Memory

Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning

The Three Processes in Memory

Encoding- the forming of a memory cube Storage-the maintaining of encoded

information in memory Retrieval-the act of recovering information

from memory

Levels of Processing Theory

The idea that the deeper the level of processing the longer-lasting the memory• Shallow-encoding the physical structure of the

stimulus• Intermediate-encoding that emphasizes what

the word sounds like• Deep-encoding that emphasizes the meaning of

the word

Practical Application of Memory Information on Encoding Enrich Encoding

• Elaboration-link information you are learning to other information at the time of encoding

• Visual Imagery-link information you are learning to a visual picture at the time of encoding

• Self-Referent Encoding-link information you are learning to something personal at the time of encoding

Memory Storage Systems

Sensory Memory-preserving information in its sensory structure for a brief moment

Short -Term Memory-a limited-capacity (about 7 items) storage for unrehearsed information

Long -Term Memory-an theoretically unlimited-capacity store for large pieces of information over longer periods of time.

Long -Term Memory Systems Implicit Memory-apparent when retention is exhibited on a

task that does not require intentional recollection of information

Explicit Memory-intentional recall of previously learned information

Prospective Memory-remembering to perform actions in the future

Retrospective Memory-involves remembering events from the past

Declarative Memory-factual information Episodic Memory-chronologic recollection of personal

experience Semantic Memory-general knowledge that is not tied to

the time when the information was learned Nondeclarative Memory-houses memory for actions,

skills, and operations

Retrieval Systems Retention-the amount of information remembered Recall-a type of memory test that requires that the

participant reproduce the information on their own without any cues

Recognition-a memory test that requires that the participant select previously learned information from a group of options

Relearning-A demonstration that even though you may not remember something you learned, there must still be a trace. When you relearn something it takes significantly less time to learn then when you first learned it.

Causes of Forgetting Decay-forgetting occurs because memory traces

degrade with time Retrieval Failure-unsuccessful recovery of

information from memory stores Encoding failure-information is not encoded in a

way that it successfully reaches long-term memory Consolidation failure-information is not

consolidated in a way that it is successfully retained in long-term memory

Motivated forgetting-purposeful forgetting Interference-the idea that people forget

information because of competition from other information

Things that Can Impact Retrieval

Serial Position Effect-the idea that subjects given a memory test show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle of the list

State-Dependent Memory-improved recall that is attributed to being in the same emotional state during encoding and subsequent retrieval

The Physiology of Memory

Anatomy• hippocampus• amygdala

Physiology• long-term potentiation

Chemistry• Norepinephrine• Acetylcholine• GABA

Mnemonic Devices Acrostics

• Every Good Boy Does Fine• Associations Exist to Support Retention

Acronyms• Roy G Biv

Narrative Methods• Story Writing• Rhymes (Ex: “I before E, except after C…”)

Visual Imagery• Link• Method of Loci• Keyword Method

Organization of Information• Hierarchies

Applying What We Know About Memory Distributed vs massed practice

• Primacy/recency/serial position Adequate rehearsal

• Ebbinghaus Minimize interference

• proactive and retroactive Duplicate Test Conditions

• State Dependence Engage in Deep Processing

• Conceptual learning Acoustic vs visual encoding

• Example