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Memory For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation). In psychology, memory is the process in which infor- Overview of the forms and functions of memory in the sciences mation is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding al- lows information from the outside world to reach the five senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first stage the information must be changed so that it may be put into the encoding process. Storage is the second memory stage or process. This entails that infor- mation is maintained over periods of time. Finally the third process is the retrieval of information that has been stored. Such information must be located and returned to the consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be ef- fortless due to the type of information, and other attempts to remember stored information may be more demanding for various reasons. From an information processing perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of mem- ory: • Encoding or registration: receiving, processing and combining of received information • Storage: creation of a permanent record of the en- coded information • Retrieval, recall or recollection: calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity The loss of memory is described as forgetfulness or, as a medical disorder, amnesia. 1 Sensory memory Main article: Sensory memory Sensory memory holds sensory information for less than one second after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to “see” more than they can actually report. The first ex- periments exploring this form of sensory memory were conducted by George Sperling (1963) [1] using the “par- tial report paradigm”. Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. Af- ter a brief presentation, subjects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments, Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Be- cause this form of memory degrades so quickly, partic- ipants would see the display but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the “whole report” procedure) before they decayed. This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal. Three types of sensory memories exist. Iconic memory is a fast decaying store of visual information; a type of sensory memory that briefly stores an image which has been perceived for a small duration. Echoic memory is a fast decaying store of auditory information, another type of sensory memory that briefly stores sounds that have been perceived for short durations. [2] Haptic memory is a type of sensory memory that represents a database for touch stimuli. 2 Short-term memory Main article: Short-term memory Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when work- ing at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, "The magical number 7±2"). Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5 items; [3] how- ever, memory capacity can be increased through a pro- cess called chunking. [4] For example, in recalling a ten- digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits 1

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  • Memory

    For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation).In psychology, memory is the process in which infor-

    Overview of the forms and functions of memory in the sciences

    mation is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding al-lows information from the outside world to reach the fivesenses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. Inthis first stage the information must be changed so thatit may be put into the encoding process. Storage is thesecond memory stage or process. This entails that infor-mation is maintained over periods of time. Finally thethird process is the retrieval of information that has beenstored. Such information must be located and returnedto the consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be ef-fortless due to the type of information, and other attemptsto remember stored information may be more demandingfor various reasons.From an information processing perspective there arethree main stages in the formation and retrieval of mem-ory:

    Encoding or registration: receiving, processing andcombining of received information

    Storage: creation of a permanent record of the en-coded information

    Retrieval, recall or recollection: calling back thestored information in response to some cue for usein a process or activity

    The loss of memory is described as forgetfulness or, as amedical disorder, amnesia.

    1 Sensory memory

    Main article: Sensory memory

    Sensory memory holds sensory information for less thanone second after an item is perceived. The ability tolook at an item and remember what it looked like withjust a split second of observation, or memorization, isthe example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitivecontrol and is an automatic response. With very shortpresentations, participants often report that they seem tosee more than they can actually report. The first ex-periments exploring this form of sensory memory wereconducted by George Sperling (1963)[1] using the par-tial report paradigm. Subjects were presented with agrid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. Af-ter a brief presentation, subjects were then played eithera high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of therows to report. Based on these partial report experiments,Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensorymemory was approximately 12 items, but that it degradedvery quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Be-cause this form of memory degrades so quickly, partic-ipants would see the display but be unable to report allof the items (12 in the whole report procedure) beforethey decayed. This type of memory cannot be prolongedvia rehearsal.Three types of sensory memories exist. Iconic memoryis a fast decaying store of visual information; a type ofsensory memory that briefly stores an image which hasbeen perceived for a small duration. Echoic memory is afast decaying store of auditory information, another typeof sensory memory that briefly stores sounds that havebeen perceived for short durations.[2] Haptic memory isa type of sensory memory that represents a database fortouch stimuli.

    2 Short-term memory

    Main article: Short-term memory

    Short-term memory allows recall for a period of severalseconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity isalso very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when work-ing at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showingthat the store of short-term memory was 72 items (thetitle of his famous paper, "The magical number 72").Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memoryare lower, typically of the order of 45 items;[3] how-ever, memory capacity can be increased through a pro-cess called chunking.[4] For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits

    1

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_(disambiguation)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_senseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_senseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recollectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Sperlinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echoic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Armitage_Millerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Twohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_number

  • 2 3 LONG-TERM MEMORY

    into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), thena three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk(7890). This method of remembering telephone num-bers is far more effective than attempting to remember astring of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunkthe information into meaningful groups of numbers. Thismay be reflected in some countries in the tendency to dis-play telephone numbers as several chunks of two to fournumbers.Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on anacoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser ex-tent a visual code. Conrad (1964)[5] found that test sub-jects had more difficulty recalling collections of lettersthat were acoustically similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusionwith recalling acoustically similar letters rather than vi-sually similar letters implies that the letters were encodedacoustically. Conrads (1964) study, however, deals withthe encoding of written text; thus, while memory of writ-ten language may rely on acoustic components, generali-sations to all forms of memory cannot be made.

    3 Long-term memory

    Main article: Long-term memory

    The storage in sensory memory and short-term mem-ory generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration,which means that information is not retained indefinitely.By contrast, long-term memory can store much largerquantities of information for potentially unlimited dura-tion (sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immea-surably large. For example, given a random seven-digitnumber we may remember it for only a few seconds be-fore forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-termmemory. On the other hand, we can remember telephonenumbers for many years through repetition; this informa-tion is said to be stored in long-term memory.While short-term memory encodes information acousti-cally, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Bad-deley (1966)[6] discovered that, after 20 minutes, testsubjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection ofwords that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great,huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory isepisodic memory, which attempts to capture informa-tion such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'".[7] With episodicmemory, individuals are able to recall specific events suchas birthday parties and weddings.Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns ofneuronal communication, dependent on regions of thefrontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) andthe parietal lobe. Long-term memory, on the other hand,is maintained by more stable and permanent changes inneural connections widely spread throughout the brain.The hippocampus is essential (for learning new informa-tion) to the consolidation of information from short-term

    Olin Levi Warner, Memory (1896). Library of CongressThomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.

    to long-term memory, although it does not seem to storeinformation itself. Without the hippocampus, new mem-ories are unable to be stored into long-term memory, aslearned from patient Henry Molaison after removal ofboth his hippocampi,[8] and there will be a very shortattention span. Furthermore, it may be involved in chang-ing neural connections for a period of three months ormore after the initial learning.Research has suggested that long-term memory storagein humans may be maintained by DNAmethylation,[9] orprions.[10]

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontal_lobehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parietal_lobehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olin_Levi_Warnerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Buildinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaisonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_spanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_methylationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion

  • 3

    4 Models

    Models of memory provide abstract representations ofhow memory is believed to work. Below are severalmodels proposed over the years by various psychologists.Controversy is involved as to whether several memorystructures exist.

    4.1 AtkinsonShiffrin model

    See also: Memory consolidation

    The multi-store model (also known as AtkinsonShiffrinmemory model) was first described in 1968 by Atkinsonand Shiffrin.The multi-store model has been criticised for being toosimplistic. For instance, long-term memory is believedto be actually made up of multiple subcomponents, suchas episodic and procedural memory. It also proposes thatrehearsal is the only mechanism by which informationeventually reaches long-term storage, but evidence showsus capable of remembering things without rehearsal.The model also shows all the memory stores as being asingle unit whereas research into this shows differently.For example, short-term memory can be broken up intodifferent units such as visual information and acoustic in-formation. In a study by Zlonoga and Gerber (1986),patient 'KF' demonstrated certain deviations from theAtkinsonShiffrin model. Patient KF was brain dam-aged, displaying difficulties regarding short-term mem-ory. Recognition of sounds such as spoken numbers, let-ters, words and easily identifiable noises (such as door-bells and cats meowing) were all impacted. Interestingly,visual short-term memory was unaffected, suggesting adichotomy between visual and audial memory.[11]

    4.2 Working memory

    Main article: Working memory

    In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed a working mem-ory model that replaced the general concept of short-term memory with an active maintenance of informa-tion in the short-term storage. In this model, workingmemory consists of three basic stores: the central exec-utive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketch-pad. In 2000 this model was expanded with the mul-

    visuo-spatialsketchpad

    centralexecutive

    phonological loop

    articulatoryprocess

    phonologicalstore

    The working memory model

    timodal episodic buffer (Baddeleys model of workingmemory).[12]

    The central executive essentially acts as an attention sen-sory store. It channels information to the three compo-nent processes: the phonological loop, the visuo-spatialsketchpad, and the episodic buffer.The phonological loop stores auditory information bysilently rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous loop:the articulatory process (for example the repetition of atelephone number over and over again). A short list ofdata is easier to remember.The visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial infor-mation. It is engaged when performing spatial tasks (suchas judging distances) or visual ones (such as counting thewindows on a house or imagining images).The episodic buffer is dedicated to linking informationacross domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial,and verbal information and chronological ordering (e.g.,the memory of a story or a movie scene). The episodicbuffer is also assumed to have links to long-term memoryand semantical meaning.The working memory model explains many practical ob-servations, such as why it is easier to do two differenttasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks(e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word-lengtheffect. However, the concept of a central executive asnoted here has been criticised as inadequate and vague.Workingmemory is also the premise for what allows us todo everyday activities involving thought. It is the sectionof memory where we carry out thought processes and usethem to learn and reason about topics.[12]

    5 Types of memory

    Researchers distinguish between recognition and recallmemory. Recognition memory tasks require individu-als to indicate whether they have encountered a stimu-lus (such as a picture or a word) before. Recall memorytasks require participants to retrieve previously learned

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_modelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_modelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Shiffrinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_damagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_damagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley%2527s_model_of_working_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley%2527s_model_of_working_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visuospatial_sketchpad

  • 4 6 TECHNIQUES USED TO STUDY MEMORY

    information. For example, individuals might be asked toproduce a series of actions they have seen before or to saya list of words they have heard before.

    5.1 Classification by information type

    Topographic memory involves the ability to orient one-self in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, orto recognize familiar places.[13] Getting lost when trav-eling alone is an example of the failure of topographicmemory.[14]

    Flashbulb memories are clear episodic memories ofunique and highly emotional events.[15] People remem-bering where they were or what they were doingwhen they first heard the news of President Kennedysassassination[16] or of 9/11 are examples of flashbulbmemories.Anderson (1976)[17] divides long-term memory intodeclarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit) memories.

    5.1.1 Declarative memory

    Main article: Declarative memory

    Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in thatsome conscious process must call back the information.It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists ofinformation that is explicitly stored and retrieved.Declarative memory can be further sub-divided intosemantic memory, concerning facts taken independentof context; and episodic memory, concerning informa-tion specific to a particular context, such as a time andplace. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstractknowledge about the world, such as Paris is the capi-tal of France. Episodic memory, on the other hand, isused for more personal memories, such as the sensations,emotions, and personal associations of a particular placeor time. Autobiographical memory - memory for par-ticular events within ones own life - is generally viewedas either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory.Visual memory is part of memory preserving some char-acteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience.One is able to place in memory information that resem-bles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mentalimage. Visual memory can result in priming and it is as-sumed some kind of perceptual representational systemunderlies this phenomenon.

    5.1.2 Procedural memory

    In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) isnot based on the conscious recall of information, but onimplicit learning. Procedural memory is primarily em-ployed in learning motor skills and should be consid-ered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when

    one does better in a given task due only to repetition -no new explicit memories have been formed, but one isunconsciously accessing aspects of those previous expe-riences. Procedural memory involved in motor learningdepends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia.A characteristic of procedural memory is that the thingsremembered are automatically translated into actions, andthus sometimes difficult to describe. Some examples ofprocedural memory include the ability to ride a bike ortie shoelaces.[18]

    5.2 Classification by temporal direction

    Another major way to distinguish different memory func-tions is whether the content to be remembered is in thepast, retrospective memory, or in the future, prospectivememory. Thus, retrospective memory as a category in-cludes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory.In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future in-tentions, or remembering to remember (Winograd, 1988).Prospective memory can be further broken down intoevent- and time-based prospective remembering. Time-based prospective memories are triggered by a time-cue,such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Event-based prospective memories are intentions triggered bycues, such as remembering to post a letter (action) afterseeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be relatedto the action (as the mailbox/letter example), and lists,sticky-notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around thefinger all exemplify cues that people use as strategies toenhance prospective memory.

    6 Techniques used to study mem-ory

    6.1 Techniques used to assess infantsmemory

    Infants do not have the language ability to report ontheir memories and so verbal reports cannot be used toassess very young childrens memory. Throughout theyears, however, researchers have adapted and developeda number of measures for assessing both infants recog-nition memory and their recall memory. Habituation andoperant conditioning techniques have been used to assessinfants recognition memory and the deferred and elicitedimitation techniques have been used to assess infants re-call memory.Techniques used to assess infants recognition memoryinclude the following:

    Visual paired comparison procedure (relies onhabituation): infants are first presented with pairsof visual stimuli, such as two black-and-white pho-

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9/11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscioushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recollectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explicit_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiographical_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_imagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_imagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_learninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_skillhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_mindhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_learninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_gangliahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrospective_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospective_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospective_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning

  • 5

    tos of human faces, for a fixed amount of time;then, after being familiarized with the two photos,they are presented with the familiar photo and anew photo. The time spent looking at each photois recorded. Looking longer at the new photo indi-cates that they remember the familiar one. Studiesusing this procedure have found that 5- to 6-month-olds can retain information for as long as fourteendays.[19]

    Operant conditioning technique: infants areplaced in a crib and a ribbon that is connected toa mobile overhead is tied to one of their feet. In-fants notice that when they kick their foot the mobilemoves the rate of kicking increases dramaticallywithin minutes. Studies using this technique haverevealed that infants memory substantially improvesover the first 18-months. Whereas 2- to 3-month-olds can retain an operant response (such as acti-vating the mobile by kicking their foot) for a week,6-month-olds can retain it for two weeks, and 18-month-olds can retain a similar operant response foras long as 13 weeks.[20][21][22]

    Techniques used to assess infants recall memory includethe following:

    Deferred imitation technique: an experimentershows infants a unique sequence of actions (such asusing a stick to push a button on a box) and then,after a delay, asks the infants to imitate the actions.Studies using deferred imitation have shown that 14-month-olds memories for the sequence of actionscan last for as long as four months.[23]

    Elicited imitation technique: is very similar to thedeferred imitation technique; the difference is thatinfants are allowed to imitate the actions before thedelay. Studies using the elicited imitation techniquehave shown that 20-month-olds can recall the actionsequences twelve months later.[24][25]

    6.2 Techniques used to assess older chil-dren and adults memory

    Researchers use a variety of tasks to assess older childrenand adults memory. Some examples are:

    Paired associate learning - when one learns to as-sociate one specific word with another. For examplewhen given a word such as safe one must learn tosay another specific word, such as green. This isstimulus and response.[26][27]

    Free recall - during this task a subject would beasked to study a list of words and then later they willbe asked to recall or write down as many words thatthey can remember.[28] Earlier items are affected

    by retroactive interference (RI), which means thelonger the list, the greater the interference, and theless likelihood that they are recalled. On the otherhand, items that have been presented lastly sufferlittle RI, but suffer a great deal from proactive in-terference (PI), which means the longer the delay inrecall, the more likely that the items will be lost.[29]

    Recognition - subjects are asked to remember alist of words or pictures, after which point they areasked to identify the previously presented words orpictures from among a list of alternatives that werenot presented in the original list.[30]

    Detection paradigm - Individuals are shown anumber of objects and color samples during a cer-tain period of time. They are then tested on theirvisual ability to remember as much as they canby looking at testers and pointing out whether thetesters are similar to the sample, or if any change ispresent.

    7 Memory failures

    Transience - memories degrade with the passing oftime. This occurs in the storage stage of memory,after the information has been stored and before itis retrieved. This can happen in sensory, short-term,and long-term storage. It follows a general patternwhere the information is rapidly forgotten during thefirst couple of days or years, followed by small lossesin later days or years.

    Absentmindedness - Memory failure due to thelack of attention. Attention plays a key role instoring information into long-term memory; with-out proper attention, the information might not bestored, making it impossible to be retrieved later.

    8 Physiology

    Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memorysuch as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, orthe mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in spe-cific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus isbelieved to be involved in spatial learning and declarativelearning, while the amygdala is thought to be involvedin emotional memory.[31] Damage to certain areas in pa-tients and animal models and subsequent memory deficitsis a primary source of information. However, rather thanimplicating a specific area, it could be that damage to ad-jacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the areais actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further,it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counter-part, learning, as solely dependent on specific brain re-gions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdalahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striatumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammillary_bodieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_learninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_learninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning

  • 6 10 GENETICS

    neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by long-termpotentiation and long-term depression.In general, the more emotionally charged an event or ex-perience is, the better it is remembered; this phenomenonis known as the memory enhancement effect. Patientswith amygdala damage, however, do not show a memoryenhancement effect.[32][33]

    Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-termmemory. He postulated that any memory that stayedin short-term storage for a long enough time would beconsolidated into a long-term memory. Later researchshowed this to be false. Research has shown that di-rect injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storageof recent experiences. This is also true for stimulationof the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhancesmemory by the stimulation of hormones that affect theamygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolongedcortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amyg-dalar damage are nomore likely to remember emotionallycharged words than nonemotionally charged ones. Thehippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hip-pocampus is also important for memory consolidation.The hippocampus receives input from different parts ofthe cortex and sends its output out to different parts of thebrain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiarysensory areas that have processed the information a lotalready. Hippocampal damage may also cause memoryloss and problems with memory storage.[34]

    9 Cognitive neuroscience of mem-ory

    Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the reten-tion, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation. The term of inter-nal representation implies that such definition of memorycontains two components: the expression of memory atthe behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinningphysical neural changes (Dudai 2007). The latter com-ponent is also called engram or memory traces (Semon1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistak-enly equate the concept of engram and memory, broadlyconceiving all persisting after-effects of experiences asmemory; others argue against this notion that memorydoes not exist until it is revealed in behavior or thought(Moscovitch 2007).One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience ishow information and mental experiences are coded andrepresented in the brain. Scientists have gained muchknowledge about the neuronal codes from the studies ofplasticity, but most of such research has been focused onsimple learning in simple neuronal circuits; it is consid-erably less clear about the neuronal changes involved inmore complex examples of memory, particularly declar-ative memory that requires the storage of facts and events

    (Byrne 2007).

    Encoding. Encoding of working memory involvesthe spiking of individual neurons induced by sen-sory input, which persists even after the sensory in-put disappears (Jensen and Lisman 2005; Fransen etal. 2002). Encoding of episodic memory involvespersistent changes in molecular structures that altersynaptic transmission between neurons. Examplesof such structural changes include long-term poten-tiation (LTP) or spike-timing-dependent plasticity(STDP). The persistent spiking in working memorycan enhance the synaptic and cellular changes in theencoding of episodic memory (Jensen and Lisman2005).

    Working memory. Recent functional imaging stud-ies detected working memory signals in both medialtemporal lobe (MTL), a brain area strongly associ-ated with long-term memory, and prefrontal cortex(Ranganath et al. 2005), suggesting a strong rela-tionship between working memory and long-termmemory. However, the substantially more workingmemory signals seen in the prefrontal lobe suggestthat this area play a more important role in workingmemory than MTL (Suzuki 2007).

    Consolidation and reconsolidation. Short-termmemory (STM) is temporary and subject to disrup-tion, while long-term memory (LTM), once con-solidated, is persistent and stable. Consolidationof STM into LTM at the molecular level presum-ably involves two processes: synaptic consolidationand system consolidation. The former involves aprotein synthesis process in the medial temporallobe (MTL), whereas the latter transforms theMTL-dependent memory into anMTL-independent mem-ory over months to years (Ledoux 2007). In recentyears, such traditional consolidation dogma has beenre-evaluated as a result of the studies on reconsol-idation. These studies showed that prevention af-ter retrieval affects subsequent retrieval of the mem-ory (Sara 2000). New studies have shown that post-retrieval treatment with protein synthesis inhibitorsand many other compounds can lead to an amnes-tic state (Nadel et al. 2000b; Alberini 2005; Dudai2006). These findings on reconsolidation fit with thebehavioral evidence that retrieved memory is not acarbon copy of the initial experiences, and memo-ries are updated during retrieval.

    10 Genetics

    Study of the genetics of human memory is in its infancy.A notable initial success was the association of APOEwith memory dysfunction in Alzheimers Disease. The

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_depressionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortisolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_losshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_losshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_representationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engram_(neuropsychology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_transmissionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike-timing-dependent_plasticityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medial_temporal_lobehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medial_temporal_lobehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconsolidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apolipoprotein_Ehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%2527s_Disease

  • 7

    search for genes associated with normally varying mem-ory continues. One of the first candidates for normal vari-ation in memory is the gene KIBRA,[35] which appears tobe associated with the rate at which material is forgottenover a delay period.

    11 Memory in infancy

    For the inability of adults to retrieve early memories, seeChildhood amnesia.

    Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumedthat infants could not encode, retain, and retrieveinformation.[36] A growing body of research now indi-cates that infants as young as 6-months can recall infor-mation after a 24-hour delay.[37] Furthermore, researchhas revealed that as infants grow older they can store in-formation for longer periods of time; 6-month-olds canrecall information after a 24-hour period, 9-month-oldsafter up to five weeks, and 20-month-olds after as longas twelve months.[38] In addition, studies have shown thatwith age, infants can store information faster. Whereas14-month-olds can recall a three-step sequence after be-ing exposed to it once, 6-month-olds need approximatelysix exposures in order to be able to remember it.[23][37]

    It should be noted that although 6-month-olds can re-call information over the short-term, they have difficultyrecalling the temporal order of information. It is onlyby 9 months of age that infants can recall the actionsof a two-step sequence in the correct temporal order -that is, recalling step 1 and then step 2.[39][40] In otherwords, when asked to imitate a two-step action sequence(such as putting a toy car in the base and pushing in theplunger to make the toy roll to the other end), 9-month-olds tend to imitate the actions of the sequence in thecorrect order (step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants(6-month-olds) can only recall one step of a two-stepsequence.[37] Researchers have suggested that these agedifferences are probably due to the fact that the dentategyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components ofthe neural network are not fully developed at the age of6-months.[24][41][42]

    12 Memory and aging

    Main article: Memory and aging

    One of the key concerns of older adults is the experi-ence of memory loss, especially as it is one of the hall-mark symptoms of Alzheimers disease. However, mem-ory loss is qualitatively different in normal aging fromthe kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis ofAlzheimers (Budson & Price, 2005). Research has re-vealed that individuals performance on memory tasks

    that rely on frontal regions declines with age. Older adultstend to exhibit deficits on tasks that involve knowingthe temporal order in which they learned information;[43]source memory tasks that require them to remember thespecific circumstances or context in which they learnedinformation;[44] and prospective memory tasks that in-volve remembering to perform an act at a future time.Older adults can manage their problems with prospectivememory by using appointment books, for example.

    13 Effects of physical exercise onmemory

    Main article: Neurobiological effects of physical exercise Long-term effects

    Physical exercise, particularly continuous aerobic exer-cises such as running, cycling and swimming, has manycognitive benefits and effects on the brain. Influences onthe brain include increases in neurotransmitter levels, im-proved oxygen and nutrient delivery, and increased neu-rogenesis in the hippocampus. The effects of exercise onmemory have important implications for improving chil-drens academic performance, maintaining mental abili-ties in old age, and the prevention and potential cure ofneurological diseases.

    14 Disorders

    Main article: Memory disorder

    Much of the current knowledge of memory has comefrom studying memory disorders, particularly amnesia.Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can resultfrom extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medialtemporal lobe, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus,subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal,and perirhinal cortices[45] or the (b) midline diencephalicregion, specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thala-mus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus.[46]There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying theirdifferent forms, it has become possible to observe ap-parent defects in individual sub-systems of the brainsmemory systems, and thus hypothesize their function inthe normally working brain. Other neurological disorderssuch as Alzheimers disease and Parkinsons disease [47]can also affect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, orhyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder that affects an in-dividuals autobiographical memory, essentially meaningthat they cannot forget small details that otherwise wouldnot be stored.[48] Korsakoffs syndrome, also known asKorsakoffs psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory syndrome,is an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIBRAhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_amnesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_and_aginghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_losshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%2527s_diseasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aginghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Long-term_effectshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Long-term_effectshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_disorderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%2527s_diseasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%2527s_diseasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthymesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff%2527s_syndrome

  • 8 16 MEMORY AND STRESS

    While not a disorder, a common temporary failure ofword retrieval from memory is the tip-of-the-tonguephenomenon. Sufferers of Anomic aphasia (also calledNominal aphasia or Anomia), however, do experience thetip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due todamage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain.

    15 Factors that influence memory

    15.1 Influence of odors and emotions

    In March 2007 German researchers found they could useodors to re-activate new memories in the brains of peo-ple while they slept and the volunteers remembered betterlater.[49] Emotion can have a powerful impact on mem-ory. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid au-tobiographical memories tend to be of emotional events,which are likely to be recalled more often and with moreclarity and detail than neutral events.The part of the brain that is critical in creating the feel-ing of emotion is the amygdala, which allows for stresshormones to strengthen neuron communication.[50] Thechemicals cortisone and adrenaline are released in thebrain when the amygdala is activated by positive or neg-ative excitement. The most effective way to activate theamygdala is fear, because fear is an instinctive, protec-tive mechanism which comes on strong making it memo-rable. Sometimes the feeling can be overwhelming. Thisis when a memory can be hazy yet vivid, or hauntingwith perfect clarity. This discovery led to the develop-ment of a drug to help treat posttraumatic stress disorder(PTSD).[51] When someone is in a heightened emotionalstate, the events causing it to become strong and ground inthe memory, sometimes disrupting daily life for years.[52]

    An experiment done with rats helped create the drug fortreating this issue. Dr. Kerry Ressler at Emory Univer-sity, used tones and shocks to test an existing drug calledcycloserine (an anti-tuberculosis drug). Rats would heara tone and receive a mild shock, training them to fear thetone. Then the drug was given to one set of rats, and thetests were done again. The rats that did not receive thedrug froze in fear. When the tone was heard, the ratsgiven the drug ignored the tone and continued on.[53] Thedrug can effectively allow for new receptor connectionsbetween neurons and relaxing of the amygdala when itcomes to fear, allowing patients to have a chance of re-covery from PTSD.Dr. Barbara Rothbaum at Emory University conductsexperimental treatments for PTSD using the knowledgethat exactly the same neurons are active when remember-ing an event as when it was created. Her administrationof the drug cycloserine is intended to help patients fosternew connections between neurons, providing a window tolessen former traumatic connections. Rothbaum decidedto use the drug in a therapy session that utilizes virtual

    reality to give PTSD suffers a second chance. Once theevents that have caused the PTSD are identified, the pro-cess can begin. The surroundings of the events are recre-ated in a virtual reality helmet (for instance, in a combatvehicle in the desert).[54] This would help to recall the tar-get memories in a safe environment, and activate the neu-rons without activating the fear response from the amyg-dala. When the dicyclomine is in the patients system andthe same neurons are active that were active during theevent, the patient can now have a chance to re-form neuralconnections, with less chemicals present from the amyg-dala. This does not erase the memory, but rather lessensthe strength of it, giving some relief so that people suf-fering from PTSD can try to move on and live their lives.Recall is linked with emotion. If pain, joy, excitement,or any other strong emotion is present during an event,the neurons active during this event produce strong con-nections with each other. When this event is rememberedor recalled in the future, the neurons will more easily andspeedily make the same connections. The strength andlongevity of memories is directly related to the amountof emotion felt during the event of their creation.[55]

    15.2 Interference from previous knowl-edge

    At the Center for Cognitive Science at Ohio StateUniversity, researchers have found that memory accuracyof adults is hurt by the fact that they knowmore, and havemore experience than children, and tend to apply all thisknowledge when learning new information. The findingsappeared in the August 2004 edition of the journal Psy-chological Science.Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval.There is retroactive interference, when learning new in-formationmakes it harder to recall old information[56] andproactive interference, where prior learning disrupts re-call of new information. Although interference can leadto forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there aresituations when old information can facilitate learning ofnew information. Knowing Latin, for instance, can helpan individual learn a related language such as French this phenomenon is known as positive transfer.[57]

    16 Memory and stress

    Stress has a significant effect on memory formation andlearning. In response to stressful situations, the brain re-leases hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocorti-coids and catecholamines) which affect memory encod-ing processes in the hippocampus. Behavioural researchon animals shows that chronic stress produces adrenalhormones which impact the hippocampal structure in thebrains of rats.[58] An experimental study by German cog-nitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demon-

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tonguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomic_aphasiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobes_of_the_brainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloserinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloserinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_Statehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interference_theory

  • 9

    strates how learning under stress also decreases memoryrecall in humans.[59] In this study, 48 healthy female andmale university students participated in either a stress testor a control group. Those randomly assigned to the stresstest group had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the rep-utable SECPT or Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test)for up to three minutes, while being monitored and video-taped. Both the stress and control groups were then pre-sented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty-four hourslater, both groups were tested to see how many wordsthey could remember (free recall) as well as how manythey could recognize from a larger list of words (recogni-tion performance). The results showed a clear impair-ment of memory performance in the stress test group,who recalled 30% fewer words than the control group.The researchers suggest that stress experienced duringlearning distracts people by diverting their attention dur-ing the memory encoding process.However, memory performance can be enhanced whenmaterial is linked to the learning context, even whenlearning occurs under stress. A separate study by cog-nitive psychologists Schwabe and Wolf shows that whenretention testing is done in a context similar to or con-gruent with the original learning task (i.e., in the sameroom), memory impairment and the detrimental effectsof stress on learning can be attenuated.[60] Seventy-twohealthy female andmale university students, randomly as-signed to the SECPT stress test or to a control group, wereasked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picturecards a computerized version of the card game Con-centration or Memory. The room in which the exper-iment took place was infused with the scent of vanilla,as odour is a strong cue for memory. Retention testingtook place the following day, either in the same roomwith the vanilla scent again present, or in a different roomwithout the fragrance. The memory performance of sub-jects who experienced stress during the object-locationtask decreased significantly when they were tested in anunfamiliar roomwithout the vanilla scent (an incongruentcontext); however, the memory performance of stressedsubjects showed no impairment when they were tested inthe original room with the vanilla scent (a congruent con-text). All participants in the experiment, both stressedand unstressed, performed faster when the learning andretrieval contexts were similar.[61]

    This research on the effects of stress on memory mayhave practical implications for education, for eyewitnesstestimony and for psychotherapy: students may performbetter when tested in their regular classroom rather thanan exam room, eyewitnesses may recall details better atthe scene of an event than in a courtroom, and personssuffering from post-traumatic stress may improve whenhelped to situate their memories of a traumatic event inan appropriate context.

    17 Memory and Sleep

    Making memories occurs through a three step process,which can be enhanced by sleep. The three steps are asfollows:

    1. Acquisition which is the process of storage and re-trieval of new information in memory

    2. Consolidation

    3. Recall

    Sleep does not affect acquisition or recall while one isawake. Therefore, sleep has the greatest effect on mem-ory consolidation. During sleep, the neural connections inthe brain are strengthened. This enhances the brains abil-ities to stabilize and retain memories. There have beenseveral studies which show that sleep improves the re-tention of memory, as memories are enhanced throughactive consolidation. System consolidation takes placeduring slow-wave sleep (SWS).[62] This process impli-cates that memories are reactivated during sleep, but thatthe process doesnt enhance every memory. It also im-plicates that qualitative changes are made to the memo-ries when they are transferred to long-term store duringsleep. When you are sleeping, the hippocampus replaysthe events of the day for the neocortex. The neocortexthen reviews and processes memories, which moves theminto long-term memory. When you do not get enoughsleep it makes it more difficult to learn as these neuralconnections are not as strong, resulting in a lower re-tention rate of memories. Sleep deprivation makes itharder to focus, resulting in inefficient learning.[62] Fur-thermore, some studies have shown that sleep deprivationcan lead to false memories as the memories are not prop-erly transferred to long-term memory. Therefore, it isimportant to get the proper amount of sleep so that mem-ory can function at the highest level. One of the primaryfunctions of sleep is thought to be the improvement ofthe consolidation of information, as several studies havedemonstrated that memory depends on getting sufficientsleep between training and test.[63] Additionally, data ob-tained from neuroimaging studies have shown activationpatterns in the sleeping brain that mirror those recordedduring the learning of tasks from the previous day,[63]suggesting that new memories may be solidified throughsuch rehearsal.[64]

    18 Memory construction for gen-eral manipulation?

    Although people often think that memory operates likerecording equipment, it is not the case. The molec-ular mechanisms underlying the induction and mainte-nance of memory are very dynamic and comprise distinct

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleephttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_(memory)

  • 10 19 IMPROVING MEMORY

    phases covering a time window from seconds to even alifetime.[65] In fact, research has revealed that our mem-ories are constructed. People can construct their memo-ries when they encode them and/or when they recall them.To illustrate, consider a classic study conducted by Eliza-beth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) [66] in which peoplewere instructed to watch a film of a traffic accident andthen asked about what they saw. The researchers foundthat the people who were asked, How fast were the carsgoing when they smashed into each other?" gave higherestimates than those who were asked, How fast werethe cars going when they hit each other?" Furthermore,when asked a week later whether they have seen brokenglass in the film, those who had been asked the questionwith smashed were twice more likely to report that theyhave seen broken glass than those who had been askedthe question with hit. There was no broken glass depictedin the film. Thus, the wording of the questions distortedviewers memories of the event. Importantly, the wordingof the question led people to construct different memo-ries of the event those who were asked the question withsmashed recalled a more serious car accident than theyhad actually seen. The findings of this experiment werereplicated around the world, and researchers consistentlydemonstrated that when people were provided with mis-leading information they tended to misremember, a phe-nomenon known as the misinformation effect.[67]

    Interestingly, research has revealed that asking individu-als to repeatedly imagine actions that they have never per-formed or events that they have never experienced couldresult in false memories. For instance, Goff and Roedi-ger [68] (1998) asked participants to imagine that theyperformed an act (e.g., break a toothpick) and then laterasked them whether they had done such a thing. Findingsrevealed that those participants who repeatedly imaginedperforming such an act were more likely to think that theyhad actually performed that act during the first sessionof the experiment. Similarly, Garry and her colleagues(1996) [69] asked college students to report how certainthey were that they experienced a number of events aschildren (e.g., broke a window with their hand) and thentwo weeks later asked them to imagine four of thoseevents. The researchers found that one-fourth of the stu-dents asked to imagine the four events reported that theyhad actually experienced such events as children. That is,when asked to imagine the events they were more confi-dent that they experienced the events.Research reported in 2013 revealed that it is possible toartificially stimulate prior memories and artificially im-plant false memories in mice. Using optogenetics, a teamof RIKEN-MIT scientists caused the mice to incorrectlyassociate a benign environment with a prior unpleasantexperience from different surroundings. Some scientistsbelieve that the study may have implications in studyingfalse memory formation in humans, and in treating PTSDand schizophrenia.[70]

    19 Improving memory

    Main article: Improving memory

    A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issueof the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry foundthat people can improve cognitive function and brain ef-ficiency through simple lifestyle changes such as incorpo-rating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitnessand stress reduction into their daily lives. This study ex-amined 17 subjects, (average age 53) with normal mem-ory performance. Eight subjects were asked to followa brain healthy diet, relaxation, physical, and mentalexercise (brain teasers and verbal memory training tech-niques). After 14 days, they showed greater word flu-ency (not memory) compared to their baseline perfor-mance. No long term follow up was conducted, it istherefore unclear if this intervention has lasting effectson memory.[71]

    There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic prin-ciples and techniques that can be used to vastly improvememory known as the Art of memory.The International Longevity Center released in 2001 areport[72] which includes in pages 1416 recommenda-tions for keeping the mind in good functionality until ad-vanced age. Some of the recommendations are to stayintellectually active through learning, training or reading,to keep physically active so to promote blood circulationto the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleeptime regular, to avoid depression or emotional instabilityand to observe good nutrition.

    19.1 Levels of processing

    Main article: Levels-of-processing effect

    Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the methodand depth of processing that affects how an experience isstored in memory, rather than rehearsal.

    Organization - Mandler (1967) gave participantsa pack of word cards and asked them to sort theminto any number of piles using any system of cate-gorisation they liked. When they were later askedto recall as many of the words as they could, thosewho used more categories remembered more words.This study suggested that the organization of mem-ory is one of its central aspects (Mandler, 2011).

    Distinctiveness - Eysenck and Eysenck (1980)asked participants to say words in a distinctive way,e.g. spell the words out loud. Such participants re-called the words better than those who simply readthem off a list.

    Effort - Tyler et al. (1979) had participants solve aseries of anagrams, some easy (FAHTER) and some

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation_effecthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optogeneticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophreniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improving_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_eatinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Longevity_Centerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect

  • 11

    difficult (HREFAT). The participants recalled thedifficult anagrams better, presumably because theyput more effort into them.

    Elaboration - Palmere et al. (1983) gave partici-pants descriptive paragraphs of a fictitious Africannation. There were some short paragraphs and somewith extra sentences elaborating the main idea. Re-call was higher for the ideas in the elaborated para-graphs.

    19.2 Methods to optimize memorization

    Memorization is a method of learning that allows an in-dividual to recall information verbatim. Rote learning isthe method most often used. Methods of memorizingthings have been the subject of much discussion over theyears with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius usingvisual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an indi-vidual is more likely to remember a list of items whenrehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. Incontrast to this is cramming: an intensive memorizationin a short period of time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnikeffect which states that people remember uncompletedor interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The so-called Method of loci uses spatial memory to memorizenon-spatial information.[73]

    20 See also Adaptive memory

    Intermediate-term memory

    Method of loci

    Mnemonic major system

    Politics of memory

    21 Notes[1] Sperling, G (1963). AModel for Visual Memory Tasks.

    hfs.sagepub.com 5 (1): 1931.

    [2] Carlson, Neil R. (2010). Psychology: the science of behav-ior. Boston, Mass: Allyn&Bacon. ISBN 0-205-68557-9.OCLC 268547522.

    [3] Cowan, N (February 2001). The magical number 4 inshort-term memory: a reconsideration of mental stor-age capacity. Behav Brain Sci 24 (1): 87114; discus-sion 11485. doi:10.1017/S0140525X01003922. PMID11515286.

    [4] Miller, G.A. (March 1956). The magical number sevenplus or minus two: some limits on our capacity forprocessing information. Psychol Rev 63 (2): 8197.doi:10.1037/h0043158. PMID 13310704.

    [5] Conrad, R. (1964). Acoustic Confusions in Immedi-ate Memory. British Journal of Psychology 55: 7584.doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1964.tb00899.x.

    [6] Baddeley, A. D. (1966). The influence of acoustic andsemantic similarity on long-term memory for word se-quences. Quart. J. Exp. Psychol 18 (4): 3029.doi:10.1080/14640746608400047. PMID 5956072.

    [7] Clayton, N.S.; Dickinson, A. (September 1998).Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrubjays. Nature 395 (6699): 2724. doi:10.1038/26216.PMID 9751053.

    [8] Scoville W.B., Milner B. (1957). Loss of RecentMemory After Bilateral Hippocampal Lesions. Jour-nal of Nurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 20: 1121. doi:10.1136/jnnp.20.1.11. PMC 497229. PMID13406589.

    [9] Miller C, Sweatt J (2007-03-15). Covalent modificationof DNA regulates memory formation. Neuron 53 (6):857869. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.02.022. PMID17359920.

    [10] Papassotiropoulos, Andreas; Wollmer, M. Axel; Aguzzi,Adriano; Hock, Christoph; Nitsch, Roger M.; de Quer-vain, Dominique J.-F. (2005). The prion gene is asso-ciated with human long-term memory. Human Molec-ular Genetics (Oxford Journals) 14 (15): 22412246.doi:10.1093/hmg/ddi228. PMID 15987701.

    [11] Zlonoga, B.; Gerber, A. (February 1986). A case frompractice (49). Patient: K.F., born 6 May 1930 (birdfanciers lung)". Schweiz. Rundsch. Med. Prax. 75 (7):1712. PMID 3952419.

    [12] Baddeley, A.D. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new com-ponent of working memory?". Trends in Cognitive Science4 (11): 41723. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2.PMID 11058819.

    [13] IIDRSI: topographic memory loss. Med.univ-rennes1.fr. Retrieved 2012-11-08.

    [14] Aguirre, G.K.; D'Esposito, M. (September1999). Topographical disorientation: a syn-thesis and taxonomy. Brain 122 (9): 161328.doi:10.1093/brain/122.9.1613. PMID 10468502.

    [15] T.L. Brink (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Ap-proach. Unit 7: Memory. pp. 120

    [16] Neisser, Ulric (1982). Memory observed: remembering innatural contexts. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. ISBN0-7167-1372-1. OCLC 7837605.

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  • 14 22 REFERENCES

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    LeDoux J.E. (2007) Consolidation: Challenging thetraditional view. In: Roediger, H. L., Dudai, Y.and Fitzpatrick S. M., eds. Science of Memory:Concepts. New York: Oxford University Press, pp.171175.

    Mandler, G. (1967). Organization and memory.In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psy-chology of learning and motivation: Advances in re-search and theory. Vol. 1, pp 328372. New York:Academic Press.

    Mandler, G. (2011) From association to organiza-tion. Current Directions in Psychological Science,20 (4), 232-235.

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  • 15

    Schacter, Daniel L. (2002). The seven sins of mem-ory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Boston:Houghton Mifflin.

    Schwabe, L., & Wolf, O.T. (2010). Learning un-der stress impairs memory formation. Neurobiol-ogy of Learning and Memory, 93(2), 183-188. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2009.09.009.

    Schwabe, L., & Wolf, O.T. (2009). The con-text counts: Congruent learning and testing envi-ronments prevent memory retrieval impairment fol-lowing stress. Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience9(3), 229-236.doi:10.3758/CABN.9.3.229

    Schwabe, L., Bohringer, A., & Wolf, O.T. (2009).Stress disrupts context-dependent memory. Learn-ing and Memory 16(2), 110-113. doi:10.1101/lm.1257509.

    Semon, R. (1904) Die Mneme. Leipzig: WilhelmEngelmann.

    Suzuki, W.A. (2007) Working memory: Signals inthe brain. In: Roediger, H. L., Dudai, Y. and Fitz-patrick S. M., eds. Science of Memory: Concepts.New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 147150.

    Tyler, SW, Hertel, PT,McCallum,MC&Ellis, HC.(1979). Cognitive effort and memory. Journalof Experimental Psychology: Human Learning &Memory, 5, 607-617.

    23 External links Memory entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Phi-

    losophy

    Memory at PhilPapers

    Memory at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project

    Memory on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)

    Memory-related resources from the National Insti-tutes of Health.

    http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophyhttp://philpapers.org/browse/memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhilPapershttps://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/2393https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Projecthttp://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548yyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Our_Time_(BBC_Radio_4)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBChttp://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p00548yy/In_Our_Time_Memoryhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/memory.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Healthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health

  • 16 24 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

    24 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

    24.1 Text Memory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory?oldid=651936215 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Dreamy


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