Mastering

sociologyO

Macmillan Master Series

Accounting Arabic Astronomy Banking Basic Management Biology British Politics Business Communication Business Law Business Microcomputing C Programming Catering Science Catering Theory Chemistry COBOL Programming Commerce Computer Programming Computers Economic and Social History Economics Electrical Engineering Electronics English as a Foreign Language English Grammar English Language English Literature French I French 2

German I German 2 Hairdressing Human Biology Italian I Italian 2 Japanese Manufacturing Marketing Mathematics Mathematics for Electrical and Electronic Engineering Modem British History Modem European History Modem World History Pascal Programming Philosophy Physics Psychology Restaurant Service Science Secretarial Procedures Social Welfare Sociology Spanish I Spanish 2 Spreadsheets Statistics Study Skills Word Processing

Mastering

Qsociology Third Edition

Gerard 0 'Donnell

M MACMILLAN

©Gerard O'Donnell 1985, 1988, 1994

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WIP 9HE.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

Published by THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world

First edition 1985 Reprinted twice Second edition 1988 Third edition 1994

10 9 8 03 02 01

7 6 5 4 3 2 I 00 99 98 97 96 95 94

ISBN 978-0-333-60938-5 ISBN 978-1-349-13434-2 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-13434-2

Q Contents

Preface The exam and preparing for it The project or coursework assessment Acknowledgements

PART I WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?

1 Sociology terms and concepts 1.1 Culture and social order 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Socialisation Conformity and deviance Roles and status Norms and values Conflict and consensus

2 Sociological method 2.1 Major research methods 2.2 Sources 2.3 The use of statistics Self-test questions Specimen questions and answers GCSE questions

PART II THE FAMILY

3 Development and characteristics of the modern family 3.1 What a family is 3.2 Why families? 3.3 Differing family patterns 3.4 Family forms in Britain today Revision summary

4 The changing nature of the modern British family 4.1 The changing role of the family 4.2 Changing relationships within the family 4.3 Maternal and paternal roles

v

xi Xll

XIV

xvii

3 3 5 6 7 8 9

11 11 12 21 25 27 29

33 33 35 38 41 41

45 45 45 47

vi Contents

4.4 The nuclear family- its advantages and disadvantages Revision summary

5 The stability of the family 5.1 Conflict within the family 5.2 The law and the family 5.3 Divorce and remarriage 5.4 Marriage breakdown- its social and personal cost Revision summary Self-test questions Specimen questions and answers GCSE questions

PART III THE SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

6 Informal and formal education 6.1 The purpose of education 6.2 Socialisation 6.3 Social control 6.4 The media and youth culture Revision summary

7 Changes in British education 7.1 Historical development 7.2 The bipartite and tripartite systems 7.3 Comprehensive education 7.4 Public schools 7.5 The future Revision summary

8 Ability and achievement 8.1 Heredity and environment 8.2 The culture of the school 8.3 The influence of family and class 8.4 Gender, race and peer group Revision summary Self-test questions Specimen questions and answers GCSE questions

PART IV SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION

9 Stratification 9.1 Age stratification/status

49 50

52 52 53 54 57 59 60 62 65

69 69 70 70 72 75

78 78 79 79 85 85 86

88 88 89 91 96 98

100 102 105

109 109

9.2 Feudalism 9.3 Caste 9.4 Social class Revision summary

10 Wealth and income I 0.1 Wealth and power 10.2 Distribution of wealth in Britain 10.3 Poverty 10.4 Relative poverty Revision summary

11 Social mobility 11.1 The extent of social mobility in Britain 11.2 Barriers to mobility 11.3 Avenues of mobility 11.4 Social change Revision summary Self-test questions Specimen questions and answers GCSE questions

PART V WORK AND LEISURE

12 The meaning of work 12.1 The effect of work on behaviour 12.2 Alienation and job satisfaction 12.3 Coal-miners and fishermen 12.4 Lorry drivers and assembly line workers Revision summary

13 Rewards and conditions 13.1 Status 13.2 Hours and conditions of work 13.3 Pay and fringe benefits 13.4 Trade unions Revision summary

14 The changing conditions of employment 14.1 Industrialisation, automation and mechanisation 14.2 Changing occupations and occupational structure 14.3 Unemployment 14.4 Women and work Revision summary

Contents VII

109 Ill 112 116

118 118 120 121 125 126

128 128 132 133 135 135 138 139 142

147 147 149 151 152 155

157 157 158 159 160 162

164 164 164 169 173 177

viii Contents

Self-test questions Specimen questions and answers GCSE questions

PART VI DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OF POPULATION

15 Population change in Britain 15.1 Historical perspective 15.2 Life expectancy 15.3 Post-1870 birth rate 15.4 Death rate and infant mortality Revision summary

16 The effects of population change 16.1 An ageing population 16.2 Population movement 16.3 The balance of the sexes 16.4 Inner cities Revision summary

17 Migration 17.1 Emigration 17.2 Immigration 17.3 Ethnic groups 17.4 Racism Revision summary Self-test questions Specimen questions and answers GCSE questions

PART VII SOCIAL STABILITY AND CONTROL

18 The nature of social order 18.1 Conformity 18.2 Deviance 18.3 Social control 18.4 Sanctions Revision summary

19 Agencies of social control 19.1 Family 19.2 Education 19.3 The peer group

181 184 186

191 191 192 193 195 197

200 200 201 202 204 209

213 213 213 215 216 219 220 222 224

229 229 229 231 232 234

236 236 236 238

19.4 Religion and the media 19.5 The law Revision summary

20 Crime and delinquency 20.1 The nature of crime and delinquency 20.2 Causes of crime and delinquency 20.3 Crime and statistics 20.4 Class and gender in relation to crime Revision summary Self-test questions Specimen questions and answers GCSE questions

PART VIII SOCIAL CHANGE

21 Reasons for social change 21.1 Stagnation v. development 21.2 Cultural factors 21.3 Political factors 21.4 Economic factors Revision summary

22 Processes of social change 22.1 Rural lifestyles 22.2 Urban lifestyles 22.3 The media and change 22.4 International influence Revision summary

23 Religion 23.1 Religion and morality 23.2 Belief in modem Britain 23.3 Church and State 23.4 Secularisation Revision summary Self-test questions Specimen questions and answers GCSE questions

PART IX THE POLITICAL SYSTEM

24 Forms of government 24.1 Totalitarian government 24.2 Democratic government

Contents ix

238 242 242

245 245 247 249 252 254 257 258 262

267 267 267 268 269 269

270 270 272 274 276 276

277 277 277 281 282 284 286 288 290

295 295 297

x Contents

24.3 The British system of government 24.4 Political parties Revision summary

25 Pressure and interest groups 25.1 Different types of pressure groups 25.2 Advantages of pressure groups 25.3 Disadvantages of pressure groups 25.4 Methods of operation Revision summary

26 Voting behaviour 26.1 Voting patterns 26.2 The influence of social class and ethnic origin 26.3 The influence of sex, age and religion 26.4 The media and opinion polls Revision summary Self-test questions Specimen questions and answers GCSE questions

PART X ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

PART XI A COMPARISON OF GCSE WITH ADVANCED LEVEL

PART XII GLOSSARY

Index

299 304 305

308 308 310 310 311 313

317 317 317 323 325 329 331 332 334

337

361

367

376

XI

Q Preface

Mastering Sociology is a systematic introduction to the study of society. The text combines a comprehensive coverage of the various sociology GCSE syllabuses, with a wide range of extracts from a variety of source materials which both extend the text, allow the students to experience something of the flavour of the originals, and can provide a base for the kind of data response and stimulus questions which are integral to all GCSE Sociology examinations.

Unusual and valuable features of the book are 'self-test' questions with exam­ples of the kind of outline marking schemes used by GCSE examiners and GCSE type questions with specimen answers of a length and content calculated to get high marks in GCSE Sociology, but within the capability of good candidates. These schemes and answers, together with specimen GCSE Questions from all the Examining Groups, make the book particularly appropriate to the self-taught student, while enhancing its value as a class text.

All areas of the following Sociology GCSE syllabuses are covered - the London and East Anglian, Midland and Southern Examining Groups; the Northern Examining Association; the Welsh Joint Education Committee and the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate International Exam­inations - although the book in general follows the sequence of the Southern Examining Group syllabus.

The book also covers most areas of the GCSE Social Science or Social Studies syllabuses including that of the Northern Ireland Schools Examinations Council and it will be useful for a number of other syllabuses, such as the Advanced Supplementary Level GCE Examinations in Sociology and Social Sciences.

The text is designed for the more academically able GCSE candidates, par­ticularly mature students who may be on Access courses for higher education. It is also an ideal introduction to Advanced Level GCE and as a text for the general reader. The new GCSE syllabus in 1994, which will be examined from 1996, will award 70 per cent of marks for Knowledge and Understanding and this text ensures a proper content knowledge. Grade 9 will equate to the old Grade A, and a new Grade 10 will be awarded to the highest achievers. Mastering Sociology ensures that these candidates are appropriately prepared.

As you start this book your examination may seem a long way off, but it is useful to bear in mind some points about the examination so that you can get used to practising them as you answer the sample questions set at the end of each section.

Xll

Q The exam and preparing for it

In answering the sample examination questions set in the earlier sections of the book it must be borne in mind that while it is necessary to subdivide the book into syllabus headings in order to present the subject coherently, the areas of sociological study are interdependent. A particular question may require information drawn from a number of sections (e.g. family, class and education). When you have finished the book, try working through some of your earlier efforts, drawing this time on all the knowledge that you have acquired during the course.

2 The GCSE is designed to give you credit for what you do know and can do, the examiner is not trying to 'catch you out'. Different levels of achievement have to be rewarded and this 'differentiation' is achieved in the written papers by: (a) The use of a series of questions of increasing difficulty, those at the end

showing most need for evaluation by the candidate. (These may be described as 'on an incline of difficulty' or 'stepped questions' or 'structured questions'.)

(b) Longer questions in which the depth of the candidate's response can be measured.

(c) Differentiation is also achieved in the Course Work Assessment or Projects in which skills in planning, research and weighing up the evid­ence can be tested. A great deal of freedom is permitted in this Course Work in order to ensure that candidates follow programmes which are of particular interest to them (see following section).

3 If the question is broken into sections look for the number of marks awarded to each part. It is a waste of time to devote several lines to an answer that can gain only I mark; the examiner will only expect a few words. A common (and disastrous) error is to write almost all you know about a particular topic in answer to a section attracting few marks and then fail to repeat relevant information in the major section which is intended to attract that information.

4 In longer answers write in essay form - do not write notes as your answer, although you may wish to make a few notes on your paper before com­mencing your real answer. (Put a neat line through these and the examiner will ignore them.) Remember the examiner will have hundreds of papers to mark in two or three weeks - he or she will not spend a lot of time trying to work out what you mean or in deciphering your handwriting; the repetition of points to try and make a scrappy answer look longer will not impress and flowery description is a waste of time.

The exam and preparing for it xiii

5 A mere recital of the names of sociologists gains no marks at any level. GCSE candidates are not expected to know detailed sociological theory (ethnomethodology, etc.) - you should know the different approaches to sociological enquiry and it is useful to be able to give examples of specific research.

6 Do not try to learn a mass of statistics off by heart - the examiner is mainly interested in your understanding of sociology rather than your ability to remember lists of facts. You should be able to make balanced judgements about the structure and institutions of society but mere unsubstantiated opinion is worthless. You should know something of the various methods of research used by sociologists and be able to interpret and analyse evidence presented in a variety of ways - that is one reason why graphs, tables and extracts are included in the book.

7 Sheer length gains no marks. Time will limit your length in any case- aim to produce well-constructed answers with all the relevant points.

8 Work out how much time you can afford to spend on each question; when the time is up move on to the next question - you can return to complete unfinished answers if you have time. Three good answers will almost certainly gain less marks than five average ones.

9 Spend some time reading through the paper carefully and choose those ques­tions you known most about (not those that sound easy). Some people find it best to write up their second best answer first - so that they become more confident as they progress.

10 Do not answer more questions than you need - some boards exclude all sur­plus answers written after the required answers, others mark them all and take the best answers up to the required number - you are always wasting valuable time.

II Answer the question asked, not the one you hoped would be asked. If you have read 'model' or 'specimen' answers, do not be tempted to regurgitate them verbatim; extract from them the material relevant to the question asked.

12 A reading list is not included in this book because experience indicates that few GCSE candidates have the time (or inclination?) to read more widely than the textbook. However you will enjoy and appreciate sociology more if you do extend your reading.

13 The 1950s and 1960s in Britain saw the first major invasion of Britain by Sociology. In these years many standard, popular sociology texts were intro­duced which gave (and still give) valuable insights into sociological con­cepts. N. Denis, F. Henriques and C. Slaughter (1956) Coal is Our Life: M. Young and P. Willmott (1972) Family and Kinship in East London: J. Tunstall ( 1962) The Fishermen remain useful books but students do need to be aware of how dated some of these studies now are and compare them critically with the realities of the 1990s.

xiv

0 The project or coursework assessment

This component is designed to give you an opportunity to select some aspect, or aspects, of the syllabus of special interest to you and to study the topic, or topics, chosen in greater depth, using sociological skills.

You will be able to proceed at your own pace in acquiring and compiling the information and be able to use you own skill in applying your findings. Your teacher or lecturer is expected to help you select your project and guide you as it progresses, but all Examining Groups stress that it must be your own work. For example, the London and East Anglian Group states:

Collaborative work among candidates in the design of an Enquiry and in data collection is permitted, but the writing up of the material is to be the work of the individual candidate alone. The final presentation of the Enquiry must include a clear statement of the contribution of the individual candidate. Enquiries may be based upon first-hand research and/or secondary sources as appropriate. However, mere copying in large amounts from secondary sources will be inadequate; the emphasis must always be on synthesis and evaluation.

Course work is now* 20 per cent of the overall mark, and the percentage alloca­tion to Coursework will give you some guide as to the proportion of time which you should devote to it.

Each Examining Group includes in its published syllabus details of what it expects to see in your completed Coursework and you should read this carefully yourself. Some Groups allow you to include non-written material: for example, an audiovisual presentation, a computer program presentation or an oral presen­tation (make certain you know what is acceptable before you start).

Although each Examining Group indicates a maximum or average length for Coursework Projects or Assignments, it is the quality, rather than the quantity, of the work which is being assessed, and allowances are made for diagrams and tables (or other forms of presentation when permitted).

Some examples of appropriate studies suggested by the various Examining Groups include:

A survey of the contents of selected newspapers and the relationship of these to differences found in the social composition of the newspapers' readers.

2 Investigating social norms. For example, observations of motorists' behaviour at 'halt' road signs; observations of supporters' behaviour at a football match; observations of pupils' behaviour in the playground.

* From the 1996 examination; until then it varies from 20 to 40 per cent.

The project or coursework assessment xv

3 An analysis of gender stereotyping in the media and its effect on attitude formation, using a sample drawn from the student's own school or college.

4 A school-based study of childhood in different cultures based on interviews and other students.

5 A study of changes in economic control and ownership in Britain since 1900, using secondary sources.

6 A study of attitudes to social class, using questionnaire/interviews with peer group.

7 A survey of reading habits in relation to age and sex in a school/college/ street.

8 A study of family relationships, using interviews with three generations. 9 A study of a specific 'problem' (e.g. drug abuse in the student's area).

Secondary sources plus interviews. I 0 A study of an occupation - working conditions, sexism, trade union

involvement, pay, changes in technology, qualifications.

The Northern Examining Association gives a useful example of the way in which a suitable type of investigation might be carried out:

How do the media treat crime and is there a relationship between its treatment and public attitudes and official responses? (i) Outline of the issue. Do the media present a distorted or inaccurate picture?

Do the media influence attitudes and behaviour? Numerous references are available from published texts.

(ii) Discussion of levels of criminal activity and possible changes in dis­tribution and levels through time and in different areas. The nature of official statistics and their shortcomings as indicators of actual law­breaking behaviour. Numerous published texts are of use.

(iii) How the media report crime and their emphasis as compared with the real size and extent of criminal activity. Several published texts and press cuttings could be used.

(iv) Why media treatment takes the form it does. Discussion as to how the media define events as newsworthy. Numerous texts are available.

(v) Possible influence of the media- e.g. 'moral panics'. Public perceptions of crime as a 'problem'. Questionnaires, interviews could be used, as could evidence of understanding of sampling procedures.

(vi) Conclusion- e.g. police behaviour is influenced and public perceptions are distorted when 'real' levels of crime are examined but probably there has been a change in criminal activity over recent years.

(vii) Bibliography.

Each Examining Group will specify what it wants you to include in the report of your project; however, most should include:

• A Title page • A Contents page

xvi The project or coursework assessment

• A statement of intent (what you propose to do- your subject area and the methods you have chosen to investigate it, with reasons)

• A research report - how the research was conducted • Presentation of results and findings • Analysis and conclusions • A Bibliography listing all your secondary sources

Assessing your project

Each Examining Group will have their own specified criteria but important factors will include:

• The degree to which you have found your information independently • Originality • Clarity of presentation • Reasoned argument • Depth in coverage of the topic • The integration of your supporting material in the text • Accuracy • Completeness- e.g. summary of sources, bibliography

XVll

Q Acknowledgements

The author and publishers wish to thank the following for permission to use copyright material:

B. T. Batsford Ltd for material from E. Krausz, Sociology in Britain: A Survey of Research, 1969.

Blackwell Publishers for material from Anne Campbell, Girl Delinquents, 1981.

The Daily Mirror, for the press bias front page.

Frank Field for an extract on unemployment in The Daily Telegraph, 28 September, 1993.

Roger Graef for material from article in The Daily Telegraph, 15 October 1993.

Sally and Richard Greenhill for the routine manual worker and the political party canvassing photograph.

Guardian News Service Ltd for material sourced to various issues of New Society and The Observer.

The Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office for material from Report on Education, No. 97, DoE, 1982; and Social Trends, 1991, 1992, 1993.

Keith Kelsall for material from Population in Britain in the 1990s and Beyond, Trentham Books, 1989.

Macmillan Publishers Ltd for material from D. Butler and D. Kavanagh, The British General Election of 1979, 1980, and The General Election of 1992, 1993.

Ewan MacNaughton Associates on behalf of The Telegraph pic for material sourced to various editions of The Daily Telegraph.

Andrew Mann Ltd for Alex cartoon.

Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd for material from Martin Slattery, The ABC of Sociology, 1985.

Northern Examinations and Assessment Board, incorporating Northern Examin­ing Association and the Joint Matriculation Board; Northern Ireland Schools Examinations and Assessment Council; Southern Examining Group; University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate; University of London Examina­tions and Assessment Council; and the Welsh Joint Education Committee - for questions from past examination papers.

xviii Acknowledgements

Penguin Books Ltd for material from Jean Blondell, Voters, Parties and Leaders: The Social Fabric of British Politics, 1963, revised edition 1975. Copyright© 1963, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1969, 1974 Jean Blondell; Sue Sharpe, Just Like a Girl, 1976. Copyright © 1976 Sue Sharpe; J. A. C. Brown, 1963. Copyright © the Estate of J. A. C. Brown; and Ann Oakley, Housewife, Allen Lane, 1974. Copyright © 197 4 Ann Oakley.

Gordon Roberts for the family skating and status symbol photograph.

Routledge for material from P. J. Pulzer, Political Representation and Elections, Allen & Unwin, 1972.

The Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, for data concerning the educational background of new entrants.

Solo Syndication for material from Alastair Campbell, 'Labour poised for win', Daily Mirror, 7 April 1992.

Souvenir Press Ltd for material from David Lewis, You Can Teach Your Child Intelligence, 1981.

The Sun for the press bias front page.

Syndication International for material from various issues of the Daily Mirror and the Sunday Mirror.

Every effort has been made to trace all the copyright-holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangement at the first opportunity.