987. Copyright

1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.


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Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

E X H I B I T 63


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Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Achievement

Recognition

Work ItselfResponsibility

Advancement

Growth

Extremely Satisfied Neutral Extremely Dissatisfied

Supervision

Company Policy

Supervisor

Relations

Working ConditionsSalary

Peers

Personal Life

Subordinate

Relations

Status

Security

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ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Core Needs

Existence: provision ofbasic materialrequirements.

Relatedness: desire forrelationships.

Growth: desire forpersonal development.

Concepts:

More than one need canbe operative at the sametime.

If a higher-level needcannot be fulfilled, thedesire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

ERG TheoryThere are three groups of core needs: existence,relatedness, and growth.


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David McClellands Theory of Needs

nAch

nPow

nAff

Need for AchievementThe drive to excel, to achievein relation to a set ofstandards, to strive tosucceed.

Need for AffiliationThe desire for friendlyand close personalrelationships.

Need for Power

The need to make others

behave in a way that theywould not have behavedotherwise.


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Matching High Achievers and Jobs

E X H I B I T 64


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McClellands

Three-Needs Theory Need for Achievement (nAch) Drive to excel, strive to succeed

Want personal responsibility, feedback and an

intermediate amount of risk

Best Entreprenurs

Need for Power (nPow)

Desire to be influential

Best managers

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

Desire to be liked and accepted

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E X H I B I T 65


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Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Goal-Setting TheoryThe theory that specific and difficult goals, withfeedback, lead to higher performance.

Self-Efficacy

The individuals belief that he orshe is capable of performing a task.

(Details in other ppt)

Factors influencing the goalsperformance relationship:

Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, task characteristics, and

national culture.


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Implementation: Management By Objectives

MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.

Goals must be: Tangible Verifiable Measurable

Corporate goals are broken down into smaller,more specific goals at each level oforganization.

Four common ingredients to MBO programs: Goal Specificity

Participative decision making Explicit time period Performance feedback

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Equity Theory

ReferentComparisons:

Self-inside

Self-outside

Other-inside

Other-outside

Equity Theory

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomeswith those of others and then respond to eliminateany inequities.


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Equity Theorys Relevant Others

Can be four different situations:

Self-Inside The persons experience in a different job in the

same organization

Self-Outside The persons experience in a different job in a

different organization

Other-Inside Another individual or group within the organization

Other-Outside Another individual or group outside of the

organization

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Equity Theory (contd)

E X H I B I T 67


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Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person6. Leave the field (quit the job)


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Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Overrewarded hourly employees producemore than equitably rewarded employees.

2. Overrewarded piece-work employeesproduce less, but do higher quality piecework.

3. Underrewarded hourly employees producelower quality work.

4. Underrewarded employees produce largerquantities of lower-quality piece work thanequitably rewarded employees


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Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of theamount and allocation ofrewards among individuals.

Procedural Justice

The perceived fairness of

the process to determinethe distribution ofrewards.


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Justice and Equity Theory

Organizational Justice

Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace

Made up of:

Distributive Justice

Fairness of outcome

Procedural Justice

Fairness of outcome process

Interactional Justice

Being treated with dignity and respect

Exhibit 6-8

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Lessons in Equity Theory

Pay attention to what employees perceiveto be fair and equitable

Allow employees to have a voice

Employees should have opportunity to

appeal

Organizational changes, promoting

cooperation, etc. can come easier with

equitable outcomesFailure to achieve equity could be costly

Climate of justice

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Vrooms Expectancy Theory

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way

depends on the strength of an expectation that

the act will be followed by a given outcome and

on the attractiveness of the outcome to the

individual.

Important linkages:

Expectancy of performance success

Instrumentality of success in getting reward

Valuation of the reward in employees eyes

Exhibit 6-9

6-29


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Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain waydepends on the strength of an expectation that theact will be followed by a given outcome and on the

attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

E X H I B I T 68


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Expectancy Theory Relationships

EffortPerformance Relationship The probability that exerting a given amount of effort

will lead to performance.

PerformanceReward Relationship

The belief that performing at a particular level will leadto the attainment of a desired outcome.

RewardsPersonal Goals Relationship

The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy anindividuals goals or needs and the attractiveness ofpotential rewards for the individual.


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Expectancy:Belief that effort leads to aspecific level of performance

Instrumentality:A performance outcomeperception.

Valence:The Value of a reward or outcome

Vrooms Expectancy Theory

Concepts

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The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

figure 6.2


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Process Perspectives on Motivation (contd)

Elements of Expectancy Theory (contd)

Valence An index of how much an individual values a particular

outcome.

It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.

Attractive outcomes have positive valences and unattractiveoutcomes have negative valences.

Outcomes to which an individual is indifferent have zerovalences.

For motivated behavior to occur: Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-

to-outcome expectancy probabilities must be greaterthan zero.

The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.


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Figure 16.4: The Expectancy Model of

Motivation


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The Porter-Lawler Model

figure 6.3

The model predicts that satisfaction isdetermined by the perceived equity of

intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for

high-level performance.

Reference: Figure from Porter, Lyman W., and Edward E.

Lawler, Managerial Att i tud es and Performan ce. Copyright

1968. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, McGraw-Hill, Inc.


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Process Perspectives on Motivation (contd)

The Porter-Lawler Extension ofExpectancy Theory

Assumptions: If performance results in equitable and fair rewards,

people will be more satisfied.

High performance can lead to rewards and highsatisfaction.

Types of rewards: Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by

external parties (e.g., pay and promotions).

Intrinsic rewards are outcomes internal to the individual(e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).

Fi 16 5 Th P t L l


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Figure 16.5: The Porter-Lawler

Extension of Expectancy Theory


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Evaluation and Implications

Research studies have confirmed:

The association of both kinds of expectancies andvalences with performance and outcomes.

That motivated behavior by people arises from theirvaluing expected rewards, believing effort will lead to

performance, and that performance will lead to desiredrewards.


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Guidelines for the Use of

Expectancy Theory

Practical use of the theory by managers:

Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.

Decide what levels and kinds of performance are

needed to meet organizational goals. Make sure the desired levels of performance are

possible.

Link desired outcomes and desired performance.

Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.

Make sure the rewards are large enough.

Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.


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Determine the outcomes employees value.

Identify good performance so appropriatebehaviors can be rewarded.

Make sure employees can achieve targetedperformance levels.

Link desired outcomes to targeted levels ofperformance.

Make sure changes in outcomes are large

enough to motivate high effort. Monitor the reward system for inequities.

Managerial Implications of

Expectancy Theory

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Reward people for desired performance,and do not keep pay decisions secret.

Design challenging jobs.

Tie some rewards to groupaccomplishments to build teamwork andencourage cooperation.

Reward managers for creating, monitoring,and maintaining expectancies,

instrumentalities, and oucomes that lead tohigh effort and goal attainment.

Monitor employee motivation throughinterviews or anonymous questionnaires.

Accommodate individual differences by

Organizational Implications of

Expectancy Theory

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