Motivation and Emotion

Motivation

• What motivates you? What do others use to try to motivate you? Do those things work?

• Motivation = a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Big question: Why do people do what they do?

Instinct Theory

People/animals do what they do because it is what they do naturally

Idea became popular with Darwin’s theory of evolution

Instincts are found throughout a species and are unlearnedExamples of human instincts?

Does not explain behavior, just labels it

Drive-Reduction Theory

Physiological needs cause an aroused psychological state (drive) that organisms want to reduce

Drive-reducing behavior – drinking

water Need - water Drive - thirst

Drive-Reduction Theory cont.

Goal of drive-reduction = homeostasis, or internal equilibrium

Example: When we are hungry, we eat, when we are full, we stop eating

Drives push us to do a behavior

Arousal Theory

Goal = optimum level of arousal Different level for different people

(introverts, extroverts, thrill-seekers, autistic)

When we are bored, we prefer to increase stimulation by doing something

Too much stimulation is stressful and we try to reduce it

Incentive Theory

Incentives can be positive or negative (carrot or stick)

Highly dependent on culture, personal preference, and learning historyDoes bean curd motivate or disgust

you? Fried pickles?

Humanistic Theory

Abraham Maslow ranked needs in a hierarchy

Thought some needs must be satisfied before you can worry about the next level

Generally true across cultures, although some individuals may intentionally skip levels

1. Physiological needs

HungerThirstWarmthSleep

2. Safety Needs

Need to feel safe from• Physical harm• Embarrassment• Unpredictable events

3. Belongingness and Love Needs

To love and be loved

Be accepted and belong to a group

Avoid loneliness and separation

4. Esteem Needs

Self-esteemAchievementCompetence IndependenceRecognition and

respect from others

5. Self-Actualization Needs

Live up to our full potential

Contribute to the world

UniquenessJob satisfaction

6. Self-Transcendence Needs

Find meaning, purpose, and identity beyond the self

Not part of original hierarcy

Maslow’s hierarchy cont.

Forgot cognitive needsNeed to knowNeed to understand

It’s your first semester of college and you have to choose between studying for a test and rushing a sorority/fraternity. What would Maslow predict you would do? Why?

You are stranded in the wilderness and haven’t eaten since yesterday when you find an apple tree surrounded by signs that bears frequent this area. You know you should avoid the bears but you decide to stay and eat some apples anyway. How would Maslow explain your behavior?

Hunger, Eating Disorders, and Obesity

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Should the government be able to tax junk food?

Should junk food be taken out of schools?

Physiological Basis of Hunger

A decrease in glucose (blood sugar) causes brain to secret hunger hormones

Glucose is processed by insulin (hormone) Activity in lateral hypothalamus (LH – Large

Hunger) causes hunger by producing hormone orexin

Activity in ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH – Very Minute Hunger) decreases hunger

Physiological Basis of Hunger

Empty stomachs secret ghrelin, a hormone that causes hunger

Obestatin, PPY, and leptin all decrease hunger, but none have successfully been turned into drugs yet

Hormones may control the body’s set point (body’s natural preferred weight, influenced by genetics and available food)

Psychology of Hunger

Memory of time passing influences hunger Amnesiacs will eat 3 lunches if you offer

themFood affects brain chemistry and therefore

mood Ex: carbs help produce serotonin, which

calms people down when stressed

Adaptive Taste Preferences

All humans have a preference for sweet and salty foods

Other taste preferences are developed by learned aversions and by culture

Many cultures have taboo foods that would either be dangerous or too costly to eat

Unit Bias

Studies consistently find that people eat more with larger serving sizes

Many people eat larger portions of foods labled “low-fat” even though they enjoy them less

Eating Disorders

Show psychological impact on eating habits because they are not biologically healthy/natural

Often stem from warped perceptions, societal pressure, and/or motivation for acceptance/esteem

Affect about 3.6% of Americans at some point in their lives

Anorexia nervosa

75% of affected people are female (most are adolescents)

People are dramatically underweight but still feel fat, fear weight gain, and obsess over weight

50% follow a binge-purge-depression cycle

Bulimia nervosa

Mostly affects women 16-25Overeating followed by purging

(vomiting, laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise)

Weight fluctuates around/above normal range

Often accompanied by depression/anxiety

Binge-eating disorder

Individuals binge eat, but do not purge

Influences on Eating Disorders

Twins are more likely to both have a disorder if they are identical (some genetic influence)

Anorexia sufferers are often perfectionists and come from competitive, high-achieving families

Bulimia sufferers often come from families with high instances of childhood obesity and negative self-images

Idealization of thinness (girls) or muscularity (boys)

Eating disorders are often about issues of control and self-esteem

Controlling eating habits/weight may be seen as a way to control other aspects of life, such as athletic performance or social acceptance

Effects of Obesity

Has significant health risksSlender people are perceived as more

likable, more trustworthy, and more friendly

Discrimination against obese people affects women more strongly than men

Physiology of Obesity

Fat cells (adipose tissue) store fat, and if they get too full they divide

Dieting can shrink fat cells but not decrease their number

Dieting can slow metabolism (body uses less energy)

These factors make it more difficult to keep off weight that is lost

Causes of Obesity

Genetics Social influence – people tend to gain

weight along with their friendsSleep loss - causes hormonal imbalance

that promotes overeatingFood consumption and activity levels –

energy expenditure should match intake

Weight Loss Tips

Lose weight slowly – most crash dieters rebound quickly

Fill up with healthy foods Eat breakfast to wake up your metabolism Minimize temptation by avoiding junk food as

much as possible Eat more slowly Eat off of smaller plates

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It is better to accept oneself as a bit heavy than to diet and binge and feel continually out of control and guilty.

Belonging

Adaptive Value

Being part of a group improves survival chances

People often rank relationships as the most important contributor to their happiness

People sometimes feel that even unhealthy relationships may be better than no relationship at all

Ostracism

Being excluded from social situations stimulates the same brain areas as physical pain

Excluded people are more likely to underperform on tests and to show aggression to those who excluded them

Achievement MotivationAPPENDIX B

Achievement MotivationDesire for accomplishments, mastering

skills/ideas, and for quickly reaching a high standard

Studied by industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists

Either intrinsic or extrinsicLevel of achievement motivation is a

better predictor of success than intelligence (10 year rule)

Factors that influence achievement motivation

Job satisfaction?Feeling valued, useful, respected, and

well-treated at workWhether or not the task is something

you feel good atHaving specific goals

Beliefs on Achievement Motivation

Theory X Workers are lazy and

extrinsically motivated by money.

They should be given simple tasks, closely monitored, and given incentives to do more.

Theory Y Workers are

intrinsically motivated.

They should be reinforced for doing well, have good relationships with co-workers, and have opportunities to fulfill their potential.

Theories of Emotion

Emotions have 3 components

1. physiological arousal (ex. Pounding heart, sweaty hands)

2. expressive behaviors (ex. Smiling, pacing, fidgeting)

3. consciously experienced thoughts and feelings

Big question: Which of these happens first?

James-Lange Theory

William James and Carl Lange suggested this order:

1. physiological response2. notice the physiological response

(awareness)3. experienced emotion (put a cognitive

label on it)

Example: While crossing the street without paying attention, you almost get hit by a car. Your heart races and you feel shaky. As you realized what just happened, you realize you are afraid.

Evidence in Favor of James-Lange

People paralyzed from the neck down report diminished emotional intensity except for emotional symptoms experienced above the neck (crying, choking up, etc.)

Cannon-Bard Theory Said that James-Lange was wrong because

Physiological response are very similar across emotions

Physiological responses take too long to be the cause of emotions

They said that physiological arousal and emotional awareness happen separately and at the same timeSignal is routed to cortex and sympathetic

nervous system simultaneously

Example: You almost get hit by a car. Your heart starts pounding and you feel afraid at the same time.

Evidence in Favor of Cannon- Bard

Lie detectors (which only measure physical symptoms) are not fool-proof, suggesting cognitive awareness can influence physiological responses

Our interpretation of situations influences our emotional reaction

Schachter (and Singer) Two-Factor Theory

Two factors are 1) physiological arousal and 2) a cognitive label

Both are necessary to experience emotion

Example: You almost get hit by a car. You know this is a scary situation and your heart is pounding. You therefore feel afraid.

Figure 8B.1 Theories of emotion

© 2011 by Worth Publishers

Physiology of Emotions

Most emotional states have similar effects on heart rate, breathing, and perspiration

Different emotions use different facial muscles and brain circuits

Negative emotions tend to be experienced in the right hemisphere and positive emotions more in the left

Most emotions activate the frontal cortex, fear and anger also use the amygdala

Cognition and Emotion Inciting a physiological response by exercising

causes people to feel strong emotions, but the emotion they experience depends on how they cognitively interpret a situation – cognition can define emotion

Subconscious stimuli can affect our emotional responses, indicating simple emotions can occur without cognition

More complex emotions such as guilt or love are influenced by memory, experience, and interpretation (all cognitive)

Stress

Stress

Stress is the process of coping with challenges

Short-lived stress can arouse people to conquer challenges

Long-term stress weakens immune system and cause DNA loss (shortened telomeres) similar to aging

Yerks-Dodson LawOn simple, well-

learned tasks, higher levels of stress improve performance

On difficult tasks, a low-to-moderate amount of stress yields the highest performance

What causes stress? Catastrophes

Natural disasters, terrorist attack Life changes

Marriage, baby, leaving home, job lossExperiencing multiple events in a short time

compounds the effects Daily hassles

Waiting in line, traffic, argument with friendSeem small but add up and affect blood

pressure

Personality And Stress

Competitive, anger-prone Type A people experience stress more strongly and may cause themselves more stress

They are more prone to heart attacks than laid-back Type B

Women are more likely to cope with “tend-and-befriend” strategy

General Adaptation Syndrome

Phase 1: AlarmBody prepares for fight-or-flight; may

include temporary state of shockPhase 2: Resistance

State of arousal continues Phase 3: Exhaustion

If stress lasts too long, your body’s resources are depleted and you are more vulnerable to illness/collapse/death

Expressing Emotion

Facial expressions are universal

Hand gestures and other nonverbal cues are not