Modern Europe II

Unit 3 - Industrial Revolution and Reform, 1815-1848

The Industrial Revolution Industrial Revolution was one of the great

revolutions of mankind First being the Neolithic (agricultural) revolution Last of Great Revolutions that shaped modern

Europe Importance

Radically changed the methods of production Before, humans were limited to human and animal power Now, humans were able to harness the power of machines

Able to mass produce goods Leads to a changes in lifestyles (e.g., workplaces

and free time) Supported Western expansion into other countries

The Industrial Revolution Began in Britain around 1750

By 1830, it had spread to the continent Causes go back to the Glorious Revolution (1688)

Wealthy landowners took control of Parliament From this point until 1832, this “squirearchy” was in

control Their focus was to make more money

How do landowners make more money? Need to increase the production of the land that they

had Done by increasing crop yields and raising fatter sheep

and cattle The question became “how to do it?”

Dutch Agricultural Revolution Dutch Agricultural Revolution (c. 1650)

Dutch population was increasing too rapidly for food supplies to keep up with

In Amsterdam alone, the population shot up from 30,000 to 200,000 over the course of the century

Needed to drastically increase agricultural production

Focused their efforts on increasing crop yields How?

Enclosing the fields, raising new crops, and crop rotation

Heavy fertilization using manure They also did not have serfdom so the

peasantry could move where necessary

Protests Against Enclosure

Agricultural Revolution in Britain British wanted to adopt many of the Dutch

techniques Biggest controversy: enclosure

Sectioning off of land by the use of a fence, wall, or hedge

Old medieval laws had allowed peasants to use the open fields to graze their own animals

During the early Tudor dynasty, there were attempts by the landowners to enclose their lands This was mainly to allow them to graze sheep as the

cost of wool was skyrocketing at the time Peasants revolted and monarchy took the side of the

peasantry

Agricultural Revolution in Britain With the squirearchy, enclosure was going to

be pushed Parliament passed hundreds of enclosure acts By 1832, most of the land in England was enclosed

Enclosure hurt the small landowner and farmer No longer had a place to graze their animals Many were forced to sell what land they had

Enclosure may have been beneficial to the landless Would be hired on as farmhands with wages There was also an increase in tenant farmers

Charles “Turnip” Townshend (1674-1738)

Agricultural Revolution in Britain Another method adopted was crop rotation Charles “Turnip” Townshend (1674-1738)

Introduced the four-field crop rotation used in the Netherlands

Included planting wheat, barley, turnips, and clover in the fields

Introduced turnips as a major crop in England Jethro Tull (1674-1741)

He invented the seed drill This meant less waste and more crop growth

He also encouraged the use of horses for plowing Innovations were also made to improve the raising

of domesticated stock like cattle and sheep

Tull’s Seed Driller (c. 1752)

Effects of the Agricultural Revolution Short term effects

From 1700 to 1760, bountiful crops Better quality of life for most British Could spend income on things other than food More productive land meant less labor required to

cultivate the same amount of food Long term effect:

Less people were involved in agriculture By 1870, England produces 300% more than in

1700 Larger percentage is free to engage in industrial

work Creates a new type of economy that was

impossible in a purely agricultural economy

Why Britain? Why did the Industrial Revolution start in

Britain? Had a stable government There were numerous economic freedoms Tremendous amount of available capital Had a well developed central banking system Mobile population not tied to the land Easy access to water Rich with coal and iron ore Had plenty of colonies and control of the seas Damp climate

Flatford Mill (c. 1816)

Industrialism in Britain The Revolution was actually a series of processes

based on demand One invention lead to another This lead to new situations which call for even more

changes After the Agricultural Revolution, focus became

making even greater profits Best way to do so was to increase the speed of production More goods could be made to meet the worldwide

demand First modern factories were created in 1770s and

1780s Made for cotton textile industry This was where the greatest demand occurred

Industrialism in Britain Industrial Revolution was a process

New inventions led to new challenges which led to even more inventions

The textile industry was the first affected Growth of this industry was based on demand As production increased, it led to the need for both

power and iron Led to movement of both industry and population to

the northern England Investment in industries

Desire for increasing profit led to new methods and inventions

First started by merchant capitalists Britain could afford industrialization

The Spinning Mule

The Cotton Industry Cotton industry was first affected

Britain tried to compete with Asia for cotton goods Growing demand for cotton goods

British industries could not keep up with demands The whole process—spinning, weaving, and printing—

was done by hand Need led to improve the processing of cotton goods

Two inventions helped to benefit the cottage industry Fly Shuttle (1733) allowed one person to weave cloth

instead of two Spinning Jenny (c. 1764) increased the production of

yarn

The Cotton Industry More inventions allowed for mass production

Water Frame (1769) allowed for not only the spinning of multiple threads, but was powered by water instead of humans

Spinning Mule (1779) combined the spinning Jenny and the water frame and produced high quality thin yarns

Power Loom (1785) changed the design of the water frame by allowing it to be powered by steam engine instead of water

Between 1770 and 1790, production of yarn increased ten fold

Now there was an increased demand for cotton Cotton picking and removal of seeds were all done by

hand

The Cotton Industry Cotton Gin (1793)

Invented by Eli Whitney Automatically removed the seeds from the cotton Processing of cotton was sped up to meet the

demand Birth of Cotton Mills

Moving equipment into large buildings allowed cotton yarn could be massed produced

From 1813 to 1850, number of power looms increased from 2,400 to over 250,000

Hand-loom weavers dropped from 250,000 in 1820 to only 3,000 in 1860

1830s British Cotton Mill with a Power Loom

The Power Crisis The power crisis began around 1700

Government realized that the country was running out of its lumber supply

Impacted every aspect of life No lumber meant no charcoal which meant no smelting of

iron

Many began turning to coal for a power source People had already been using coal for heating since

1700 in London Coal was very hard and expensive to extract Did not stop demand because coal was the only viable

source There was the need to dig deeper mines and find ways

of pumping the water out of the mines

The Steam Engine Newcomen Steam Engine (1712)

Built by Thomas Newcomen An “atmospheric engine” designed to run a more

efficient water pump It consumed too much fuel for the amount of

power it was producing Watt Steam Engine (1775)

Invented by James Watt First true steam engine It had a rotary engine that could turn a shaft This meant that it could run machinery as well

The Steam Engine Watt began selling the engine to the textile industry

Up until this point, the textile industry was limited to hand-looms and water-powered looms

Used this technology to improve the output of textiles Many mills adopted the steam engine as a power

source By 1850, 7/8’s of the power for the cotton industry came

from the steam engine This had a huge impact on production of cotton

In 1760, Britain produced 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton

By 1840, this skyrocketed to 366 million pounds Price of cotton goods dropped to 1/20th their value

Asia could not compete with Britain in cotton

Puddling furnace (c. 1881)

The Iron Industry The iron industry was also affected

Britain stilled used old medieval style methods of processing iron that used charcoal

“Puddling” Developed in the 170s to make clean iron This method was later used to create modern steel

Led to a major boom in the iron industry In 1740, over 17,000 tons of iron were produced in Britain In 1840, skyrocketed to over 3 million tons

The center of the iron industry was Manchester The coal and iron mines were located nearby along with a

ready water supply Steel became a major component in construction

and industry

Illustration of the 1804 Pen-y-Darren Locomotive

Revolution of Transportation Steam engine led to advancements in the

transportation industry In order to make profits, one had to get goods

from one place to another more cheaply and quickly While waterways were good, there was a demand for

an even more effective method of transportation With this, there is the development of the railway

Railways had been around since 1500 They were first developed for use in mines throughout

Germany The idea was later adapted to British coal mines

around 1600

Revolution of Transportation Pen-y-Darren Locomotive (1804)

First steam-powered locomotive For just over four hours, it carried ten tons of iron

on five wagons with 70 men at an average speed of close to 5 mph

For the next few decades, the steam engine was improved upon Numerous inventors worked on ways to carry larger

loads faster over longer distances The Rocket (1830)

Built by George Stephenson Included the first public rail line It traveled 32 miles from Liverpool to Manchester at

16mph

Revolution of Transportation By 1840, Britain had almost 2,000 miles of railroads

By 1850, that was up to 6,000 miles with trains that reached speeds of 50mph

Changed not only the face of Britain but it was also key to the expansion of the Industrial Revolution

Many investors put money into railway industry Railroad companies were able to hire a lot of peasants

and laborers, creating new jobs Reduced the costs in shipping

Lower overall cost of manufacturing and thus lower prices

Increase in demand created more jobs and factories

Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821)

Advent of the “Isms” Age of “Isms” (1815-1848)

Rise of new new doctrines and movements Reflected changes brought about by the French

Revolution and the Industrial Revolution Conservativism

Reactionary movement to protect the old school institutions

Reaction against Revolutionary ideals Strongest in Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia Edmund Burke (1729-1797) against violent overthrow of

government Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) believed that only a

monarch who had absolute control could bring about “order in society”

Advent of the “Isms” Liberalism

Origins: Term first used in Spain by anti-Bonapartists Later adopted by French anti-monarchists after 1814 In Britain, ideas were adopted by the Whig party

Came from the middle and professional classes They believed in self-government and wanted

representative governments They also promoted laissez-faire styled economics

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) On Liberty (1859) pushed the concept of moral and

economic freedoms from the state His ideas include freedom of speech, freedom of

opinion, freedom in morality, and freedom of assembly

Advent of the “Isms” Radicalism

Had its roots in Great Britain with the Philosophical Radicals

They wanted to redo all of government This included granting the right to vote and participation in

government to all free men Many wanted the abolition of the monarchy as well

Republicanism Form of radicalism found on the continent Wanted to reconstruct the ideals of the Republic

without the Reign of Terror Many of its followers came from the intelligentsia They embraced the ideas of the radicals

Advent of the “Isms” Early Socialists (pre-1848)

Believed that the economic system was aimless and unjust

Economic power should be in the hands of the workers and not the owners

Included communal ownership of industry, end of laissez-faire economics, and higher wages

Wanted a more equal and fair distribution of wealth throughout society

Robert Owen set up a cooperative in New Lanark, Britain Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)

Believed industrial leaders should be put in positions of authority

Population should be educated so it could evolve

Advent of the “Isms” Feminism

Shared similar ideas with the liberals and radicals Main concern was to expand the rights of women

Wanted more equality in private life (e.g., not losing property when married)

Wanted the right to vote and receive the same civil rights as men

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) This stated that women had the same innate capacity for

reason and self-government as men Relations between the sexes ought to be based on equality

Saint Simonian Movement Called for women to be well-educated to raise intelligent

and competent children

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

Nationalism Started as cultural nationalism but eventually

turned to politics Wanted the creation of either a separate nation or

a unified one Nationalism was strongest in disorganized and

divided countries Included Italy, Germany, Poland, and Austria

Was pushed by the intelligentsia Played on Herder’s idea of Volksgeist

Early nationalist movements met in secret They called for the overthrow of government Led to the creation of many secret societies,

especially in Italy

Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)

Italian Nationalism Carbonari (“Charcoal Burners”)

Secret society organized in Naples during Napoleon’s reign

Pushed to get a constitution in Naples in 1820 Apophasimenes

Called for the unification of Italy through popular uprising

La Giovine Italia (Young Italy) Formed by Giuseppe Mazzini in 1831 Wanted to create an independent and unified Italy

out of the states occupied by Austria In 1834, Mazzini unsuccessfully led an uprising

against the Kingdom of Sardinia

Georg Wilhelm Frederick Hegel (1770-1831)

German Nationalism Germans had a national culture but not a unified

state Became another hotspot for nationalism

Georg Wilhelm Frederick Hegel (1770-1831) Believed that a people must possess a powerful and free

state if they are to enjoy things such as freedom or order “Universal Spirit” – Thesis, antithesis, and synthesis Non-unified state of Germany (the thesis) would create a

unification movement (the antithesis) The synthesis would become a unified Germany Helped to push the study of history to find the “universal

spirit” Part of the growing nationalism movement and tied in

with Hegel’s work was the development of modern history

German Nationalism Grimm Brothers - Grimm’s Fairy Tales (1812)

Traveled throughout Germany collecting different folktales

Part of this was to find the Volk of the German people Friedrich List (1789-1846)

Believed that each country had to develop its own economic scheme based on its history

Not every country can use the same economic system Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886)

Reflected the nationalistic spirit found in Germany A common theme was the greatness of all the

European countries and their ability to coexist Called for Germans to develop their own sense of

identity to kept the greatness of Europe alive

Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886)

Nationalism in Eastern Europe In Poland, nationalism was focused on the

recreation of the Polish state In the rest of eastern Europe, many different

nationalistic movements broke out Most of them were based more on cultural

nationalism than political Their own culture was unique and should be

preserved Rise of Magyar nationalism in the Austrian empire The Slavic Revival in eastern Europe and Russia

which led later to the Pan-Slavic movement

Alexander I (1777-1825)

Reaction and Restoration: 1815-1830 After 1815, many powers wanted to prevent

another Revolution and Napoleon from happening again Conservatives had the power in many governments They wanted to prevent any liberalism from tainting

them Big Four powers wanted to keep the old school type

of politics Alexander I did make some moderate changes (e.g.,

constitutions and representative governments) Many on the left wing felt that these changes were

not enough and called for more liberal reforms

Louis XVIII (1815-1824)

Restoration in France Post-1815 France was conservative and reactionary

“White Terror” Broke out in France against Republicans, Protestants, and

Bonapartists Massacres of Protestants occurred in Marseilles and Toulouse

in 1815 Rise of the ultra-royalists

Wanted to bring back the grandeur of the Old Regime Against any type of limited monarchy, including a

constitutional one Louis XVIII (1814-1824)

He tried to keep the government moderate Included the hiring of moderate advisors and councilors

Legislative bodies were ultra-royalists Saw Louis as being too moderate

Charles X (1824-1830)

Reaction in France Charles X (1824-1830)

Brother of Louis XVIII He wanted to bring back the Old Regime in all of

its glory Conservative policies:

Anti-Sacrilege Act (1824) Prohibited any type of sacrilege against the host The punishments included perpetual forced labor up to

mutilation and beheading Granted indemnities to all of the aristocracy who

had lost land during the Revolution Wanted the Catholic Church to take greater

control of the educational system

Reaction in France Liberals wanted Charles to hire more moderate

ministers They would be answerable to the legislature In 1829, he appointed the ultra-conservative Jules

Armand de Polignac as his chief minister Chamber of Deputies protested this

July Ordinances (July 1830) It dissolved the Chamber of Deputies and called for

new elections The bourgeoisie were prohibited from running for office Created a new Council of State with many ultra-

royalists as ministers It suspended freedom of the press Leads to the July Revolution

George IV of Britain Prince Regent (1811-

1820) King (1820-1830)

Reaction in Britain Tory Control

In 1815, the government was in the hands of the large landowners

At the time, Britain faced severe economic problems Corn Law of 1815

Parliament placed a very high tariff on imported grain Good for large landowners because the price of grain rose Bad for the working class who now could barely afford

food Spa Fields Riots (December 9, 1816)

Radicals protested against the Corn Laws and the Tory rule

Some looted gunshop in order to seize the Tower of London

Troops were brought in to stop the crowd

Reaction in Britain Attack on the Prince Regent (January 28, 1817)

His carriage was attacked after he left the opening of Parliament

The windows were smashed in Some thought a revolution was about to take place

Gag Acts of 1817 Parliament suspended Habeas Corpus Banned all seditious meetings Ordered the arrest of all writers and printers of

seditious material Was used by industry owners to place spies in their

factories

Reaction in Britain Peterloo Massacre (August 16, 1819)

Crowd of 60,000 protested against the high grain prices at St. Peter’s Field in Manchester

Demanded parliamentary reform as well Military was called in to put down the protest 11 people were killed with over 400 wounded

Six Acts (1819) Passed in response to growing protests Allowed for the search and seizure of weapons Prevented meetings of more than 50 people not

for “church or state” affairs Allowed for detainment in a penal colony for those

publishing seditious material

Francis I of Austria (1792-1835)

Reaction in Austria Francis I of Austria (1792-1835)

Was strongly against any form of radicalism Most policies were directed by Metternich

Pushed for conservatism under pressure from Francis

Was not willing to work with liberals or nationals Believed that the old system was necessary to

keep Austria functioning Anything else would destroy it Played a key role in maintaining the balance of

power in Europe

Frederick William III (1797-1840)

Reaction in Germany Reaction to the Germanic Federation

Many Germans were unsatisfied and instead called for a unified Germany

First turned to Prussia for help as it originally implemented numerous reforms

Frederick William III (1797-1840) After 1815 became much more reactionary Refused the creation of a legislative assembly or a

representative government Had little interest in creating a unified Germany

Reaction in Germany Burschenschaften

Liberal students began organizing into these student societies

First one was created in June 1815 at the University of Jena

Their main purpose was to create a unified Germany Motto: “Honor, Liberty, Fatherland”

Wartburg Festival (October 18, 1817) Groups of Burschenschaften met in the city of Wartburg

to celebrate the 300th anniversary of Luther’s 95 Theses Many students burned books by reactionary authors Was peaceful but caused uneasiness with many

governments

Reaction in Germany Assassination of August von Kotzebue (March 23,

1819) Was a reactionary writer Assassin was theology student, Karl Ludwig Sand Sand stated Kotzebue was an enemy of the German state

Metternich could no longer stand by and do nothing He called together a conference of the main German states

Carlsbad Decrees (September 1819) They were later passed by the legislative body (Bund) Dissolved the Burschenscaften and other student groups Censored all printed material Effectively repressed the liberal movement in the German

states

Alexander I (1801-

1825)

Reaction in Russia Alexander I (1801-1825)

After 1815 started following more conservative policy Liberals were repressed inside of Russia

Formation of secret societies Northern Union of Salvation

Included veterans of the war against France Called for a constitutional monarchy and giving land to

peasants

On December 1, 1825, Tsar Alexander I died His brother, Constantine, was to ascend to the throne But he had abdicated a few days later in favor of his

brother Nikolai

Reaction in Russia Northern Union told the troops not to swear

an oath of allegiance to Nikolai They believed that Constantine would be more

open to reform The revolt was quickly put down

Nikolai I (1825-1855) Instituted reactionary policies against the liberals Set up the political police known as the Third

Section They were allowed to arrest and deport anyone

they thought was suspicious or dangerous to the state of Russia

Nicolas I (1825-1855)

Congress System After 1815, the Big Four powers wanted to

maintain their conservative governments Congress System

Also known as the “Concert of Europe” Designed to keep the balance of power and to

maintain the ideals of conservatism “Holy Alliance”

Powers were held together by their faith

Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (Fall 1818) focused on France Discussed the withdrawal of occupation troops Then added France to the alliance (created Quintuple

Alliance)

Congress System Congress of Laibach (January-May, 1821)

Designed to deal with the Spanish Civil War and the Revolt in the Two Scilies In both cases, the conservative governments were

overthrown by radical groups Metternich issued his Troppau Protocol

If a country’s government was overthrown by revolution, it was no longer part of the European alliance

If this new government was seen as a threat to the rest of Europe, it is the duty of the other countries to end that threat

It was an attempt by Metternich to keep the balance of power in Europe

France and Britain refused to go along with it

Congress System Congress of Verona (October 20-December 14,

1822) Two main issues Greek War of Independence (1821-1829)

Greek nationals led a revolt against the Ottoman Empire They were hoping to gain independence with the help of

Russia Continuing problems in Spain

By 1822, Ferdinand VII was a virtual prisoner There were calls for armed intervention in Spain Britain refused to participate as part of an international

force France was willing to join as it did not want a revolutionary

government right next door

Congress System Restoration of Ferdinand VII

Ferdinand VII was reinstated as king by August 1823 He instituted repressive and brutal measures against

the liberals and revolutionaries Failure of the Congress System

Congress system’s main goal was to preserve the status quo

However, each member had its own agenda In the case of Britain, it was not willing to give up its

independence to be part of an international force Strengthening liberalism and nationalism

Because of its repressive measures, the Quintuple Alliance actually strengthened the liberal and nationalist forces

Liberty Leading the People July Revolution

Revolutions 1830-1832 The reactionary system broke in 1830 with the July

Revolution in France It continued on in Belgium, Poland, and Italy Liberalism began to win out over conservatism

July Revolution (July 27-29, 1830) Response of France to the publication of the July

Ordinances Middle bourgeoisie were angered at losing their political

rights Started riots in the city of Paris Barricades were set up around the city A new provisional government was set up Charles abdicated in favor of his 10-year-old grandson,

Henri

July Revolution Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)

Duke of Orléans He had fought for the Revolution and had been a

member of the Jacobin club Was crowned on August 9, 1830 as “King of the

French” rather than “King of France” Promised to uphold the Charter of 1814

Some modifications were made to the Charter Called for a greater amount of voters for the

Chamber of Deputies from 100,000 to 200,000 This meant that 1/30th of the male population could vote Gave power to the upper Bourgeoisie

Many were fearful this was a “true” revolution

King Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)

Belgian Revolution United Kingdom of the Netherlands

United Provinces of the Netherlands and the Austrian Netherlands had been united under one crown in 1815

Nice idea but did not work Tensions between Belgians and Dutch

Dutch were the majority Dominated all aspects of life: politically,

economically, and socially Laws were designed to benefit primarily the Dutch Belgians were used to self-rule The Dutch did not allow for this

Belgian Revolution Belgians were very different from their northern

counterparts Belgians were Catholic while in the north they were

Protestant Belgians were uncomfortable with Calvinist king William I

In 1823, the government made Dutch the official The Belgians spoke French, not Dutch It was revoked in June 1830, but remained an issue

On August 25, 1830 riots broke out in the city of Brussels The rioters at first demanded self-rule As more radicals took control of the riots, they demanded

secession from the Dutch state

Belgian Revolution William I was unsuccessful in putting down the

rebellion Mainly due to the French sending in troops to help the

Belgians Secession

Called for elections for a National Congress to draw up a new constitution

On October 4, 1830, issued a Declaration of Independence Major powers attempted to intervene but both sides

refused treaties The powers agreed that that the kingdom should be divided

Creation of Belgium On February 7, 1831, a new constitution was completed Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was chosen as their new king

The Belgian Revolution

November Revolution Initially, Poland enjoyed some liberalism After 1815, Alexander began repressing liberal

ideas in Poland like he had in Russia Appointed reactionary Grand Duke Konstantin

Pavlovich as governor-general This went against the constitution of Poland Set up a secret police to put down secret societies Also enacted censorship of the press

After 1825, the sessions of the Polish parliament were kept secret

November Revolution November Revolution

Alexander planned to send Russian troops through Poland to put down the revolutions in France and Belgium

November 29, 1830, a group of cadets from Warsaw attacked the place that Pavlovich was residing in

Removed the Russian ministers from the government December 13, the Polish parliament announced official

uprising January 25, 1831, the parliament officially dethroned

Nikolai Russia responded by sending troops in February 1831

Without any international aid, the Poles were crushed Poland was absorbed into the Russian Empire

Polish Revolution of 1830

Reform in Great Britain Britain changed through reform rather than

revolution Rise of the Liberal Tories

Eased up on numerous trade restrictions Revoked the Test Acts to allow Catholics legal equality Designed a more effective criminal justice system

(“bobbies”) Could not revoke Corn Laws Could not reform House of Commons

Lack of Representation Only those “forty-shilling freeholders” could vote House of Commons was dominated by the wealthy

landowners

Reform in Great Britain Impact of the July Revolution

Gave inspiration to the radicals Gave hope to the middle class as the bourgeoisie

were able to gain power so quickly Many were demanding reforms

Reform Bills were introduced House of Commons refused the first Whigs resigned from office in protest but returned Next bill passed the Commons but failed in Lords People were fearful of a potential revolution

Reform in Great Britain Reform Act of 1832

Proposed by Prime Minister Lord Charles Earl Grey Designed to “take effectual Measures for correcting

diverse Abuses that have long prevailed in the Choice of Members to serve in the Commons”

Eliminated votes from small populations (“rotten” boroughs)

Reallocated 143 parliamentary seats from the rural south to the industrial north

Expanded number of eligible voters by 60% (1:6 could vote)

Voters were required to have at least £10 worth of property

Landed aristocracy still had the political strength to dominate politics

Reform in Great Britain More reforms

Slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire in 1833

Municipal Corporations Act (1835) reorganized the political structures of cities

In 1836, Commons was opened to journalists to report on who voted for what

Tory Counteroffensive Became the champions of the industrial working

class Pushed through the Factory Acts of the 1830s and

1840s Most important one was the Ten Hours Act (1847)

Reform in Great Britain Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)

Pushed through by the Whigs and the Anti-Corn Law League

Saw how the inflated price of corn was affecting working class

Promoted repeal through political rallies, tea gatherings, and torchlight processions

Also, there was a growing famine in Ireland Shift in focus

No longer was the landed gentry the focus of politics Now it was the industrial classes, both the owners and

workers Two concerns: promoting free trade and maintaining

Britian’s domination of the seas

Charles Earl Grey Prime Minister (1830-1834)

Triumph of the Bourgeoisie After 1830, things improved for the bourgeoisie England saw the greatest changes

Greater enfranchisement of the middle class 1:8 men were eligible to vote Did not have full control of industry due to Tory

legislation but had greater freedoms France was more limited

Only 1:30 men could vote Aristocracy still had more control but was weakening Less restrictions on the working conditions than

Britain Gave industry leaders more control

Triumph of the Bourgeoisie Financial impact of the bourgeoisie

Industry continues to grow Rise of corporations and stock companies Western European nations see steady rise in income Only a few people saw the increase in wealth They reinvested it in their businesses

Many in the working class felt cheated They had hoped the revolutions of 1830 would have

caused greater change Instead they still were not able to vote Radicals in France and Britain wanted more change

Triumph of the Bourgeoisie Characteristics of the labor market

Focused on ideas of the Manchester School Labor should receive minimum wage to survive Work was a commodity and wages should be

dependent upon the need for workers Factory work should be miserable so people would

want to rise out of it Poor Law of 1834

Gave relief to the poor Made life miserable so people would not continue

to live on it Were required to live in workhouses or poorhouses Did nothing to help people get out of poverty

Chartist Riots

Chartism Since revolutions did not work, workers turned

to other means for change Slow formation of labor unions Turn to socialism (esp. in France) In Britain, turn to Chartism

Chartism Grew in response to the Reform Act of 1832 Included working class and radicals who wanted

greater enfranchisement Small group, including Members of Parliament,

published the People’s Charter in 1838

Chartism Charter of 1838

Was a six-point plan that demanded: Annual elections for the House of Commons Suffrage for all males over the age of 21 Voting by secret ballot Equal electoral districts Payment of salaries for members of Parliament

Chartist Convention (February-May 1839) Was attended by labor unionists, radicals, and poor

workers Some called for strikes and violence Others wanted to put non-violent pressure on

Parliament

Chartism In June 1839, a petition was submitted to the

House of Commons Listed the main grievances of the chartists Signed by over 1 million people The Commons overwhelmingly voted the petition

down Led to a wave of violence

Sparked by the more radical wing of the chartists Believed only violence could bring change Put down by the military

Worsening economic conditions Britain suffered from an economic depression in

1841-1842 Chartism became more and more popular

Chartism Another petition was brought forth in May

1842 This time signed by over 3.3 million people Once again, it was rejected by the Commons

Plug Plot Riots After the rejection, general strikes broke out Involved half a million workers Demanded wages to be restored to 1820 values Also wanted 10-hour work days Known as the “plug plot riots” because workers

removed plugs from the steam boilers so they could not be used in the factories

Over 1,500 workers were arrested

Chartism Chartists disagreed about tactics and goals William Lovett

Focused on self-improvement through education Wanted to use non-violent means to get political change

Feargus O’Connor Appealed to the impoverished and desperate class of

workers Attacked industrialization Land Plan - Buy huge estates and lease small plots to

farmers Bronterre O’Brien

Openly admired Robespierre and Gracchus Babeuf Focused on violent revolution

Chartism Kennington Commons Protest (April 10, 1848)

Chartists planned a major show of force in London Around 25,000 workers marched to Parliament Presented a petition of 1.9 million signatures

demanding the Six Points However, many of the signatures were forgeries This discredited the movement Many of the supporters turned to other radical

movements Britain will eventually adopt most of the Six

Points However it will not occur until 1918

Protest of 1848