PART ONE

Methodology/Research Plan

Chap 3 Method

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Research Approach

3.3 Population and Sampling Procedure

3.4 Research Instrument

3.5 Research Procedure

3.6 Data Analysis

3.7 Conclusion

3.2

Research Approach

Requires expertise

The nature of the participants

The variables studies

The kind of data to be collected

The instruments used to collect the data

The conditions for data collection

The technique used to analyze data

With respect to Data …

What are the data needed?

Where are the data located?

How will the data be secured?

How will the data be interpreted?

Data: Generic Areas

People

Things

Records

Thoughts and Ideas

Dynamics and Energy

Method

Participants

Instruments

Design

Procedure

Data Analysis

Time Schedule

Research Design/Plan

It is planning

Complete strategy of ‘attack’ upon the central research problem

Visualization of the data and the problems associated …

Detailed description of the procedures that use to investigate topic or problems

Definition

In Quantitative Research, the hypothesis will be the basis for determining the participant group, the measuring instruments, as well as the design, procedures and statistical techniques used

In Qualitative Research, the researcher’s question will be the basis for gaining entrance to the research context identifying research participants, time in the field, how to gather data, interpreting and narrating the data collected

Purpose

1. Forces to think every aspect of the study

2. Facilitates the evaluation of the study

3. To provide detailed procedures to guide conduct of the study

4. Anticipating potential problems

Considerations/Ethical

The ethics of conducting research

There are legal restrictions on who can obtain access to [respondent] records

Should know strategies for achieving and maintaining cooperation from [organisation/instiution] personnel

Anonymity and confidentiality

Research Methodology

Method, a way of accomplishing an end result.

Methodology merely an operational framework within which the facts are placed so that the meaning may be seen more clearly; for reaching a desired end.

Research Approaches

The descriptive survey method (qualitative) sometimes called the normative survey method.

The analytical survey method (quantitative)

The historical method

The experimental method

Action research

Descriptive research

The analysis of the relationships between manipulated variables, development of generalizations; extending conclusions beyond the sample observed

Descriptive studies

Assessment – describes the status of phenomena at a particular time without value judgment, explanation of reasons

Evaluation – status of element of value judgment in terms of effectiveness; suggest a course of action; no generalization.

Experimental Research

The researcher manipulates at least one independent variable, control other relevant variables, and observes the effect on one or more dependent variables

Logical and systematic way to answer RQ

The independent variable, the cause or treatment believed to make a difference

Hyphotesized cause-effect relationships

Historical Research

The application of scientific method to the description and analysis of past events.

Limitations – too broadly, inadequate primary sources of data, unskillful historians criticism, personal bias, ineffective reporting

Qualitative or Quantitative

… opposite? not the case … quantification for describing … qualitative … others form of inquiry .. Nothing to do with quality … form of presentation …[Eisner, W, 1991]

Triangulation

The nature of the data and the problem for research dictate the research methodology.

Qualitative

Strive to capture the human meanings of social life as lived and experienced by the research participants.

Rely heavily on verbal description, researchers are their own main instrument of data collection, interpretation, and written narratives; the researcher is the research method.

Rooted in the disciplines of sociology, ethnography, anthropology, philosophy, and history

The process are real-world setting Data are descriptive Inductive data analysis Strive to describe meaning as seen from the

research participants Emphasizes a holistic approach to settings &

participants Topics are more general Interpretive research

Qualitative Approaches

Focus on a characteristics of a single person or phenomena or entity (case study)

Focus in depth on a group’s cultural patterns and perspectives to understand the behaviors and their context (ethnography study)

Examine multiple cultures compared to one another (ethology)

Examines people’s understanding of their daily activities (ethomethodology)

Some drive theory using multiple steps of data collection and link actions (grounded theory); some ask what is the meaning of this experience for these participants (phenomenology); some seek what common understandings have emerged to give meanings to interaction (symbolic interaction);

Interviewing, asking questions and conversations

Some seek solutions or improvement (action research); Classroom observations

Some seek to understand the past (historical research); Documentary research

Ethnography

Concerned with a single or a small number of cases or ranges of situation. Data wide range of sources through participation, observation and documentation; principles of naturalism; and principles of understandings

Case Studies/Field Study

Concern with the rich and vivid description of events within the case or situation

Chronological narrative of events within the case; integral involvement of the researcher

Data gathered directly from individuals or social or community groups in their natural environment for studying

Temporal characteristics; geog parameters; boundaries; individual in a particular context; characteristics of the group; role of function; shaped of organizational or institutional arrangements

Case Study Triangulation – Time; Setting/’Ruang’; Observer

Categories – Intrinsic; Instrumental (Theory); Collective Case Studies (Few Instrumental Case)

Type – Exploratory; Explanation; Descriptive

Procedures/Design

- Snapshot

- Longitudinal

- Pretest-posttest

- Patchwork

- Comparative

Field Work/Study

1. Observation

Interaction observation

Program observation

Demography observation

2. Systematic Observation

Non-verbal incident

Linguistic and

Extra-linguistic incident (+ behavior)

‘Space’ incident

3. Systematic Observation Sampling Method

Continuous Time sampling

Incident sampling

4. Role of the Observer

5. Recording of Incident

6. Structural Observation

Standard Interview

Structured interview

Survey interview

Semi-structured interview

Group interview (structured or semi-structured)

Non-standard Interview

Group interview

Ethnography interview

Oral history and life history

Informal interview

Conversation

Types of Question used

Action Research*

Systematic inquiry to collect and study data that can help to understand and improve own practice.

Reflect own practices, identify areas that need improvement,

Collect data pertinent to issue of interest, analyze data and to determine whether results do in fact improve practice or understanding

Should;

Be an alternative to the experimental method

Consider words as the elements of data

Be primarily inductive approach to data analysis, and

Result in theory development as an outcome of data analysis.

Strategies

1. Narrow the time or resource of the topic2. Narrow the audience to be addressed3. Narrow the number of participants to save time

and analysis4. Examine the literature to determine the scale of

the study5. Look at potential problems6. Share with colleague7. Obtain advice of more experienced researchers

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Variety of setting, multidisciplinary

Focus upon natural, ordinary, routine

Data collected in a number of way

Inductive way

Developing grounded theories

Emergent, creative and open-ended

QUANTITATIVE

Description and explanation oriented; trends, comparison of groups, relationships among variables

Measurable, observable data; numeric; large number of individuals

Specific and narrow Predetermined instruments Statistical analysis Standard and fixed Objective and unbiased

Survey Research

Collecting data to test hypotheses or to answer questions, some topic or issue

Descriptive in nature; education, political science, sociology, economics

Data collected through self-report, observation, questionnaires, telephone surveys, interviews.

Categorized in terms of cross-sectional, longitudinal. Public opinion pools are always sample surveys

Types of Surveys

Developmental Surveys – concerned primarily with variables that differentiate participants at different levels of age, growth, maturation

Follow-up Studies/survey - to determine the status of group after some period of time

Trend Survey – info about trend Cohort Survey – a specific population; same group but

different samples from the group over time Panel Survey – same group same sample over time Observational Research

Correlational Research

Treated as a type of descriptive research, because it does describe an existing condition.

Collecting data to determine whether and to what degree a relationship exists between two or more variables; the variables correlated should have some theoretical or experimental basis for selection

Relationships to make predictions

Types

Relationship Studies – to gain insight into the variables that are related to complex variables such as, motivation, academic achievement, and self-concept. Give direction to subsequent casual-comparative and experimental studies

Prediction studies – conducted to facilitate decision making concerning individuals; predictor [the prediction is made] and criterion [the variable predicted];

Causal-Comparative Research/ Ex-post facto

Attempts to determine reasons, or causes, for the existing condition in the behavior or status of groups.

Important difference with correlational studies is that it involve two or more groups and one independent variable while correlation studies involve two or more variables with one group;

with experimental studies, the independent variable, the alleged cause, is manipulated, whereas the c-c it has already occurred.

Variables that cannot be manipulated; should not be manipulated or simply are not manipulated

May lead to experimental studies, but only a relationship established and tentative

Lack of randomization, manipulation and control are all sources of weakness

Approaches

1. Retrospective – it starts with an effect and seeks its possible causes.

2. Prospective – starting with a cause and investigating its effect in some variable.

Experimental Research

The researcher manipulates at least one independent variable, control other relevant variables, and observes the effect on one or more dependent variables

The independent variable, the cause or treatment believed to make a difference. The dependent variable, also called the criterion variable, effect, or post-test, is the outcome of the study

Hypothesized cause-effect relationships.

Guided by at least one hypothesis

The researcher selects a group, decides what treatment, controls extraneous variables, observes or measures the effect.

The experimental group [receives new] and control group [different or usual treatment]

The cause must precede the effect in time.

The cause and effect must be correlated to each other.

The correlation between cause and effect cannot be explained by anther variable.

Cause and effect are not established by statistics. Statistical techniques can only reject the null hypothesis (necessary but not sufficient).

C and E established by the application of logical thinking to well-designed experiments.

The explanation of logical process made possible by

A good theoretical framework

Appropriate participants

Appropriate experimental design

Proper selection and control of the IV

Appropriate and selection and measurement of the DV

Correct statistical model and analysis

Correct interpretation of results.

Threats to Internal Validity

History

Maturation

Testing

Instrumentation

Statistical regression

Selection bias

Expectancy

Experimental mortality (lost of participants)

Controlling Threats to Internal Validity

Randomization

Placebos

Blind Setups

Double-blind Setups

Avis effect

Designs

1. Group Experimental Designs

The one-shot case study

One group Pretest-Posttest Design

Static-group comparison

2. Single-subject Experimental Designs

A [baseline] – B [treatment]

A-B-A design; A-B-A-B Design

3. Repeated Measures Design

Within subject design

Between subject design

(Hawthorne effects)

4. Quasi Experimental Designs

Non-equivalent groups pre-post tests design

Regression discontinuity design

Time series design

Solomon Four-group design

R Oו T O2

R O3 O4

R T O5

R O6

Reversal design

O1 02 T1 O3 04 T2 O5 O6

Mixed-method

The Research Questions determines the method undertaken.

The QUAL-Quan Model

The QUAN-Qual Model

The QUAN-QUAL Model

The QUAL-QUAN Model

Triangulation

Theoretical triangulation – use of several frames of reference or perspectives in the analysis of the same set of data.

Data triangulation – gather observations through the use of variety of sampling strategies

Investigator triangulation – multiple observers, coders, interviewers, analysts

Methodological triangulation – use two or more methods of data collection within a single study

Application of Triangulation Requires

The research question must be clearly focused

The strengths and weaknesses of each chosen method must compliment each other

The methods should be selected according to their relevance to the nature of phenomenon being studied

Continual evaluation of the methodological approach done during the course of the study