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Modern Europe IHIS-106
Unit 10 - The French Revolution
What is a Revolution? A “revolution” can be broken down into four
requirements: An overthrow of the existing government but not
just a simple coup d’etat The placement of a new governmental system to
replace the old The participants of the revolution must be “home
grown” and not be pushed by an outside group It occurs in the modern period as most of the
ideas of “revolution” come out of the Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries
Importance of the French Revolution There are three things that made the
Revolution important: What occurred in France becomes a model for
future revolutions in Europe even up to modern day
It changed the political map of Europe for the rest of the modern period
It brought the people into politics Before, politics had been limited to the upper classes,
the nobility, and the clergy Afterwards, the masses were able to participate in
government
What Makes France So Special? In the 18th century, France was the most
advanced and powerful country in Europe It was one of the dominant military powers,
rivaled only by Britain France helped the Americans win their
independence from the British It was the most populous country in Europe
The population of France was around 24 million which was even larger than Russia before the divisions of Poland
Paris was only rivaled by London in size
What Makes France So Special? France was also the center of the Enlightenment
and the radical ideas of the time This was ironic since it was also one of the most
oppressed countries in Europe when it came to freedom of speech
The philosophes set down the modern political and social theories that sparked many of the revolutions
French culture also dominated Europe French became the “official” language of many of the
courts of the time When the revolution breaks out in France, it was
going to have a major impact on Europe, for good or for bad
France Before the Revolution The Ancien Régime
The ruling dynasties were the Valois and Bourbon (1328-1792)
It was a period of aristocratic privilege similar to the old feudal system of the Middle Ages
Starting in the 18th century, tensions arose among the various classes Aristocrats resented the freedoms the monarchs
had allowed the middle class Middle class resented a society of privilege that was
outmoded Peasants resented the increasing demands of the
central government
Causes of the French Revolution Four categories of causes of the French
Revolution Intellectual Causes
Mainly based on the influence of Enlightenment ideas Liberal ideals “Rights of Man” - Life, liberty, and property Self-Determination - A government “by the people” Equality under the law End to Feudalism and State-Controlled Economy
American Revolution also played a role Creation of a Free Republic Many French fought in the American Revolution
The Three Estates
The Three Estates Social causes of the Revolution are based on
the archaic three estate system First Estate (premier état) - The Church Second Estate (deuxieme état) - The Nobility Third Estate (tiers état) – Everybody else
Power was in the hands of the first two estates Made up only around 5% of the population Controlled most of the wealth and political power
Third Estate paid most of the taxes Did not enjoy any political power even though its
wealth and numbers were growing
The Three Estates First Estate - Clergy
Made up 1% of the population (~100,000) Owned 10% of the land in France Exempt from property taxes This estate collected a tithe, a 10% annual tax
Second Estate - Nobility Made up around 2.5% of the population (~400,000) Owned 20% of the land "Noblesse d'Épée" - ("Nobility of the Sword“) – Old
Nobility 50,000 new nobles created between 1700 and 1789 "Noblesse de Robe" - ("Nobility of the Robe“) – New
Nobility
The Three Estates Third Estate – Everybody else
Made up approximately 97% of the population Mainly peasants who paid most of the taxes Owed obligations to landlord, church, and state Direct and indirect taxation a heavy burden The corvée
Social boundaries between noble and non-noble ill-defined Most noble wealth was proprietary (tied to land) Influx of new wealth from banking, shipping, slave
trade, and mining Bourgeoisie identified with the nobility, not the
common people
Louis XVI (1774-1792)
Louis XVI (1774-1792) The political cause centered around the reign
of Louis XVI Louis XVI came to the throne at the age of 19 He had no interest in running the government
Like his grandfather, he was more concerned about hunting
On July 14, 1789, he put in his hunting journal only one word: “rien” (“nothing”)
Hired Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Count of Maurepas, to be his chief advisor Suggested the revival in the use of the parlements
These had been abolished during the reign of Louis XV Louis thought this would increase his popularity with the
nobility
Louis XVI (1774-1792) In France, there were 13 parlements
The parlements did not write legislation Instead, they were only required to ratify laws and take
care of some administrative tasks The king always had the right to veto any act of parlement
The most powerful of the parlements was the one in Paris Here was where the king would request a lit de justice to
have royal edicts passed For a short period of time during the reign of Louis
XV, the parlements were given the right to veto a king’s act As their members came from the Second Estate, they
were unwilling to bring about any reforms that would threaten their power
Louis XVI (1774-1792) Louis also did not show much interest in
producing an heir to the throne Married Marie Antoinette in 1700 at age 15
However, the marriage was not consummated until seven years later
May have been due to immaturity, impotence, or may have had a condition known as phimosis
Marie Antoinette was not very popular She dispensed patronage among her friends In 1783, the Hameau de la Reine ("The Queen's
hamlet") was built for her by Louis XVI In 1785, there was the Diamond Necklace Affair
Marie Antoinette (1755-1793)
Economic Causes of the Revolution Major cause of the Revolution: Economics
Played a role both in the long and short term By 1780s, French economy was failing
Massive national debt Accumulated during the reigns of Louis XIV and Louis XV Due to the number of wars Old tax system could not pay off the debt The debt was viewed not as the country’s debt but the
king’s By 1764, the national debt was up to 2.3 billion
Worth ~ $15.5 billion in 2010 currency Interest on these loans was costing 60% of the annual
budget
Economic Causes of the Revolution Many countries in Europe were also in debt
Due to wars and economic depressions in the mid-1760s
Their tax systems were more efficient Wartime taxes
Tried to extend wartime taxes to help pay these debts Parlements opposed them Focused instead on paying the interest rather than
principle Antiquated tax system
Taxes were collected by tax “farmers” They collected the indirect taxes, such as taille and
gabelle (salt tax) Able to keep a percentage of the taxes collected
Economic Causes of the Revolution Only the Third Estate paid all the taxes
Taxation tied to social status and varied from region to region
It was mainly paid by the peasantry whose incomes were the lowest in the country
Not enough money going into the royal treasury Yet France was considered one of the wealthiest
countries Attempts to reform taxes
Were attempts to tax nobility All were opposed by the parlements This conflict peaked during the reign of Louis XVI
Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot French
Finance Minister
(1774-1776)
Rising Economic Crisis Louis hired a number of financial ministers to
help with the debt Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot
He strongly followed laissez-faire styled economics Wanted to implement a property tax Parlements vetoed Turgot’s proposals Could have saved France?
Jacques Necker “Old school” economist and mercantilist Managed financing for the American Revolution
Got loans to pay for the 1.3 billion livre cost Ended up making the debt much worse
Jacques Necker French Finance
Minister (1777-1781)
Rising Economic Crisis Tensions between the central governments and
the provincial parlements slowed reform Parlements defend nobility’s exemption from paying
taxes to pay for the Seven Years’ War Charles-Alexandre de Calonne
Was appointed as finance minister in 1783 By August 1786, France had a deficit of 112 million
livre The loans accumulated since 1776 totaled 1.25 billion
in debt At this point, France had no way of paying all of its
debts Calonne realized that minor changes would not help
the government get out of debt
Rising Economic Crisis Calonne proposed a tax on all the people of France
This would include the nobility General tax on all landowners to replace the taille
Calling of the Assemblée des notables Calonne knew he would have problems getting these
taxes through the Parlements Called an Assemblée des notables instead If they supported his plan, he would have little
difficultly getting it passed in the Parlements Assembly of Notables was called on February 22,
1787 There were 144 people in attendance Included the highest of the nobility, church, and
bourgeoisie
Political cartoon of the Assembly of Notables“My dear creatures, I have assembled you here to deliberate on the sauce in which you will be served”
Rising Economic Crisis Aristocrats used the financial emergency to
extract constitutional reforms Were willing to make some radical changes This included the implementation of a land tax
Insisted that any new tax scheme be approved by the Estates-General They refused to pass anything resembling a general
tax On April 8, 1787, Louis XVI fired Calonne
Replaced with Etienne Charles Lomenie de Brienne Brienne was also unsuccessful at getting the tax
laws passed
Rising Economic Crisis Brienne turned to the clergy for help
Requested a large payment from them to help out the country’s finances
They refused Brienne realized that there was nothing else he
could do Nothing would get passed without calling the Estates
General In August 1788, the financial crisis had worsened
On August 8, he announced that the Estates General would meet in May 1789
On August 16, the government stops repaying loans
Qu'est ce que le Tiers Etat? What is the Third
Estate? By Abbé Sieyès (January 1789)
Calling of the Estates General Estates-General had not been called since 1614 The Three Estates elected delegates
Drew up the cahiers et doléances (list of grievances) The delegates of the Third Estate represented the
outlook of the elite 25 percent lawyers, 43 percent government officials Strong sense of common grievance and common
purpose Should the estates vote by estate or by individual?
Parlement of Paris stated that each of the estates would have only one vote each
Third Estate wanted double representation in the Estates
Calling of the Estates General Double representation
On December 27, 1788, Louis allowed for double representation for the Third Estate
What is the Third Estate? (January 1789) Pamphlet written by Abbé Sieyès Stated that the true desire of the Third Estate was
to have true political power and have equal power to the first two estates combined
He also stated that the votes should be taken by head, not by estate
This sparked further debates throughout France Lambasted the Second Estate as being useless
without the Third Estate
Meeting of the Estates General (May 5, 1789)
The Estates General The delegates for the Estates General met at
Versailles on May 2, 1789 First two estates were greeted by Louis in the Hall of
Mirrors Third Estate was forced to wait until four hours later to
meet the king in a different part of the palace The Estates General opened on May 5
The three estates were to be seated in different chambers
The Third Estate refused to be segregated Requested that all three estates sit in the same
chamber King announced that the voting would be by estate
with each having one vote Third Estate refused to pass any measures
The Estates General On May 28th, the Third Estate began meeting on its
own They now called themselves the Communes (“Commons”)
Abbé Sieyès also told the Commons that they should invite members of the other two estates to join them They were hoping to attract the parish priests as many of
them were poor A number of clergy did join them
Commons wanted to create a new legislative body This was because more than one estate was in attendance Abbé Sieyès stated that this body represented 98% of the
country It should start work immediately on the restoration of
France
Abbé Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (1748-1836)
The National Assembly Creation of the National Assembly
Created by vote on June 17, 1789 Passed a measure stating that all taxes could not be
collected unless passed by the National Assembly Assembly continued to invited members of the
other two estates to join By June 19, 1789, over 100 clergy and nobility had
joined Louis planned a séance royale (Royal Session)
The purpose was to try to get the three estates back on track
The location was to be in the Salle des États, the meeting place of the Assembly
When the National Assembly showed up to the Salle des États on June 20, 1789, they found the doors locked
The Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789)
The National Assembly The Assembly moved to a nearby indoor tennis
court Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789)
The members in attendance gave the following oath: “We swear never to separate ourselves from the
National Assembly, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of the realm is drawn up and fixed upon solid foundations.”
It was passed 576-1 by the members This was a key action by the National Assembly
They were going to put together a constitution with or without the king
The Assembly had true power of the country as it represented the people
The National Assembly On June 22, 1789, the Assembly found itself
locked out of the tennis court The group went on to meet in the church of St. Louis
Louis recalled over 18,000 soldiers to Versailles He would use them disband the Assembly by force if
necessary By June 24, most of the clergy had joined the
Assembly along with 48 nobility On June 27, Louis ordered all the delegates to
join the Assembly On July 9, the Assembly renamed itself the
National Constituent Assembly
Riots and looting in France (March-May
1789)
Revolution from Below There were two sides to the revolution
The middle- and upper-classes were bringing about change for the country via politics
The lower-classes were making changes through riots Suffering lower classes
They endured increases in the taille, gabelle, and in feudal dues
Hoped that the calling of the Estates General would help ease their financial burdens
Bread shortages During the 1780s, weather patterns had a negative
impact on crops It was a peak period in the “Little Ice Age” Eruptions in Iceland from 1783-1785
Revolution from Below These weather patterns led to a decline in crop
outputs Bad winter in 1787/1788 Followed by severe hailstorm in July 1788 Led to a sharp increase in the price of grain and bread
Bread was a mainstay of the peasant’s diet By 1788, most peasants were spending upwards of
50% of their income just on bread alone By 1789, 80% of their income went to bread (highest
since 1714) This led to a severe food crisis throughout France
From 1785 to 1789, the cost of living increased 62% However, wages only went up 22%
Revolution from Below No government relief
Due to the country’s poor financial status Some towns attempted to fix the price of bread Failed to stop the growing famine in many regions
Economic depression made matters worse Incomes of many workers declined rapidly Rise in unemployment
Many peasants stopped paying their feudal dues and taxes Some moved into the cities but were unable to find
work In the towns and cities, labor revolts broke out in
the spring of 1789
Revolution from Below Increase in crime and vagrancy
Due to so many people out of work and searching for food
Growing paranoia Lower-class was positive the king and nobility were
going to shut down the Third Estate Specifically, they were fearful that the king was
going to forcibly disband the Constituent Assembly Rumors circulated that Louis was about to stage a
coup d’état Many people and towns began to arm
themselves for protection Parisian workers (sans-culottes) organized a
militia of volunteers
Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)
Storming of the Bastille Riots and looting broke out on July 12, 1789
Many were looking for food and for weaponry The Gardes Françaises (French Guards) stood back and
allowed the looting to occur as they were sympathetic to the people
July 14, a mob took weapons from the Hôtel des Invalides They were able to take 28,000 muskets and ten cannons However, they were not able to secure enough
ammunition The next target was the fortress of the Bastille
There was the belief that the Bastille held 250 barrels (20,000 pounds) of gunpowder
The mob ransacked the prison and took the governor and guards hostage
“This is how we punish traitors”
Great Fear of 1789 On July 17, 1789, the Revolution spread to the
countryside The situation there was already tense
Increase in vagrants, beggars, and criminals Convinced that the nobility had employed these people
to terrorize them Rumors that the king’s armies were on their way The peasants responded by arming themselves in self-
defense The peasants wanted to destroy the manorial
system Burned the buildings where the taxes were collected It escalated to sacking and burning down the manor
homes The nobility was forced to flee the countryside
The Great Fear of 1789
August Days On August 4, 1789, the Assembly voted to:
Give up their seigneurial rights and declared an end to serfdom
Declare an end to the tithe, special privileges, and tax privileges
The Declarations of the Rights of Man and Citizen Issued by the Assembly on August 26, 1789 Based on the ideas of the natural rights of man Every citizen had the right to “liberty, property,
security, and resistance to oppression” All citizens were equal in the eyes of the law “Law is the expression of the general will” It called for the government by the people The people were to decide how taxes were to be
collected
August Days The period of all of these changes became known
as the “August Days” Legislation the “August Decrees”
Working on a new government and constitution The differing factors in the Assembly made this a
difficult task Conservatives wanted to keep the king as the main
authority of the government with a bicameral legislature
Liberals wanted a unicameral legislative body This was out of fear that the nobility in the upper
house would give themselves back some of its power Louis had refused to recognize the Declarations
Women’s March on Versailles (October 5, 1789)
October Days Women began gathering in Paris in early October
1789 They were specifically demanding bread
Rumors circulated that the king was hoarding bread at Versailles The women decided to march on Versailles
Thousands of women had joined the march Mainly middle-class women Chanted songs about killing Marie Antoinette Armed with broomsticks, pitchforks, muskets, and
swords By the time the group reached Versailles, the crowd
numbered over 6,000
Women’s March on Versailles Louis met with a delegation of the women in the
palace He said that he would give what bread was available in
the palace to the women but they did not believe him Very early in the morning of October 6th, a large
group of women found an open gate to the palace They wanted the “Austrian Whore” and rushed to the
Queen’s apartments They chased the Queen and her entourage into the
King’s apartments The National Guard was able to stop the mob and
get them out of the palace The mob outside could not be calmed down until they
saw the royal family
Women’s March on Versailles There were many shouts of “Le Roi à Paris!”
They wanted Louis to see what was taking place there Louis stated he would move the royal family to
Paris They were escorted to the city later that afternoon by
both the National Guard and the armed women They brought along flour found in Versailles as a
“goodwill” gesture The king was now forced to accept the August
Decrees Mobs affected politics Louis was now a virtual prisoner of both the crowds
and the Assembly
Painting of the royal family hiding in the king’s chambers (October 6, 1789)
Economic Changes The first focus of the Constituent Assembly was to
help stimulate the failing economy The first step was to deal with the huge debt
It refused to forgive the debt The Assembly turned its attention to the church
Clergy were seen as part of the feudalistic system The church owned millions of livre worth of land that
the country could sell off to pay off its debt The Assembly decided to nationalize church lands
The state would take both the land and its expenses It would also take over the burden of its charitable
work
Economic Changes On November 2, 1790, the confiscation of church
land began Assignats
These printed bonds were created as a form of legal tender
Backed by the value of the church land (~ 400 million livre)
Many of the clergy were very unhappy with this Argued that the church did not own these lands as a whole Also felt that the state would not take the charitable work
as piously as the church This policy led to a rise in anti-revolutionary feelings
amongst the clergy
Illustration of the monks and nuns celebrating the end of ecclesiastical orders (February 16, 1790)
Civil Constitution of the Clergy Next step was secularizing the church
Assembly viewed the church as another “old school” power base
The first part of this included: The end of the tithe (August 4, 1789) The nationalization of church lands (November 2,
1789) End to all ecclesiastical orders and monastic vows
(February 13, 1790) State control of all remaining church property (April
19, 1790) Next was the reorganization of the church
This included putting control of the church in the hands of the state
Civil Constitution of the Clergy Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Create 83 bishops, one for each départements All church officials must be elected by the people It also required all clergy to swear an oath to the
state The Constitution passed on July 12, 1790 by a large
majority There was much opposition to it from the clergy
Many were upset at the church being subordinate to the state
Others criticized how it reduced the spiritual authority of the pope
Civil Constitution of the Clergy On November 27, 1790, the Assembly ordered all
clergy to take the oath Only seven bishops and 54% of parish priests took the
oath Those who refused were known as non-juring priests
King approved it on December 26, 1790 The pope never did and repudiated all clergy who took
the oath Created a huge schism between the Revolution
and the Catholics Many Catholics in the countryside who followed non-
juring priests began a strong counter-revolutionary movement
There were also attacks against those who refused to conform to the Constitution
The three estates “hammering” out a new constitution
Writing A New Constitution Writing of a new constitution
Became difficult as many of conservatives in the Assembly left
They were fearful that the new constitution was going to be influenced by the mobs rather than the politicians
Some even left the country and became émigrés Other members began to form political clubs
Largest was the Jacobin Club Started as a moderate political club but soon became
infamous for its radical stances on politics From October 1789 to September 1791, worked
on restructuring the government Wanted to decentralize the government by taking the
power out of the king’s hands
Constitution of 1791 Constitution of 1791
King was a constitutional monarch Had very limited powers
The Legislative Assembly was created This was a unicameral legislature Made up of 745 representatives who held two year
terms Only “active” citizens could vote for representatives
These were men over 25 who paid an annual tax equivalent to three days worth of labor (~ 3 livres) and were literate
While this meant that 4.3 million were eligible to vote, it was still only half of the male population
Louis XVI riding a pig
Flight to Varennes Still problems for the Revolution
Still hurting financially due to widespread tax evasion Rising cost of living made the peasants unhappy The clergy were opposed to the Revolutionary
government Political clubs, like the Jacobins, were pushing for more
radical ideas Louis XVI was especially unhappy
Did not want to be limited in his power as king Was unhappy with the Civil Constitution of the clergy
On June 20, 1791, the royal family attempted to flee Disguised as servants to a Russian baroness They made it as far as the town of Varennes, near the
Belgium border
Flight to Varennes There, Louis was recognized by the local
postmaster One legend has it that Drouet recognized the king
because his likeness was printed on all assignats They were immediately arrested and forced to
return to Paris five days later The Constituent Assembly suspended the king’s
authority upon his return to Paris This event changed the course of the Revolution
The king was now viewed as a traitor People began discussing the possibility of a republic
without a king instead of a constitutional monarchy
Return of the royal family to Paris (June 25, 1791)
Legislative Assembly On October 1, 1791, the Legislative Assembly
met for the first time It was divided into three main groups:
Jacobins – Radicals Girondins – Republicans Montagnards (Mountain) – Radical democrats
Assembly made more radical changes to the church Nonjuring priests would lose their pensions and be
declared “enemies of the patrie” They also allowed for the marriage of priests
Legislative Assembly Growing violence
Assembly had to take more radical action in response to the growing violence in southern France
Due to a growing counter-revolutionary movement of loyal Catholics in the region
Actions against émigrés They were accused of fomenting plots against the
Revolution Their lands were confiscated and those on the
borders were arrested Assembly also required that all members of the royal
family to return to France on the threat of having all of their property confiscated
French sans-culotte
Turn to Radical Revolution Radical Revolution (August 1792 - July 1794)
From moderate leaders to radical republicans Why did the Revolution become radical? The politicization of the common people,
especially in cities Newspapers Political clubs Greater political awareness heightened by
fluctuations in prices Demands for cheaper bread Demands for government to do something about
inflation
Turn to Radical Revolution Lack of effective national leadership
Louis XVI remained a weak and vacillating monarch
Louis urged on by Marie Antoinette, sister of Leopold II of Austria
Louis now a “prisoner” of the Revolution Revolutionary War
War broke out against France in April 1792 All Europeans took a side in the conflict Big powers were strongly against the Revolution Political societies formed outside France
proclaimed their allegiance to the Revolution France was losing the war in the beginning
Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
The Counter-Revolution The émigrés stirred up counterrevolutionary
sentiment They circulated telling horror stories about the Revolution
Edmund Burke (1729-1797) He was a British Politician Wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) He believed that the Revolution was based too much on
abstract ideas and not practical ones He attacked the revolution as a crime against the social
order and accused the French of turning their backs on history
He also argued that men and women had no natural rights This aroused sympathy for the counterrevolutionary cause
The Counter-Revolution Thomas Paine (1737–1809)
He was an author and one of the Founding Fathers He wrote The Rights of Man (1792) in response to
Burke He called for political liberalism in all nations
Outside France there was reaction as well Austria and Prussia declared support for French
monarchy in August 1791 Even in the U.S. there was mixed reaction to the
Revolution: while many people supported it, many believed it had become too radical
The Counter-Revolution On April 20, 1792, the Assembly declared war
on Austria and Prussia Expected the war to bolster public opinion behind
the Revolution Radicals hoped the war would expose “traitors”
By that summer, the situation bad for France Prussian troops crossed over the border into
France and got as far as Verdun Girondins put the blame on Marie Antoinette for
giving secrets to the Austrians On July 11, 1792, Assembly declared that “La
patrie est en danger” All citizens were required to arm themselves
Engraving of the death of General Théobald Dillon
Radicalization of the Revolution As the war continued to worsen for the French,
the Revolution took a more radical turn Throughout the summer of 1792, there were calls
for the execution of the king Assembly did not plan to take any direct actions
against him The people were going to have to push the issue
Journée du 10 août (August 10, 1792) This began the “second” revolution A mob marched on the Tuileries to take the power
away from the king When he fled to the Assembly, the mob followed him
there
Radicalization of the Revolution Assembly had to decide what course of action
to take Only about 1/3 of its members made it to the
Assembly Of those in attendance, almost all of them were
Jacobins It stripped the king of all of his power
The royal family was to be placed under arrest It also called for a new convention to be elected
by universal male suffrage The job of this National Convention would be to write
a new constitution for the newly created republic
Parisian citizens attacking the Tuileries
September Massacres On September 1, 1792, news reached the city of
Paris that the fortress at Verdun had fallen The calls for the execution of political prisoners
increased Patriotic Paris mobs convened revolutionary
tribunal to try traitors Started with the assassination of a group of non-juring
priests Throughout Paris, many prisoners were killed over the
next five days Over 1,200 were killed (about ½ the prison population),
including 37 women The estimated number of assassins involved was 150-
200
September Massacres One of the more famous people executed was
the Princess de Lamballe She was a friend of the queen who was stripped,
hacked to death, and had her head paraded around on a pike
While some claim that she had also been raped and sexually mutilated, there is no proof of that
The Parisian government did nothing to stop the killings Congratulated those who participated in the killings Said they were doing their “duty” to the country Encouraged other départments to follow the example Led to even more killings outside of Paris
Illustration of the September Massacres
National Convention When the Convention met on September 21, 1792,
it was already dividing up into political groups The most radical members, including Robespierre, sat
high up in the Mountain seats The Girondins took the right side of the Convention The rest of the deputies took their seats in the lower
level of the hall and became known as the Marais (“the plain”)
Jacobins outwardly supported the Parisian mobs The Mountain also was willing to work with the sans-
culottes The Girondins supported the law and showed little
respect towards the mob
National Convention Declaration of a Republic (September 22, 1792)
Convention was to declare a republic and an end to the monarchy
This day would later become the first day of Year I What to do with the king?
Mountain wanted him executed for crimes against the nation
Girondins wanted to spare the king Smoking gun
On November 20, 1792, a locked box was found inside the palace at the Tuileries
It contained Louis’ correspondence with Austria This proved Louis was guilty of treason
Trial of Louis XVI
Trial of Louis XVI Trial of Louis XVI (December 11, 1792-January 15,
1793) Louis was charged with “having committed a multitude of
crimes in order to establish your tyranny by destroying its liberty”
Convention voted 693-0 that Louis was guilty of all charges By a majority of 74, it voted him to be executed for his
crimes Execution (January 21, 1793)
Louis was executed in the place de la Concorde by guillotine
Over 20,000 people watched the execution take place Louis’ last words were “I die innocent of all the crimes of
which I have been charged. I pardon those who have brought about my death and I pray that the blood you are about to shed may never be required of France”
Execution of Louis XVI (January 21, 1793)
“Matter for reflection for the Crowned Jugglers of Europe”
Domestic Reforms National Convention put through key domestic
reforms Abolition of slavery in French colonies Repeal of primogeniture Confiscated property of enemies of the Revolution Set maximum prices for grain (loi du maximum) The revolutionary calendar
Small armies of sans-culottes attacked hoarders and profiteers
The Convention also had to put through key military reforms By February 1793, France was at war with Britain,
Netherlands, Spain, and Austria
Domestic Reforms Levée (February 24, 1793)
Convention put through its first draft It called for 300,000 men for its army
War Against the First Coalition (1793-1797) By March, France was at war with all of Europe The First Coalition included Prussia, Austria, Great
Britain, Spain, and the United Provinces of the Netherlands
Civil War in Vendée This was a very Catholic region in central western
France that opposed the new draft The people of the region erupted in revolt in March
“God and King” Insignia worn
by rebels in the Vendée civil war
Background to the Terror Constitution of 1793
Convention passed a new constitution with universal male suffrage
It delayed its adoption because of the ever worsening situation
Committee of Public Safety (CPS) Set up by the Convention on April 6, 1793 Its purpose was defend the country from both domestic
and foreign enemies through the use of terror Commission of Twelve
Created by the Girondins on May 19, 1793 It was designed to investigate the radical elements of
the Paris Commune and sections Many radicals were arrested by the Commission
Background to the Terror New radical leaders
Helped to shift the Revolution into more dangerous territory
Jean-Paul Marat (1743–1793) Did not admire Great Britain Opposed moderates Edited The Friend of the People On July 13, 1793, he was assassinated by Girondin
Charlotte Corday She claimed she “killed one man to save 100,000” This event sparked anti-Girondist attacks
throughout Paris
“Death of Marat” Jacques-Louis
David (1793)
Background to the Terror Georges-Jacques Danton (1759–1794)
Popular political leader Member of the CPS Wearied of the Terror
Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) Trained as a lawyer Became president of the National Convention Member of the CPS Enlarged the Terror
Things seemed to fall apart both from outside and within France
Background to the Terror The war continued to worsen for the French
French forces were pushed out of the Austrian Netherlands
The revolt in the Vendée continued on Spanish forces crossed over the Pyrenees and
Sardinian troops crossed the Alps into France The British also installed a naval blockade of France Toulon fell to the British
Levée en Masse (August 23, 1793) All able-bodied men in France between the ages of
18-25 were to prepare for war It also mobilized the French people to help with the
war effort
Background to the Terror By September 1794, the Republican Army had
over 1.1 million soldiers This was the largest army seen in Europe to date This army was then able to turn the war to the
advantage of the French CPS faced sabotage from the political left and
right Need for absolute control The “Mountain” allies with Parisian artisans Rebellions in Lyons, Bordeaux, and Marseilles CPS rounds up suspects in the countryside
Reign of Terror
Reign of Terror On September 5, 1793, mass demonstrations
broke out again in Paris Wanted greater measures against the counter-
revolution Including the arrest of all counter-revolutionaries and
the creation of a internal Revolutionary Army to put down any revolts
“Terror is the order of the day” Announced by the Committee Would be willing to use whatever means necessary to
end the counter-revolutionary movement inside France
This starts the “Reign of Terror” From this point on, the Committee is the one running
the country
Reign of Terror One of the first executed was Marie Antoinette
Even though there were a number of attempts to help her escape, she never once went along with them
She was brought to trial on October 14, 1793 The charges included incest with her son, sending
military information to the enemy, and being personally responsible for the death of the Swiss Guards on August 10, 1792
The “Widow Capet” was found guilty the next day She was executed by the guillotine on October 16,
1793
Execution of Marie Antoinette (October 16, 1793)
Reign of Terror Over the next few months, thousands were
arrested and executed at the guillotine By the end of the Terror, over 100,000 were
“officially” arrested Modern estimates are around 300,000 Over 16,000 were executed “officially” 3,000 in Paris alone Many historians believe that the actual death total
was as high as 40,000-50,000 The areas hit hardest were those where the
counter-revolution was located
Reign of Terror At the beginning, the executions were many
held in the cities In Lyons alone, almost 2,000 were killed
At one point, the Committee’s agent in the city believe the executions were not going fast enough so he ordered executions by cannon as well
By 1794, the Terror moved into the provinces There were no class boundaries: 6% of those
executed were clergy, 8% nobility, 15% middle class, and 70% peasants and working class
The peasants were mainly accused of hoarding bread and avoiding the draft
Reign of Terror In the city of Nantes, those found guilty were
placed in barges in the middle of the Loire River In the middle of the night, men would punch open
trapdoors in the boats causing them to sink Over 2,000 died this way with another 3,000 dying
of disease in overcrowded prisons In Bordeaux, some of the worst atrocities took
place One woman was forced to sit under the blade of a
guillotine with blood dripping on her for hours before she was executed just because she cried over her husband’s death
Reign of Terror The executions took on a festival atmosphere
Tens of thousands would witness them with cries of “á la guillotine!”
Executions became known as the “red mass” with the guillotine as the “altar”
Bets would be taken on the order of who would be executed first
Many lived in fear of being brought up on charges
Others became sick of all the death Madame Roland said “The time as come which was
foretold when the people would ask for bread and be given corpses”
“It is dreadful but necessary” “Cest affreux mais
nécessaire” From the Journal
d'Autre Monde (1794)
Rule of the CPS The CPS did pass some beneficial laws
Many of the laws it passed were designed to protect the “people,” specifically the sans-culottes
Published all laws and decrees made by the government (Bulletin des loix)
It limited the amount of gold exported All foreign specie and paper money was
confiscated and replaced with assignats Set the maximum price for bread and other
necessities (loi du maximum général) Ended what was left of the manorial system Created extensive public schools
Fashion of the French Revolution
Culture of the Revolution Revolution had impact on all aspects of life Fashion was guided strongly by those in power
Prior to the Revolution, fashioned was focused on the elite and privileged
During the radical revolution, fashion mimicked the clothing of the sans-culottes
People would wear the Red Cap of Liberty Hairstyles changed
Instead of long powdered hair, encouraged short hair Short hair “is the only one which is suited to
republicans: being simple, economical and requiring little time, it is care-free and so assures the independence of a person; it bears witness to a mind given to reflection, courageous enough to defy fashion.”
Culture of the Revolution Everything associated with the ancien regime
was to be destroyed and a new civilization built on top of it
How you addressed a person was changed No longer would a person be addressed as monsieur
or madame Now they were to be addressed as Citizen
In the arts, there were no longer to be any religious images Artwork now focused on more patriotic images This included personifying ideas such as virtue,
republic, liberty It also included images of battle and heroism, with
people dying to save the Republic
Revolution playing cards with the king and queen replaced with the elements “La Terre” and “L’Air”
Revolutionary Calendar Revolutionary Calendar
The purpose was to rid France of every aspect of Christianity including the Gregorian calendar
It was adopted on October 5, 1793 There would still be twelve months
Months had new names based on nature They were all 30 days long Weeks (décades) were divided up into ten day slots
instead of seven The days were also renamed as well: primidi (first
day), duodi (second day), tridi (third day), etc. The new year would start on the Autumnal Equinox
Revolutionary Calendar Remaining five days would be holidays
They were to be known as the sans-culottides Devoted to festivals representing the Revolutionary ideals
In leap years, an extra day known as “Fraciade” was put in Be a celebration of a Revolution four years in the making
Not everyone was enamored with the new calendar Many peasants and workers were upset Others did not like the removal of Sundays and saints’ days
The British enjoyed making fun of the new calendar They translated the months as “Wheezy, Sneezy and
Freezy; Slippy, Drippy and Nippy; Showery, Flowery and Bowery; Wheaty, Heaty and Sweety”
Autumn Winter Spring Summer
Vendémiaire (“grape
harvest”)September 22
Nivôse (“snowy”)
December 21
Germinal (“seeding”)March 21
Messidor (“harvest”)
June 19
Brumaire (“foggy”)
October 22
Pluviôse (“rainy”)
January 20
Floréal(“flowering”)
April 20
Thermidor (“summer
heat”)July 19
Frimaire(“frosty”)
November 21
Ventôse (“windy”)
February 19
Prairial (“pasture”)
May 20
Fructidor(“fruitful”)August 18
Dechristianization Dechristianization of France
All of these efforts were part of a greater effort to dechristianize France
This had been going on since the passage of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy
During the Reign of Terror, there were even greater moves to rid the country of Christianity Many pushed for a culte de la Raison (Cult of Reason) Demonstrations broke out to bring an end to Christianity Notre Dame cathedral was rechristened the Temple of
Reason Convention outlawed Catholic mass on November 24,
1793 In its place, the Cult of Reason was considered the
“official” religion
Thermidor
Last Days of the Terror During the spring of 1794, the CPS focused its
attention on all dissenting groups In March, many of the radicals (enrages) in Paris were
executed In April the more conservative members of the
Mountain were executed as well, including Danton Robespierre surrounded himself with like-minded
individuals under the guise of national security Also that spring the Revolutionary Army was
winning The army now had 800,000 men The Coalition was also distracted by the Kościuszko
Uprising in Poland The army was preparing for an all out invasion of the
Netherlands to occur that winter
Last Days of the Terror In Paris, Robespierre continued to assert his
power On May 7, 1794, he created the Cult of the
Supreme Being This was a blend of Deism and republican values
designed to replace the Cult of Reason Not everyone was pleased with this change It did not have the pageants or festivals associated
with the Cult of Reason Also, this new religion did not allow for other
religions to exist On June 8th, Robespierre held the Festival of the
Supreme Being
Festival of the Supreme Being
Thermidorian Reaction By this point, the need for the CPS was gone
The French military was now winning so there was no longer a need to protect the security of the nation
The food shortages and out of control inflation had ended
Even the revolt in the Vendée had died down The CPS also lost the support of those who had
originally put them in power Part of this had to do with the execution of the
enrages and Dantonists Part had to do with the forced Cult of the Supreme
Being
Thermidorian Reaction Law of 22 Prairial (June 10, 1794)
Passed by the CPS This was also as the loi de la Grande Terreur Limited a suspect’s ability to defend him/herself Increased the number of “crimes” punishable by
death That month, over 1,300 were executed in
Paris alone With this, numerous rumors flew around the
city of plots to overthrow Robespierre Robespierre responded by addressing the
Convention, threatening them with arrest
Thermidorian Reaction Robespierre’s Arrest (July 27, 1794)
On 9 Thermidor, the National Convention with demands for his arrest
He was arrested later that day with four of his supporters
The next day, Robespierre was executed without trial The purpose of the Reaction was clear
Now that the country was more stable, the Convention wanted to reassert its own power
Many believed that the Committee and the Paris Commune had taken too much power
The power would go back into the hands of the people
Execution of Robespierre (July 28, 1794)
Thermidorian Reaction “White Terror”
This was followed with the systematic elimination of Jacobins throughout France
Jacobins were arrested and executed and Jacobin Clubs shut down
Ironically, 45 anti-Robespierrists were executed on July 27th but 104 Robespierrists were killed the next day by the same guillotine
Governmental policies took a more moderate leaning Many members were Girondins who had survived the
storm of the terror Many of the policies were beneficial mainly to the
middle-class
Thermidorian Reaction The poor were still unhappy with the Reaction
A majority of their leaders had been killed The Convention lifted all of the beneficial price
controls implemented during the Terror Inflation once again became severe
The winter of 1794-5 was harsh By April 1795, the price of bread skyrocketed
again to more than 2 livres a pound New cries rose up for bread and relief from food
shortages Revolts broke out once again throughout France
Constitution of Year III Working on a new constitution (summer 1795)
Constitution of Year I was deemed to radical Democracy now was associated with the Terror and mob
rule Still wanted to embrace the ideals of the Enlightenment The new constitution was still to be much more
conservative Constitution of Year III (August 22, 1795)
Executive power would be held by a new five-man Directory
Legislative power would be held by two councils Council of 500 contained men over the age of 30 and had
the power to write the laws Council of Ancients contained 250 married or widowed
men over the age of 40 and had the power to pass the laws
Constitution of Year III In order to keep the councils “fresh,” one-third of
the members of each council must retire each year
The aim of this set up was to avoid a dictatorship but prevent excessive democracy as well
The Constitution also changed voter eligibility No longer was there universal male suffrage Instead, eligibility was based on property ownership
The members of the new government were mainly Girondins Mainly of the wealthy middle-class
Louis XVIII (de jure 1795-
1824) (de facto 1814-
1824)
Thermidorian Reaction One of the greatest threats the Convention and the
new Constitution faced was from the Royalists Return of the émigrés
Convention grated amnesty to those who fled France after May 1793
It was seen as proof of its more moderate temperament This brought the hopes of a reestablished monarchy to
some Death of Louis XVII (June 8, 1795)
Louis XVI’s son had died from tuberculosis Many began to turn to Louis XVI’s brother, the
Comte de Provence, as their new king (Louis XVIII)
Royalist Unrest Declaration of Verona (June 24, 1795)
Louis XVIII stated France must return to pre-Revolutionary status
This included a restoration of the Old Regime, returning all lands confiscated to their original owners, and the old manorial system
By making such a request, this ends any support for the restoration of the monarchy by a majority of the population
There was still enough support to cause significant unrest The Royalists were also offended by the new constitution
as they had been excluded from participating in the new government
In June 1795, a Royalist offensive broke out in northwest France which led to a new civil war in that region
Royalist Unrest Royalist supporters looked for the perfect
opportunity to attack the Convention One of the groups they played to was the urban poor By September 1795, the cost of living was 30 times
higher than that in 1790 due to severe inflation For example, sugar went up from 11 to 62 livres a
pound Economic conditions gave the Royalists what
they needed They could play upon the general unrest of the time
for their own cause Their plan: both counter-revolutionaries and émigrés
were to attack Paris directly
Royalist Unrest Royalist forces landed in the Vendée in September 1795
The forces included 3,000 émigrés and British troops The troops met up with other royalist forces and proceeded to
march to the city of Paris In Paris, the Royalists were agitating the situation
Blamed the Convention for the poor economic conditions This led to a number of riots to break out throughout the city
On October 4, 1975, Convention forces under General Jacques-François Menou marched into Le Pellitier section This was where the heart of the rioting was taking place He tried to negotiate with the rioters instead of disarming them Menou was replaced by the Convention with Paul Barras Barras appointed a young Brigadier-General Napoléon
Bonaparte to serve under him
Napoléon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
Napoléon Bonaparte (1769-1821) Napoleone di Buonaparte (1769-1821)
Born in Corsica to a minor noble family Starting at the age of 10, received extensive military
training Napoléon and the early Revolution
Napoléon was fighting in Corsica The fight there was not only between Revolutionaries
and Royalists, but Corsican Nationalists as well By 1792, he aligned himself with the Jacobins
Siege of Toulon (autumn 1793) When he first made a name for himself His artillery tactics helped to retake the city on
December 19 During the battle, he was injured by a bayonet in the
thigh
Napoléon Bonaparte (1769-1821) Promotion to Brigadier-General
Because of his actions at Toulon, he was promoted to Brigadier-General
He was also given the command of an Italian artillery in Nice
During the Thermidorian Reaction, Napoléon fell out of favor This was due to his association with Robespierre’s
family He was arrested for a short period of time
Napoléon was then assigned to fight as part of the infantry in the Vendée He refused to do so because it was seen as a demotion He claimed he was ill and required sick leave
Napoléon Bonaparte (1769-1821) When he returned, he asked for a field command
Instead was given a staff position in the Bureau of Topography
Napoléon was miserable in this position He was even removed from the list of active generals
because he refused to go to the Vendée His next step was to travel to the Ottoman Empire
He was hoping to gain an artillery position with the Sultan
Napoléon happened to be in Paris when he was approached by Barras Barras had been one of the commanders at Toulon Napoléon was quick to take command on October 4,
1795
Journée of 13 Vendémiaire
13 Vendémiaire Journée of 13 Vendémiaire (October 5, 1795)
Royalist forces began to march to the Tuileries to overthrow the Convention
The Royalists had over 40,000 troops This included those forces marching into the city
from the west and the sections in Paris The Convention only had around 8,000
Earlier that morning, Napoléon had sent for 40 cannons located outside of the city to aid his troops This decision proved to be a key move because the
cannons negated the numbers advantage the Royalists had
13 Vendémiaire Between the artillery and the “Patriots”
battalions, the Royalist forces were defeated in two hours 19th century historian, Thomas Carlyle, said that
Napoléon defeated them with “a whiff of grapeshot” Because of his successful command, Napoléon
was promoted to Général de Division He was only 26 at the time
Law of 3 Brumaire (October 25, 1795) Convention forbade all seditionists from holding public
office Now, the Royalists were no longer a threat to the
Revolution
Paul Barras Director (1795-1799)
The Directory The Directory first met on November 3, 1795
All five of the Directors chosen came from the Convention
Mix of Jacobins and moderates Directors wanted to fix “the chaos which always
accompanies revolutions by a new social order” However they were to be unsuccessful Faced discontent from both the left and the right
Most of the discontent was due to worsening economic conditions The value of assignats had fallen down to 5% of its
original value 100 livres note “could now be exchanged for no more
than fifteen sous” (20 sous = 1 livre)
Threat From the Left François-Noël “Gracchus” Babeuf (1760-1797)
Supported many “communist” ideas Wanted “perfect equality” among all the people of
France including the abolition of private property and the equal distribution of food and goods to the population
Believed such change could only come about through violence
He created a new paper, Eclaireur du Peuple, ou le Défenseur de Vingt-Cinq Millions d'Opprimés
This paper reached thousands as it was sold on the streets of Paris
As the economic situation continued to worsen, more people were willing to listen to him
He was arrested and executed
François-Noël “Gracchus” Babeuf (1760-1797)
Threat From the Right In April 1797, elections were held for the two
Councils Conservatives and those against the Directory were able
to gain a number of seats in both Councils This meant that the councils now heavily favored moving
back to the right Turn towards conservatism
Council members debated whether or not to continue on with the republic as it was or go to a constitutional monarchy
Even two of the five Directors supported the idea of a constitutional monarchy
Radical Directors realized something had to be done They turned to Napoléon for help
French Revolutionary Wars
Military Successes In 1795, both Spain and Prussia had already
signed peace agreements with France This ended their participation in the First Coalition
In the Vendée, the revolt was finally brought to an end in March 1796 Estimates ranged from 40,000 to 250,000 dead,
out of a population of around 800,000 In the spring of 1796, Napoléon was placed in
charge of the Army of Italy He proceeded to push the Austrians out of northern
Italy His actions also allowed the local provinces to
overthrown their old, and much hated, governments
Military Successes In October, Napoléon created the Cispadane
Republic This was made up of the provinces of Bologna,
Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio Emilia Its capital was located in Milan The main purpose of the Republic was to help
organize troops for a new offensive by the Austrians With his successes, money poured into the
French treasury This made him even more popular with the masses The Directory finally had enough money to help fix
the economic situation Part of this included the creation of the franc to
replace assignats in February 1797
Military Successes On April 17, 1797, the Peace of Leoben was drafted
France received the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and all lands west of the Rhine River
Austria received the city of Venice which had been captured by Napoléon
The terms of the peace were not formalized until October 17, 1797 with the Treaty of Campo Formio The delay was due to the domestic problems inside
France at this time The treaty marked the end of the First Coalition against
France The only major force against France at this point
was Great Britain Even they were suffering from the effects of the war and
economic problems on top of it
Territories after the Treaty of Campo Formio
Political Crisis of 1797 As Napoléon was considered a national hero, the
three Jacobin Directors turned to him for help Wanted to overthrow the conservative Councils Napoléon sent General Pierre-François-Charles Augereau
along with a large contingent of troops to Paris Coup d’État of 18 Fructidor IV (September 4, 1797)
Conservatives forcibly removed from their positions Back to Jacobin-styled politics
Laws were enacted against émigrés and their families Freedom of the press was terminated Nonjuring priests were once again prosecuted All of this was done to “protect” the Revolution
Battle of the Pyramids
War in Egypt Once Napoléon turned his attention to Great
Britain Knew that France was not prepared for a naval battle
against Britain nor the proposed invasion of Britain Turn to Egypt
Egypt was under the control of the Ottoman Turks If he could take Egypt, he could threaten British trade to
India The British fleet trapped Napoléon’s forces in Egypt
At the Battle of the Nile, the British navy destroyed the French fleet and cut off the army’s supply lines
Napoléon’s expedition into Egypt angered many of France’s old enemies Slowly, a Second Coalition was formed against France
War of the Second Coalition By early 1799, France was at war with Great
Britain, Austria and Russia Russia joined as it had its own designs for the Middle
East Things did not go well for France
Russian troops invaded northern Italy The Cisalpine Republic was destroyed Austria began challenging the French in Germany as
well The Directory was forced to call a new levée en
masse Needed to provide enough troops for this new war Riots broke out against the new draft
War of the Second Coalition Many in France were upset with the turn of events
Specifically with the ever growing number of military defeats
Government began supporting more radical ideas Jacobin papers once again began circulating Forced loans were enacted against the wealthy
members of society Not everyone was pleased with the new changes
Many were fearful of a return to the Terror In May 1799, Abbé Sieyès was appointed as
Director He warned against returning to the radical ideas and
mob rule He was more than willing to take necessary action to
prevent this from occurring again
30 Prairial VII Coup of 30 Prairial VII (June 18, 1799 )
Small bloodless coup took place in the ranks of the Directors
A motion began in the Councils to have the other two radical members of the Directory removed
Replaced with more moderate and politically unknown men
Directors Sieyès and Barras went along with this By October, France was much more relaxed
The French army was successful at retaking Switzerland Russia left the Coalition because it could not get along
with Britain The only place the military was not successful was in
Egypt Napoléon placed command of the army under one of his
subordinates and secretly returned back to France
French Republic and its Satellites (1798-1799)
18 Brumaire Change to moderation
Sieyès and his followers hoped to use Napoléon to bring about a change in government
Wanted to prevent the radicals from again taking control Wanted the Councils to put together a moderate
commission to draft a new constitution As part of this, Napoléon would place troops conveniently
around the city in case force was necessary Some Councilmen knew there was a plan for a coup
They began spreading rumors of a Jacobin conspiracy “to convert the two Councils into a national convention”
Hope was to create a panic
18 Brumaire Events of 18 Brumaire VIII (November 9, 1799)
Councils were moved to Château de Saint-Cloud just outside of Paris for their safety
Later that day, three of Directors resigned (Sieyès, Barras, and Roger Ducos)
The other two refused; one was arrested but the other escaped
Some Councilmen suspected that there was no conspiracy and that there was a coup taking place Instead they realized a coup was taking place Began swearing an oath to uphold the Constitution of
Year III
18 Brumaire Napoléon tried to calm the Council of 500
They called him a “military dictator” who was destroying the Constitution
Napoléon responded with “The Constitution! You yourselves have destroyed it…It no longer has the respect of anyone.”
The councilors began calling for Napoléon’s arrest His own men had to carry him out of the meeting hall to
protect him from the councilors Lucien Bonaparte was the President of the Council
of 500 Told the Council that the ones calling for Napoléon’s
arrest were armed and planning to assassinate Napoléon When the troops found out about it, they marched into
the Château and arrested the dissenting councilors
18 Brumaire Following this, the members of the Council of
Ancients who were left voted out the Directory First they suspended both Councils for three
months and then voted out the Constitution of Year III
They then appointed a Legislative Assembly to begin drafting a new Constitution
Until a new constitution could be drafted, three provisional consuls were appointed They were Napoléon, Sieyès, and Roger Ducos
This marks the end of the Directory Period and the end of the French Revolution
Napoléon in front of the Council of 500
