Modul Children Learning in Science

7/31/2019 Modul Children Learning in Science

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IPGM KAMPUS SULTAN MIZAN

22200 BESUT, TERENGGANU

PROGRAM IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN

DENGAN KEPUJIAN (SAINS PENDIDIKAN RENDAH)

LEARNING MODULE

SEMESTER 1

COMPILED BY

AZMAN OMAR

SCIENCE PEDAGOGY

SCE 3102

CHILDREN LEARNING IN SCIENCE

SCIENCE PEDAGOGY

SCE 3102


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DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE

Table of Contents

Contents Page

Synopsis ii

Objectives ii

User guide to the module iii

Syllabus Content And Delivery Mode iv

Unit 1 What is Science ?

Unit 2 How Children Learn Science

Brain-Based Learning

Unit 3 Learning Theories For Primary Science

Piagets Cognitive Developmental Theory

Bruners Inductive Learning Theory

Behaviorist Learning Theory

Ausubels Deductive Learning Theory

Gagnes Learning Theory

Information-Processing Theory- Atkins & Shiffrin;Baddeleys

Constructivist Approaches

What do children need to help them learnthrough constructivism

Unit 4 Misconception

Understanding childrens ideas in science

Assessing childrens ideas and misconceptions in science


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Dealing with childrens misconceptions and conceptual change

Topic and Time Allocation

Topic/Subtopic - Note/Activitiy/Excercise

References

Panel of writers

Synopsis

This course provides knowledge about how children perceive science, the nature of

science and how children learn science. It explores the role brain development and

processing have in learning as well as the effects of developmental theory of Piaget

and other learning theories such as Bruner, Behaviourist, Ausubel and Gagne on the

learning of science. In addition, this course also explores how we can help children

learn science more effectively by considering childrens prior ideas on science and

nurturing their connection-making through constructivist principles of learning.

Dealing with childrens misconceptions in science and helping them in conceptual

change will also be explored by using the five themes in the primary school science

curriculum as examples.

Kursus ini memberi pengetahuan tentang bagaimana kanak-kanak mengamati sains,

bentuk sains dan bagaimana kanak-kanak mempelajari sains. Ia meneroki peranan

perkembangan dan pemerosesan otak dalam pembelajaran dan juga kesan teori

perkembangan Piaget dan teori pembelajaran seperti Bruner, Behavoris, Ausubel

dan Gagne ke atas pembelajaran sains. Di samping itu, kursus ini juga akan

meneroki bagaimana kita boleh membantu kanak-kanak pelajari sains dengan lebih

berkesan dengan mengambil kira ide sedia ada kanak-kanak tentang sains dan

memupuk pembinaan perkaitan ini melalui prinsip pembelajaran konstruktivist.

Menghadapi miskonsepsi kanak-kanak dan membantu mereka ke perubahan

konseptual juga diteroki dengan menggunakan sebagai contoh lima tema dalam

kurikulum sains sekolah rendah.

Objective

1. Explain how children view science and what is the nature of science.

2. Demonstrate a knowledge of basic concepts of childrens

ideas in science, where do they come from and how they influence learning in


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science.

3. Describe how developmental and learning theories have contributed to

childrens learning in science.

4. Demonstrate a knowledge of constructivist approach to learning.

5. Identify childrens misconceptions in science.

6. Create stimulating constructivist learning in science to help children deal with

their misconceptions.

GUIDE TO USE THE MODULE

1.0 SELF-LEARNING METHOD

This learning module has been prepared to guide you in your studies and canbe used as a reference material. The module uses a learning method that is basedupon the Self-Managed Learning concept. The Self-Managed Learning conceptbrings along with it the implication that you are responsible for your studies. Thismeans that you are responsible to manage your time, arrange your place of studyand adapt the time for study in accordance with your other responsibilities.

This concept gives you the freedom to study at your leisure and at your pace.

2.0 THE ROLE OF THE STUDENT

Your commitment and dedication in handling your self-learningresponsibilities will bring success in your studies. Besides studying the materials inthis module on your own, you are encouraged to look for further materials and seekguidance from other sources to complement this module or to obtain furtherunderstanding of the study materials.

3.0 THE CONTENT OF THE LEARNING MODULE

This module has been prepared to fulfill the requirements and thespecifications of the training curriculum. Each module consists of several units of

study, which is further divided into sub-topics that cover all the curriculumspecifications. At the end of each unit of study there is formative evaluationconsisting of questions and assignments.

You are required to prepare the answers to the questions, which will bediscussed in sessions with your lecturer or colleagues.

You are also required to complete the assignments on your own effort basedon the instructions given. You are reminded that these assignments have to behanded in to the lecturer or supervisor when you attend lectures / interactions at thecollege.


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TOPIC AND TIME ALLOCATION

Topic Content Hours

1 What is science?

How children perceive science The nature of science

- scientific knowledge/content

- science as a process

- science attitude and noble values

3

2 How children learn science

The brains unique structure and the function it plays

in learning

Brain-based learning

3

3 Understanding Childrens Development

Piaget Developmental Theory

Implication for teaching primary science

3

4 Bruners Learning Theory

Inductive learning

Concept Learning


3

5 Behaviorist Learning Theory

Reinforcement

Practice

Shaping

Observational learning


3

6 Ausubels Learning Theory

Deductive/expository learning

Verbal learning using advance organizers


3

7 Gagnes Learning Theory

Mastery learning

Hierarchical learning

3


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8 Information-Processing Theory- Atkins & Shiffrin;

Baddeleys

Short term memory

Long term memory Implication for teaching primary science

3

9 Constructivism as the dominant contemporary perspective on

science learning

Concepts

Characteristics of constructivist teaching

Constructivist teaching roles

3

10 The constructivist approaches

Needhams model

Generative model (Osborne)

Interactive model (Faire and Cosgrove)

3

11 What do children need to help them learn through

constructivism

Thinking

Physical activity

Language

Socialisation

Self-esteem

Time

3

12 Understanding childrens ideas in science

Childrens prior ideas

Childrens misconceptions in science

How do childrens ideas influence learning

3

13 Assessing childrens ideas and misconceptions in science

Interview

Questionnaire

Observation

Prediction

3

14 Dealing with childrens misconceptions and conceptual

change

Themes from the primary school science curriculum

- Learning about living things

- Learning about the world around us

3

15 Dealing with childrens misconceptions and conceptual

change

Themes from the primary school science curriculum

- Material world

- Earth and the universe

3


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- The world of technology

UNIT 1.0 What is Science ?

Science is a broad-based human enterprise that is defined differently depending on

the individuals who view it. The layperson might define science as a body

of scientific information; the scientist might view it as of procedures by

which hypotheses are tested; a philosopher might regards science as a

way of questioning the truthfulness of what we know. All of these views are

valid, but each presents just partial definition of science; only collectively

do they begin to define the comprehensive nature of science. Science is

an enterprise that has changed over the centuries. Further, it

encompasses many fields, such as physics, chemistry, biology, and the

geosciences, which sometimes employ different approaches to the study

of reality. Lets examine what scientists attempt to do in their work to assist

in arriving at a definition is implied in the following statement by Edward

Teller (1991), an eminent nuclear physicist:

A scientist has three responsibilities: one is to understand; two is to explain thatunderstanding. A scientist should have no other limitations. A scientist isntresponsible for that which he has discovered.


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Scientific Knowledge

According to Chiappetta et.al (1998), science can be thought of as the study ofnature in an attempt to understand it and to create new knowledge that providespredictive power and application. Scientists strive to understand the phenomena thatmake up the universe-from the pulsating beats of our hearts to the migration of birds

to the explosion of stars. Their aim is to describe the internal and the externalstructure of objects, the mechanism of forces, and the occurrence of events. Theywill use these understanding in predicting future events with great precision.

Scientific Method

There is no timeless and universal conception of science or scientific methods thatcan distinguish science from other forms of knowledge. However scientists who wereinvolved in exploring the knowledge were introduced to scientific method in thesixteenth century in order to describe these aspects: identifying the problems,making hypothesis, predicting, experimenting, and constructing the theory on aparticular event.

What is Scientific Knowledge Nowadays?

Science includes three main components: process, product, and attitudes. Actuallyscience is a set of attitudes and a way of thinking on fact. (B.F Skinner). Science alsois perceived as an inquiry process, observation, and reasoning about the naturalworld. (K.T.Compton). Scientist always carry-out an experiment and make anobservation upon objects, actions, and the change of nature.

Science Main Component

Science as a Process

Learning science information is more important than to memorize the contentof science

Scientific skill is a basic tool in understanding science

Process is emphasis on how the knowledge is gained.

Using the empirical procedures and analyzing to describe the natural world

It involves hands-on and mind-on experience

It involves the formation of hypothesis, planning, experimenting, collectingdata, and analyzing before making a conclusion.

Science as a Product

Scientific idea/ a new discovery is a form of experimenting outcomes.

Scientific product is based on the data and it depends on the theory and theconcept involved

Information and idea are called a product. Through investigating the product,scientists come up with a conclusion, concept, generalization, fact, law,principle, and theory.

Theory


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A Fact is often thought of as truth and the state of things. Facts represent what wecan perceive through our senses and they are usually regarded as reliable data.Often two criteria are used to identify a scientific fact: (1) it is directly observable and

(2) it can be demonstrated at any time.

A concept is an abstraction of events, objects, or phenomena that seem to havecertain properties or attributes in common. Fish, for example, possess certaincharacteristics that set them apart from reptiles and mammals. According to Bruner,(1956), a concept has five important elements: (1) name, (2) definition, (3) attributes,(4) values, and (5) examples.

Principles and Laws are also fall into the general category of a concept but in abroad manner. These higher order ideas are used to describe what exists throughempirical basis. For example gas law and the law of motion.

Theory. Science goes beyond the classification and description of phenomena to thelevel of explanation. Scientist use theories to explain patterns and forces that arehidden from direct observation. The theory of atom, which states that all matter ismade up of tiny particles called atoms, many millions of which would required tocover the period at the end of this sentence. This is the example of hiddenobservation.

Science as an Attitude

Science learning experiences can be used as a means to inculcate scientificattitudes and noble values in students. These attitudes and values encompass thefollowing:

Having an interest and curiosity towards the environment.

Being honest and accurate in recording and validating data

Being diligent and persevering

Being responsible about the safety of oneself, others, and the environment.

Realising that science is a mean to understand nature

Appreciating and practicing clean and healthy living

Appreciating the balance of nature

Being respectful and well-mannered

Appreciating the contribution of science and technology

Being thankful to God

Having analytical and critical thinking

Laws and

Concepts

Facts

Give your opinion on these:a) Physics is an interesting area of

study. I like more than any othersubject I am taking. State why youagree and disagree with thisstatement.b) Chemistry is boring and uselessto me. Do you agree or disagree?c) State why you like or dislikeperforming an experiment in thephysics laboratory?


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Being flexible and open-minded

Being kind-hearted and caring

Being objective

Being systematic

Being cooperative

Being fait and just

Daring to try

Thinking rationally

Being confident and independent.

The inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values generally occurs through thefollowing steps:

Being aware of the importance and the need for scientific attitudes and noblevalues.

Giving emphasis to these attitudes and values.

Practising and internalizing these scientific attitudes and noble values.

When planning teaching and learning activities, teachers need to give dueconsideration to the above stages to ensure the continuous and effective inculcationof scientific attitudes and values. For example, during science practical work, theteacher should remind pupils and ensure that they carry out experiments in careful,cooperative and honest manner.

Proper planning is required for effective inculcation of scientific attitudes and noblevalues during science lessons. Before the first lesson related to a learning objective,teachers should examine all related learning outcomes and suggested teaching-learning activities that provide opportunities for the inculcation of scientific attitudesand noble values. (Refer to lesson plan in Learning Strategies Topic)

Thinking Skills

Thinking skills can be categorized into critical thinking skills and creative thinkingskills. A person who thinks critically always evaluates an idea in a systematic mannerbefore accepting it. A person who thinks creatively has a high level of imagination, isable to generate original and innovative ideas, and modify ideas and products.(Fordetail refer to unit 3)

Scientist Code of Ethic

Scientists make public their understanding through carefully prepared papers. Oftentheir manuscript are presented at professional meetings and published inprofessional journals. In both instances, especially the latter, colleagues who makecritical comments carefully review the work and suggestions also can be tested by

additional observation and experimentations.

Further, the work is open to scrutiny by colleagues in order to determine if ethicalprinciples have been violated such as presenting erroneous data or taking credit for

Outline a safety program that you would institute if youwere the chairperson of a science department in yourinstitution.


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Stop and reflect!Give some of the beneficial uses of technology and also the potentialdangers about it?

discoveries that others have claimed.

Science, Technology, and Society

Just as science is not easy to define, neither is technology. The differences between

science and technology are not clear-cut; science and technology are inherentlyintertwined. In general, science can be regarded as the enterprise that seeks tounderstand natural phenomena and to arrange these ideas into ordered knowledge,whereas technology involves the design of products and systems that affect thequality of life, using the knowledge of science where necessary. Technology on theother hand, is an applied enterprise concerned with developing, constructing, andapplying ideas.

Science is intimately related to technology and society. For instance, sciencesproduce knowledge that results in useful applications through devices and systems.We have evidence of this all around us, from microwave ovens to compact discplayers to computers.

Just as scientific knowledge impacts society, society impacts science. Most scientificwork is funded through government grants and private business. The money isgenerally targeted for projects that study important societal problems, such ascardiovascular disease, cancer, and weapon systems. Todays research is carriedout by team of scientists working cooperatively to solve societal problems.

EXERCISE

Task 1

Malaysian government was taking steps in order to bring them in applying thetechnology for global competence. Could you list down the examples of stepsconcerned and give further explanation.

Task 2

List down the scientific processes that involved in investigating.What are the effects if the scientific processes are ignored?


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forebrain consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbicsystem). The midbrain consists of the tectum and tegmentum. The hindbrain is madeof the cerebellum, pons and medulla. Often the midbrain, pons, and medulla arereferred to together as the brainstem.

The Cerebrum: The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain,

associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. The cerebral cortexis divided into four sections, called "lobes": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipitallobe, and temporal lobe. Here is a visual representation of the cortex:

What do each of these lobes do?

Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech,movement, emotions, and problem solving

Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perceptionof stimuli

Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory

stimuli, memory, and speech

Note that the cerebral cortex is highly wrinkled. Essentially this makes the brain more

efficient, because it can increase the surface area of the brain and the amount ofneurons within it. We will discuss the relevance of the degree of cortical folding (orgyrencephalization) later.

A deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as the left and righthemispheres. The two hemispheres look mostly symmetrical yet it has been shownthat each side functions slightly different than the other. Sometimes the righthemisphere is associated with creativity and the left hemispheres is associated withlogic abilities. The corpus callosum is a bundle of axons which connects these twohemispheres.

Nerve cells make up the gray surface of the cerebrum which is a little thicker than

your thumb. White nerve fibers underneath carry signals between the nerve cells andother parts of the brain and body.
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The neocortex occupies the bulk of the cerebrum. This is a six-layered structure ofthe cerebral cortex which is only found in mammals. It is thought that the neocortex isa recently evolved structure, and is associated with "higher" information processingby more fully evolved animals (such as humans, primates, dolphins, etc).

The Cerebellum: The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the cerebrum in that it

has two hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure isassociated with regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance.

The cerebellum is assumed to be much older than the cerebrum, evolutionarily. Whatdo I mean by this? In other words, animals which scientists assume to have evolvedprior to humans, for example reptiles, do have developed cerebellums. However,reptiles do not have neocortex.

Limbic System: The limbic system, often referred to as the "emotional brain", is foundburied within the cerebrum. Like the cerebellum, evolutionarily the structure is ratherold.

This system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.Here is a visual representation of this system, from a midsagittal view of the humanbrain:

Brain Stem: Underneath the limbic system is the brain stem. This structure isresponsible for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and bloodpressure. Scientists say that this is the "simplest" part of human brains because

animals' entire brains, such as reptiles (who appear early on the evolutionary scale)resemble our brain stem.

Brain-based Learning

2.2 Definition

This learning theory is based on the structure and function of the brain. As long asthe brain is not prohibited from fulfilling its normal processes, learning will occur.

2.2.1 Discussion

People often say that everyone can learn. Yet the reality is that everyone does learn.Every person is born with a brain that functions as an immensely powerful processor.Traditional schooling, however, often inhibits learning by discouraging, ignoring, or


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punishing the brains natural learning processes.

The core principles of brain-based learning state that:

1. The brain is a parallel processor, meaning it can perform several activities atonce, like tasting and smelling.

2. Learning engages the whole physiology.3. The search for meaning is innate.4. The search for meaning comes through patterning.5. Emotions are critical to patterning.6. The brain processes wholes and parts simultaneously.7. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception.8. Learning involves both conscious and unconscious processes.9. We have two types of memory: spatial and rote.10. We understand best when facts are embedded in natural, spatial memory.11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat.12. Each brain is unique.

The three instructional techniques associated with brain-based learning are:

1. Orchestrated immersionCreating learning environments that fully immerse

students in an educational experience

2. Relaxed alertnessTrying to eliminate fear in learners, while maintaining a

highly challenging environment

3. Active processingAllowing the learner to consolidate and internalizeinformation by actively processing it

2.2.3 How Brain-Based Learning Impacts Education

CurriculumTeachers must design learning around student interests and makelearning contextual.

InstructionEducators let students learn in teams and use peripheral learning.Teachers structure learning around real problems, encouraging students to alsolearn in settings outside the classroom and the school building.

AssessmentSince all students are learning, their assessment should allow them tounderstand their own learning styles and preferences. This way, students monitorand enhance their own learning process.

2.2.4 What Brain-Based Learning Suggests

How the brain works has a significant impact on what kinds of learning activities aremost effective. Educators need to help students have appropriate experiences andcapitalize on those experiences. As Renate Caine illustrates on p. 113 of herbook Making Connections, three interactive elements are essential to this process:

Teachers must immerse learners in complex, interactive experiences that areboth rich and real. One excellent example is immersing students in a foreignculture to teach them a second language. Educators must take advantage ofthe brains ability to parallel process.

Students must have a personally meaningful challenge. Such challengesstimulate a students mind to the desired state of alertness.

In order for a student to gain insight about a problem, there must be intensiveanalysis of the different ways to approach it, and about learning in general.


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This is whats known as the active processing of experience.

A few other tenets of brain-based learning include:

Feedback is best when it comes from reality, rather than from an authority figure.

People learn best when solving realistic problems.

The big picture cant be separated from the details.

Because every brain is different, educators should allow learners to customize theirown environments.

The best problem solvers are those that laugh!

Designers of educational tools must be artistic in their creation of brain-friendlyenvironments. Instructors need to realize that the best way to learn is not through

lecture, but by participation in realistic environments that let learners try new thingssafely.

UNIT 3 : Learning Theories For Primary Science

3.1 Objectives:

1. To describe the stages of cognitive development of a child .

2. To relate cognitive development stages of students with classroomscience teaching.

Piagets Theory : Cognitive development

Cognitive theorists believe that what you learn depends on your mental process and

what you perceive about the world around you. In other words, learning depends on

how you think and how your perceptions and thought patterns interact.

According to cognitive learning theorists, a teacher should try to understand what a

child perceives and how a child thinks and then plan experiences that will capitalize

on these. Jean Piaget propose that children progress through stages of cognitive

development.

Stages of Piagets Theories are

1. Sensorimotor knowledge ( 0 to 2 year )

Objects and people exist only if child can see, feel, hear, touch or taste their

presence. Anything outside of the childs perceptual field does not exist.

2. Preoperational (Representational) knowledge ( 2 to 7 years )


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The ability to use symbols begins. Although the child is still focused on the there

and now early in this stage, the child can use language to refer to objects and

events that are not in his or her perceptual field.

The child has difficulty understanding that objects have multiple properties. He or

she is not completely aware that a block of wood has color, weight, height anddepth all at once. The child does not conserves attributes such as mass, weight,

or number.

3. Concrete Operation ( 7 to 11 years )

The child can group objects into classes and arrange the objects in a class into

some appropriate order. The child understands the mass, weight, volume, area

and length are conserved. The child has some difficulty isolating the variables in

a situation and determining their relationships. The concepts of space and time

become clearer.

4. Formal Operation ( 12 years through adulthood )

The child is able to think in abstract terms, is able to isolate the variables in a

situation , and is able to understand their relationship to one another. The childs

ability to solve complex verbal and mathematical problems emerges as aconsequence of being able to manipulate the meanings represented by symbols.

Practical applications: Piagets Ideas for Science Classroom

1. Infants in the sensorimotor stage ( 0 to 2 years )

Examples:

Provide stimulating environment that includes eye-catching displays,

pleasant sound, human voices, and plenty of tender loving care so

that the infant becomes motivated to interact with the people and

things in his or her perceptual field.

Provide stuffed animals and other safe, pliable objects that the child

can manipulate in order to acquire the psychomotor skills necessary

for future cognitive development.

2. Preschoolers and children in the primary grades ( 2 to 7 years )


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Examples:

Provide natural objects such as leaves, stones, twigs, etc for the child to

manipulate.

Towards the end of this stage, provide opportunities for the child to begin

grouping things into classes that is living/nonliving , animal/plant.

Toward the end of this stage, provide experience that gives children an

opportunity to transcend some of their egocentricism. For example, have

them listen to other childrens stories about what was observed on a trip to

the zoo.

3. Children in the elementary grades ( 7 to 11 years )

Examples: Early in this stage, offer children many experience to use them acquired

abilities with respect to the observation, classification and arrangement of

objects according to some property. Any science activities that should

include the observation, collection, and sorting of objects should be able to

be done in some ease.

As this stage continues you should be able to introduce successfully many

physical science activities that include more abstract concepts such as

space, time and number. For example, children could measure the length,

width, height and weight of objects or count the number of swings of a

pendulum in a given time.

4. The middle school child and beyond( 12 years through adulthood )

Examples:

Emphasize the general concepts and laws that govern observed

phenomenon. Possible projects and activities include the prediction of the

characteristics of an objects motion based on Newtons Laws, the making of

generalizations about the outcomes of a potential imbalance among the

producers, consumers, and decomposers in a natural community.

Encourage children to make hypotheses about the outcomes of experiments

in absence of actively doing them. A key part of the process of doing

activities might appropriately be pre-lab sessions in which the child writes

down hypotheses about outcomes.


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Activity 2 :

Give three reasons according to Piagets theory why teaching and learning aids

are important to ensure effective learning.

Activity 1:

Describe three science learning activities suitable for upper secondary students

based on Piagets learning theories.


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3.2 : Bruners Theory: Discovery learning

Jerome Bruners research revealed that teachers need to provide children with

experiences to help them discover underlying ideas, concepts, or patterns. Bruner is

proponent of inductive thinking that is going from the specific to the general.

Using idea from one experience and use it in another situation is also an inductive

thinking.

The inductive approach provides students with learning situation in which

they can discover a concept or principle. With this approach, the attributes and

instances of an idea are encountered first by the learners, followed by the naming

and discussing the idea. This empirical-inductive approach give students a concrete

experience whereby they obtain sensory impression and data from real objects and

events.

Inductive approach to Instruction

Practical applications: Bruners Ideas for Science Classroom

1. Emphasize the basic structure of new material

Examples:

Use demonstrations that reveal basic principles. For example

demonstrate the law of magnetism by using similar and opposite poles of

a set of bar magnets. Encourage children to make outlines of basic points made in

textbooks or discovered in activities.

Ex eriences with instances of a conce t or rinci le

Discoverin and formin a conce t or rinci le


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2. Present many examples and concept.

Examples:

When presenting an explanation of the phases of the moon, have the

children observe the phases in a variety of ways, such as direct

observation of the changing shape of the moon in the evening s

demonstration of the changes using a flashlight and sphere, and

diagrams.

Using magazine pictures to show the stages in a space shuttle

mission, have the class make models that show the stages and list the

stages on the chalkboard.

3. Help children construct coding system.

Examples:

Invent a game that requires children to classify rocks.

Have children maintain scrapbooks in which they keep collected leaf

specimens that are grouped according to observed characteristics.

4. Apply new learning to many different situations and kinds of

problems.

Example:

Learn how scientist estimate the size of populations by having

children count the number in a sample and estimate the numbers of

grasshoppers in a lawn and in a meadow.

5. Pose a problem to the children and let them find the answer.

Examples:

Ask questions that will lead naturally to activities-why should wear

seatbelts? And What are some ingredients that most junk foods have ?

Do a demonstration that raises a question in the childrens minds. For

example, levitate a washer using magnet or mix two colored solutions toproduce a third color.


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6. Encourage children to make intuitive guesses.

Examples:

Ask the children to guess the amount of water that goes down the

drain each time a child gets a drink of water from a water fountain.

Give the children magazine photographs of the evening sky and have

them guess the locations of some constellations.

3.3 : Behaviorist Learning Theories

Behavorism as a theory was most developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely includes the

work of such people as Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterizes

these investigators is their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In

essence, three basic assumptions are held to be true. First, learning is manifested by

a change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third, the

principles of contiguity (how close in time, two events must be for a bond to be

formed ) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will

be repeated ) are central to explaining the learning process. For behaviorism,

learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning.

There are two types of possible conditioning:

1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus

as in the case ofPavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he

saw that the dogs drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight,

their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every

time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab

coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab

coat.In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how these phenomena

were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was

sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the

sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they

responded by drooling.

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i.e.,

making a new association between events in the environment. There are two formsof associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlovsexperiments with dogs) and operant conditioning.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov


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Pavlovs DogsIn the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs digestiveprocesses, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled psychic reflexes. While anaccidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlovs dogs,restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they

had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Overtime, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was evenpresented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clickingnoise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli suchas the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) werepresented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlovs dogs, aspredicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bellbegan as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs salivation).However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivationresponse, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response.Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider

as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest ofhis career further exploring this finding.In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)and the dogs salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutralstimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes aconditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) ofsalivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.

John B. Watson: Early Classical Conditioning with Humans

John B. Watson further extended Pavlovs work and applied it to human beings. In1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study wasto condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a veryloud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he waspresented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise(UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS)induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watsons experiment suggested thatclassical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans.

2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or

a punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F.

Skinnerand is known as Radical Behaviorism. The word operant refers to the way

in which behavior operates on the environment. Briefly, a behavior may result either

in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Behaviorismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Behaviorism


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punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important

to note that, a punisher is not considered to be punishment if it does not result in the

reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are

determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are

particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior.

Operant Conditioning is the term used by B.F. Skinnerto describe the effects of theconsequences of a particular behavior on the future occurrence of that behavior.

There are four types of Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement, NegativeReinforcement, Punishment, and Extinction. Both Positive and NegativeReinforcement strengthen behavior while both Punishment and Extinction weakenbehavior.

In Positive Reinforcementa particular behavior is strengthened by the consequence

of experiencing a positive condition.

For example:A hungry rat presses a bar in its cage and receives food. The food is a positivecondition for the hungry rat. The rat presses the bar again, and again receives food.The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is strengthened by the consequence ofreceiving food.

In Negative Reinforcement a particular behavior is strengthened by the consequenceof stopping or avoiding a negative condition.

For example:A rat is placed in a cage and immediately receives a mild electrical shock on its feet.The shock is a negative condition for the rat. The rat presses a bar and the shockstops. The rat receives another shock, presses the bar again, and again the shockstops. The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is strengthened by the consequence ofstopping the shock.

In Punishment a particular behavior is weakened by the consequence ofexperiencing a negative condition.

For example:A rat presses a bar in its cage and receives a mild electrical shock on its feet. The

shock is a negative condition for the rat. The rat presses the bar again and againreceives a shock. The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is weakened by theconsequence of receiving a shock.

In Extinction a particular behavior is weakened by the consequence of notexperiencing a positive condition or stopping a negative condition.

For example:A rat presses a bar in its cage and nothing happens. Neither a positive or a negativecondition exists for the rat. The rat presses the bar again and again nothing happens.The rat's behavior of pressing the bar is weakened by the consequence of notexperiencing anything positive or stopping anything negative.
http://www.biography.com/find/bioengine.cgi?cmd=1&rec=22315http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex.htmlhttp://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex_pr.htmlhttp://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex_pr.htmlhttp://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex_nr.htmlhttp://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex_pun.htmlhttp://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex_ex.htmlhttp://www.biography.com/find/bioengine.cgi?cmd=1&rec=22315http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex.htmlhttp://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex_pr.htmlhttp://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex_nr.htmlhttp://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex_pun.htmlhttp://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex_ex.html


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3.4 : Ausubels Theory: Reception learning and expository teaching

According to David Ausubel, a child learns as a result of the childs natural

tendency to organize information into some meaningful whole. Ausubel says

learning should be a deductive process, i.e. children should first learn a general

concept and then move towards specifics.

In the deductive strategy, a concept or principal is define and discussed using

appropriate labels and terms, followed by experiences to illustrates the idea. It

can involve hypothetical-deductive thinking whereby the learner generates idea

to be tested or discovered. The deductive approach can be used to promote

inquiry sessions and to construct knowledge. The first phase presents the

generalization and rules about the concept or principles under study , and the

second phase requires students to find examples of the concepts or principles.

The teachers responsibility is to organize concepts and principles so that the

child can continually fit new learnings into the learnings that came earlier.

Ausubels theories, which stress preparation and organization, have practical

applications for science classrooms.

Deductive approach to Instruction

Ausubels Ideas for Your Science Classroom

1. Use advance organizers.

Examples:

List, pronounce, and discuss science vocabulary words prior to

lessons that use new science terms

Role-play situations that may develop on a field trip.

Ex eriences with instances of a conce t or rinci le

Receivin ideas and ex lanations of a conce t or rinci le


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2. Use a number of examples.

Examples: Ask the children to give examples related to the science phenomena

observed in class from their own experiences.

Use pictures and diagrams to show various examples of such things

as constellations, animals, clouds, plants, etc.

3. Focus on both similarities and differences

Examples:

Discuss how plants and animals are the same and different.

Explain what conventional and alternatives energy sources do and do

not have in common.

4. Present materials in an organized fashion.

Examples:

Outline the content of particularly complicated lessons. Organize the materials needed for a science activity in such a way

that a sign indicates whether they are to be used at the beginning,

middle, or end of the activity.

5. Discourage the rote learning of material that could be learned more

meaningfully.

Examples:

Children give responses to questions in activities or textbooks in their

own words.

Encourage children to explain the results of science activities to one

another.

3.5 : Gagnes Theory : Conditions of Learning Theory

A) Description

Although Gagnes theoretical framework covers many aspects of learning,


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"the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills" (Kearsley, 1994a). Gagnes

theory is very prescriptive. In its original formulation, special attention was

given to military training (Gagne 1962, as cited in Kearsley, 1994a).

In this theory, five major types of learning levels are identified:

verbal information

intellectual skills

cognitive strategies

motor skills

attitudes

The importance behind the above system of classification is that each

learning level requires "different internal and external conditions" (Kearsley

1994a) i.e., each learning level requires different types of instruction.

Kearsley provides the following example:

For cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice

developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be

exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagne also contends that learning tasks for intellectual skills can beorganized in a hierarchyaccording to complexity:

stimulus recognition

response generation

procedure following

use of terminology

discriminations

concept formation rule application

problem solving

The primary significance of this hierarchy is to provide direction for instructors

so that they can "identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate

learning at each level" (Kearsley 1994a). This learning hierarchy also

provides a basis for sequencing instruction. Gagne outlines the following nine

instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes (as cited in

Kearsley 1994):


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Examples:

Have children invent rules that govern processes, find similarities

and differences, and predict outcomes.

Emphasize the search patterns and regularities during hands-on

experiences. Whenever possible have children not only compare

organisms, objects, and phenomena but also contrast them.

3. Cognitive strategies.

Examples:

Encourage children to find their own ways to remember

information and ideas.

Model the use of mnemonic devices, diagrams, outlines,

journaling, audio taping, and other techniques for retaining ideas

4. Attitudes.

Example:

Select content and experiences that are relevant to the childs

daily life and intriguing to the child so that the child develops apositive attitude toward science and chooses science-related

experiences during leisure time.

5. Acquisition of motor skills.

Example:

Through the use of discovery-oriented experiences provide

children with opportunities to use hand lenses, simple tools,

measuring devices, etc.

Activity 1:Make a comparison between Bruners theory and Ausubel s theory.

Activity 2:Choose a topic and describe briefly how you would teach using inductive and

deductive approaches.


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3.6 : Information-Processing Theory- Atkins & Shiffrin; Baddeleys

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model, Multi-store model or Multi-memory model is

a psychologicalmodelproposed in 1968 as a proposal for the structure of memory. It

proposed that human memory involves a sequence of three stages:

1. Sensory memory (SM)

2. Working memory orshort-term memory (STM)

3. Long-term memory (LTM)

Sensory memory

The sense organs have a limited ability to store information about the world in a fairly

unprocessed way for less than a second. The visual system possesses iconic

memory for visual stimuli such as shape, size, colour and location (but not meaning),

whereas the hearing system has echoic memory for auditory stimuli. Coltheart et al

(1974) have argued that the momentary freezing of visual input allows us to select

which aspects of the input should go on for further memory processing. The

Activity 3Think of 3 ways to inculcate positive scientific values among students while

conducting an experiment in the laboratory.
http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Psychologicalhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Psychologicalhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Mental_modelhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Mental_modelhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Memoryhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Sensory_memoryhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Working_memoryhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Short-term_memoryhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Long-term_memoryhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Psychologicalhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Mental_modelhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Memoryhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Sensory_memoryhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Working_memoryhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Short-term_memoryhttp://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Long-term_memory


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existence of sensory memory has been experimentally demonstrated by Sperling

(1960) using a tachistoscope.

Short-term memory

Information selected by attention from sensory memory, may pass into short term

memory (STM). This allows us to retain information long enough to use it, e.g.

looking up a telephone number and remembering it long enough to dial it. Peterson

and Peterson (1959) have demonstrated that STM last approximately between 15

and 30 seconds, unless people rehearse the material, while Miller (1956) has found

that STM has a limited capacity of around 7 chunks of information. STM also

appears to mostly encode memory acoustically (in terms of sound) as Conrad (1964)

has demonstrated, but can also retain visuospatial images.

Long-term memory

LTM provides the lasting retention of information and skills, from minutes to a

lifetime. Long term memory appears to have an almost limitless capacity to retain

information, but it could never be measured as it would take too long. LT information

seems to be encoded mainly in terms of meaning (semantic memory) as Baddeley

has shown, but also retains procedural skills and imagery.

3.7 : Constructivist Approaches

What is constructivism?

Constructivism is basically a learning theory based on observation and scientific

study. It is about how people learn. It says that people construct their own

understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and

reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to

reconcile it with our previous ideas and experiences. In doing so we may have to

change what we believe or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. The


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constructivist learners are active creators of our own knowledge. To be constructivist

learners, we must ask questions, explore ideas and assess what we know.

Constructivism proposes that children learn as a result of their personal generation of

meaning from experiences. The fundamental role of a teacher is to help children

generate connections between what is to be learned and what the children alreadyknow or believe. There are three principles that make up the theory of constructivism:

1. A person never really knows the world as it is. Each person constructs beliefs

about what is real.

2. What a person already believes, what a person brings to new situations,

filters out or changes the information that the persons senses deliver.

3. People create a reality based on their previous beliefs, their own abilities to

reason, and their desire to reconcile what they believe and what they actually

observe.

In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can have a number of different

teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students

to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving ) to create more

knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their

understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students

preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and build on them.

Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is

helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies,

students in the constructivist classroom ideally become expert learners. This gives

them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom

environment, the students learn how to learn.

Traditional class versus constructivist class

The table below compares the traditional classroom to the constructivist one. In the

constructivist model, the students are urged to be actively involved in their own

process of learning. One of the teachers biggest job is becomes ASKING GOOD

QUESTIONS (The constructivists acknowledge that students are constructing

knowledge in a traditional classrooms too but its really a matter of emphasis being

on the student not the teacher.)

TRADITIONAL CLASS CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASS


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Teachers disseminate information tostudents and students are recipients ofknowledge.

Teachers have discuss with theirstudents and help them construct theirown knowledge.

Teachers role is directive, rooted inauthority .

Teachers role is interactive, rooted innegotiation.

Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic everchanging with our experiences.

Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.

Assessment is through testing correctanswers.

Assessment includes students works,observations, and points of view, as wellas tests. Process is as important asproduct.

Applying Constructivism in the Classroom

The constructivist teachers pose questions and problems, then guide

students to help them find their own answers. They use many techniques in

the teaching process.

In a constructivistclassroom, learning is

Example

Constructed studentscome to learning situations

with already formulatedknowledge, ideas andunderstandings. Thisprevious knowledge is theraw material for the newknowledge they will create.

An elementary school teacher presents aclass problem to measure the length of the

Mayflower. Rather than starting theproblem by introducing the ruler, the teacherallows students to reflect and to constructtheir own methods of measurement. Onestudent offers the knowledge that a doctorsaid he is four feet tall. Another says sheknows horses are measured in hands. Thestudents discuss these and other methodsthey have heard about, and decide on one toapply to the problem.

Active students create newunderstanding forhim/herself. The teachercoaches, moderates,suggests but allow thestudents room to experiment,ask questions, try things thatdont work. Learningactivities require studentsfull participation and theyneed to reflect on, and talkabout, their activities.

Groups of students in a science class arediscussing a problem in physics. Though theteacher knows the answer to the problem,she focuses on helping students restate theirquestions in useful ways. She prompts eachstudent to reflect on and examine his or hercurrent knowledge. When one of thestudents comes up with the relevantconcept, the teacher seizes upon it andindicates to the group that this might be afruitful avenue for them to explore. Theydesign and perform relevant experiments.

Afterward, the students and teacher talkabout what they have learned, and how theirobservations and experiments helped themto better understand the concept.


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Reflective students controltheir own learning process byreflecting on theirexperiences. This processmakes them experts of their

own learning. The teacherhelps create situations wherethe students feel safequestioning and reflecting ontheir own processes, eitherprivately or in groupdiscussion.

Students keep journals in carrying outscience projects where they record how theyfeel about the project, the visual and verbalreactions of others to the project.Periodically the teacher reads these journals

and holds a conference with the studentwhere the two assess (1) what newknowledge the student has created, (2) howthe student learns best and (3) the learningenvironment and the teachers role in it.

Collaborative theconstructivist classroomrelies heavily oncollaboration among

students. When studentsreview and reflect on theirlearning processes together,they can pick up strategiesand methods from oneanother

A group of students carrying out anexperiment to determine the melting point ofnaphthalene. They collaborate by doingdifferent tasks simultaneously. One reads

the temperature while another reads aloudthe time interval. At the same time anotherstudent tabulates the reading and draws thecooling curve. Together they interpret thedata and discuss the results.

Inquiry based studentsuse inquiry methods to askquestions, investigate a topicand use variety of resourcesto find solutions andanswers.

Sixth graders figuring out how to purify waterinvestigate solutions ranging from coffee-filter paper, to a stove-top distillationapparatus, to piles of charcoal, to anabstract mathematical solution based on thesize of a water molecule. Depending uponstudents responses, the teacher encouragesabstract as well as concrete, poetic as wellas practical, creations of new knowledge.

Evolving- students haveideas that they may later seewere invalid, incorrect, orinsufficient to explain newexperiences. These ideasare temporary steps in the

integration of knowledge.Constructivist teaching takesinto account students currentconceptions and builds fromthere.

An elementary teacher believes her studentsare ready to study gravity. She creates anenvironment of discovery with objects ofvarying kinds. Students explore thedifferences in weight among similar blocks ofStyrofoam, wood and lead. Some students

hold the notion that heavier objects fall fasterthan light ones. The teacher providesmaterials about Galileo and Newton. Sheleads the discussion on theories aboutfalling. The students then replicate Galileosexperiment by dropping objects of differentweights and measuring how fast they fall.They see that objects of different weightsactually fall at the same speed, althoughsurface area and aerodynamic propertiescan affect the rate of fall.

Teaching Models Based on Constructivist Approach

Needhams Five Phase Constructive Model


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This learning model was proposed by Richard Needham (1987 ) in his work

Children Learning in Science Project. It consists of five phases namely the

orientation, the generation of ideas, restructuring of ideas, application of

ideas and lastly the reflection .

Needham Five Phases Constructivist Model is shown in the table below :-

PHASE PURPOSE METHODS

Orientation To attract students attention

and interest.

Experiment, video and film

show, demonstration, problemsolving.

Generation of ideas To be aware of the studentsprior knowledge.

Experiment, small groupdiscussion, concept mappingand presentation.

Restructuring ofideas

i. Explanation and

exchangingideas.

ii. Exposure toconflict ideas.

iii. Development ofnew ideas.

iv. Evaluation.

To realize the existence ofalternative ideas , ideasneeds to be improved, to bedeveloped or to be replacedwith scientific ideas.

To determine the alternative

ideas and critically assess thepresent ideas.

To test the validity of thepresent ideas.

To improvise, develop or toreplace with new ideas.

To test the validity of the newideas.

Small group discussion and

presentation.

Discussion, reading, andteachers input.

Experiment, project anddemonstration.

Application of ideas To apply the new ideas to adifferent situation.

Writing of individuals reporton the project work.

Reflection To accommodate ones ideato the scientific ideas.

Writing of individuals reporton the project work, groupdiscussion, personal notes.

Adapted from Buku Sumber Pengajaran Pembelajaran Sains SekolahRendah, Jilid III ( 1995) ms 15-16.

Further reading:Needham, R & Hill, P ( 1987 ), Teaching Strategies For DevelopingUnderstanding in Science. University of Leeds.

Osborne Generative Model


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The generative learning model, developed by Roger J. Osborne and Michael C.Wittrock (1983), is both a model of how children learn and a model of how to teachchildren. This constructivist model is based on the premise that children come to theclassroom with a body of prior knowledge that may or may not be compatible with thenew concept being presented in the science lesson. The learner must be able to

connect between prior knowledge and new information to successfully construct newmeanings. This teaching model outlines a series of steps for a well-designed lesson,thepreliminary,focus, challenge, andApplication Phases as shown in the tablebelow :-


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PHASE ACTIVITY

The preliminary phase - includes any activitythat allows the teacher to find out what priorknowledge the students have relevant to thenew concept. This can be as simple as a briefpre-test, or it may include a quick

demonstration or activity that provides adiscrepant event (an activity with a surprising,unexpected results). This is an opportunity forthe teacher to find out what prerequisiteknowledge the students lack or whatmisconceptions the students have that mayinterfere with their understanding of theconcept.

In conducting a lesson on buoyancy(sinking & floating), teacher may findthat some students may lack a thoroughunderstanding of the concepts density,mass, and volume. A lack of this

knowledge will block students ability toput together a sound understanding ofbuoyancy. If the preliminary phasereveals that students lack thatknowledge, the teacher then knowsshe/he will have to include time todevelop those prerequisite concepts.

The focus phase - provides an activity (whichmay be a hands-on inquiry activity or a brain-teaser) that gives the students an opportunityto play around with an example of the concept

(such as playing around with objects that sinkor float). To create a discrepant event thatstimulates the students curiosity, we wouldinclude objects that students would expect tosink, but which actually float.

Students in small groups conduct anexperiment investigating buoyancy ofseveral objects. Conducting theseactivities in small groups is very

effective. The students oftenautomatically experiment with thematerials, discuss their results, andchallenge and test their explanations/ideas together.

The challenge phase - is a time for thestudents to compare their own ideas withthose of others. Although this can be doneindividually, it is a powerful group learningactivity. Class members are encouraged todebate, challenge, and test each others ideas,while the teacher encourages all the students

ideas and provides them with challengingquestions about their explanations. It is up tothe students to test the ideas and eliminateideas that they determine dont work. Theteacher facilitates this by helping them figureout how to test out each idea. When theteacher determines that the students arecognitively ready to understand the scientificversion of the concept, the teacher canpresent the concept.

Students present their findings andexchange ideas; studentsdebate and test out theirexplanations. Teacher

explains the concept ofbuoyancy.

The application phase - provides studentswith opportunities to find out whether theconcept is applicable to a variety of situations.We suggest that students be givenopportunities to examine at least five situationsto which the concept can be applied. Newexamples may provide new twists on theconcept that will lead to a new round ofdiscussion and testing

In the lesson on buoyancy, thealuminum foil boat does not appear atfirst to fit the standard concept. Theconcept must be re-defined to includeboats. Finally, the teacher can refine thestudents understanding by providingone or two non-examples of theconcept, i.e., examples that look likethey should follow the rule but, on closerexamination, do not. This will help deterstudents from automatically applying thenew concept to all situations.


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Intractive Model ( Faire and Cosgrove )

Learning is an interactive process (which actively engages the learner) not a passive

exercise in transmission of knowledge. Interactive learning promotes development of

scientific process skills , development of conceptual understandings, student

ownership of process and products of learning.

Learning begins withan initiating eventwhich motivates and directs the learner ' s

attention to the task of learning e.g.

a question to be answered

a problem to be solved

a challenge to be met

a discrepant event to be explained

Learning proceeds to children actively engagingin the learning process by:

asking their own questions

stating their own existing ideas

proposing hypotheses

designing fair tests

investigating and exploring

refining their ideas

stating and presenting their findings

The Teacher's Role in an Interactive Learning Environment

Provide the initiation to learning (by posing the question,

challenge, problem or discrepant event and motivating thelearners to the learning task).

Facilitate the learning activities by:

defining the learning environment (e.g. grouping,

access to materials, setting the time frame, defining

expectations)

probing children ' s ideas

offering guidance in the formation of hypotheses

helping children refine and focus their questions

helping children set up their investigations

providing feedback and encouragement in the


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children ' s design of fair tests

challenging children to test, apply, refine and

extend their ideas.

Sequential activities in interactive model are shown in the schematic diagrambelow :-


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Preparation

Teacher and students choose a topic

Pre-requisite Knowledge

Teacher determines students prior

Exploratory Activity

Students investigate the topic through

reading , asking questions and

Students Ask Questions

Students pose questions regarding the

Doing Research

Teacher and students select questions to

Observation

Students present their findings and teacher

Reflection

Teacher guides student to reflects on whatthey have learned and how they have

Additional

Questions

Comparison

Adapted from Buku Sumber Pengajaran Pembelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, Jilid III ( 1995 ), ms 67.

Activity 1 :

Define constructivism and its attributes in science classroom practices.

Activity 2:

Discuss the various techniques to identify childrens alternative framework on the

topic electricity.


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Students enter the classroom with pre-existing ideas about the world which

are different to those held by scientists i.e. embody misconceptions.

Research indicates that student misconceptions about things which have a

scientific dimension or explanation:

are extremely common (unsurprising given that children have been

thinking about and coping with the natural world for many years prior

to their exposure to a formal scientific education)

hinder understanding of accepted scientific explanations (until they

are discarded by the learner, alternative concepts will not be learned)

are not easily displaced (and will not usually be displaced simply

through revelation of the scientific explanation/concept or at the

behest of the teacher)

can coexist with scientific concepts (in which case they are only used

in situations perceived as requiring a "scientific" answer/response, but

not in the student's everyday thinking about the world)

can be found even among the "experts" (research indicates many

scientists and teachers unknowingly retain misconceptions e.g. in

physics, the impetus model of motion rather than the Newtonian one

of inertia)

Techniques to Identify Alternative Frameworks:-

Interview

Questionnaires

Prediction

Observation

Explanation


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Displacing Misconceptions

Misconceptions can be displaced and students will accept a scientific

conception if :

the student understands the meaning of the scientific conception

the scientific conception is believable (this means that it must be

compatible with the student's other conceptions.

the scientific conception is found to be useful to the student in

interpreting, explaining or predicting phenomena that cannot be

satisfactorily accounted for by the formerly held misconceptions (i.e.

the scientific concept must be seen to be better than the student's

prior belief)

the student progressively gains expertise in using the new scientific

concepts (a slow process requiring a long time period and gradual

building of knowledge through experience).


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References

Abruscato, J. (2004). Teaching children science: A discovery approach. (5th edn.).Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Driver, R.(1983). The Pupil as Scientist. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Driver, R.; Guesne,E. and Tiberghien,A.(1985). Childrens Ideas in Science.Buckingham: Open University Press.

Driver,R.; Leach,J.;Miller,R. and Scott, P. (1996). Young Peoples Images ofScience. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Esler, W. K. & Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching Elementary Science (8th

ed.).Washington: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Fleer, M., & Hardy. T. (2001). Science for children: Developing a personal approach

to teaching. (2nd Edition). Sydney: Prentice Hall.

Martin, D.J. (2006). Elementary Science Methods: A Constructivist Approach.Belmont:Thomson Wadsworth.

Martin, R.; Sexton, C.; Gerlovich, J. (2002). Teaching Science for All Children-Methods for Constructing Understanding. Boston: Allyn and Bacon

Skamp, K. (2004). Teaching primary science constructively. Southbank, Victoria:Harcourt Brace.

Documents

Modul Children Learning in Science