Mastering

British politics

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Mastering

Qsritish politics Second Edition

F. N. Forman

M MACMILLAN

©F.N.Forman 1985,1991

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WlP 9HE.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

First published 1985 by MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

First edition reprinted four times Second edition 1991

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 00 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91

ISBN 978-0-333-51253-1 ISBN 978-1-349-11203-6 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-11203-6

To the memory of my father

0 Acknowledgements

The author and publishers wish to thank the following who have kindly given permission for the use of copyright material:

Cambridge University Press for figures from The Machinery of Justice in England by R. M. Jackson.

The BBC and Mr Speaker for the front cover photograph showing the House of Commons Debating Chamber.

Basil Blackwell Ltd for table from Cabinet by Peter Hennessy, 1986.

Oxford University Press for table from The Foundations of European Community Law, 2nd edn, by T. C. Hartley, Clarendon Press, 1988.

Every effort has been made to trace all the copyright-holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangement at the first opportunity.

Ocontents

Preface xi List of figures Xlll

I THE POLITICAL AND ELECTORAL CONTEXT

1 British political culture 3 1.1 Key characteristics 3 1.2 Other significant features 8 1.3 Conclusion 9

2 The living constitution 11 2.1 Key characteristics 11 2.2 Views of the constitution 13 2.3 The scope for change 17 2.4 Conclusion 20

3 The electoral system 23 3.1 The system today 23 3.2 Criteria of assessment 27 3.3 Conclusion 30

4 Voting behaviour 33 4.1 Groups in the electorate 33 4.2 Main influences on voting 39 4.3 Continuing uncertainties 44 4.4 Conclusion 47

II SOURCES OF POWER, PRESSURE AND OPINION

5 The political parties 53 5.1 Ideological principles 53 5.2 Political functions 58 5.3 National organisation 60 5.4 Constituency activities 68 5.5 Conclusion 71

6 Pressure groups 74 6.1 Main functions 74 6.2 Organisation and power 76 6.3 Involvement in politics 81 6.4 Conclusion 85

viii Contents

7 The media 88 7.1 The current situation 88 7.2 The problems of the press 91 7.3 The problems of broadcasting 95 7.4 The media and politics 101 7.5 Conclusion 105

8 Public opinion 109 8.1 The composition of opinion 110 8.2 The formation of opinion 112 8.3 The effects of opinion 115 8.4 Conclusion 118

III PARLIAMENT

9 The Monarchy 123 9.1 Powers and functions 123 9.2 Relations with the public 130 9.3 Conclusion 133

10 The House of Lords 135 10.1 Composition 136 10.2 Powers and functions 138 10.3 Proposals for change 144 10.4 Conclusion 145

11 The House of Commons 148 11.1 Composition 148 11.2 Principal powers 152 11.3 Main functions 155 11.4 Prospects for reform 162 11.5 Conclusion 165

IV CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

12 Prime Minister and Cabinet 171 12.1 Cabinet machinery 172 12.2 Prime Ministerial power 179 12.3 The role of the Cabinet 184 12.4 Conclusion 188

13 Ministers and Departments 190 13.1 The work of Departments 190 13.2 The role of Ministers 194 13.3 The problems of government 198 13.4 Conclusion 201

14 The civil service 204 14.1 Composition and functions 204 14.2 Key aspects 210

Contents ix

14.3 Methods of control 215 14.4 The next steps 218 14.5 Conclusion 222

15 Policy and decision making 225 15.1 Stages in the process 225 15.2 Key aspects 234 15.3 Strengths and weaknesses 237 15.4 Possible improvements 239 15.5 Conclusion 241

v OTHER PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

16 Local government 247 16.1 Structure and personnel 247 16.2 Powers and functions 251 16.3 Financial arrangements 253 16.4 Central-local relations 257 16.5 Methods of central control 259 16.6 Whither local government? 262 16.7 Conclusion 265

17 The public sector 268 17.1 Public corporations 268 17.2 Regulation and control 272 17.3 Privatisation 275 17.4 Non-departmental public bodies 280 17.5 Other public bodies 282 17.6 Future prospects 284 17.7 Conclusion 286

18 The legal system 288 18.1 Criminal justice 288 18.2 Civil justice 292 18.3 Legal services reform 294 18.4 Judicial appeal 297 18.5 Citizens and the state 299 18.6 Administrative law 304 18.7 Conclusion 310

VI DEMOCRACY IN BRITAIN

19 Britain in Europe 317 19.1 Historical background 317 19.2 Legal and constitutional implications 319 19.3 Political and institutional impact 324 19.4 Possible future developments 330 19.5 Conclusion 334

x Contents

20 British parliamentary democracy 20.1 The conditions of democracy 20.2 Essential characteristics 20.3 Other significant features 20.4 Some unresolved issues 20.5 Conclusion

Name index Subject index

337 337 338 340 342 344

347 352

QPreface

This book is a general introduction to British politics. It is an attempt to convey clear information about every significant aspect of the subject and to facilitate an adequate understanding of the British political system. Within the compass of a brief introductory text it is not possible to provide a detailed description or analysis of all the topics covered. Readers who wish to delve more deeply into any particular aspect should refer to the suggestions for further reading at the end of each chapter.

Part I deals with the political and electoral context within which the process of British politics takes place. Chapter 1 considers British political culture, which is defined as the historical, cultural and attitudinal setting within which our political institutions have to operate. Chapter 2 discusses the living constitution by describing the key characteristics and analysing some of the leading interpreta­tions of constitutional developments in Britain. Chapter 3 describes the electoral system and assesses its strengths and weaknesses in the eyes of academics and politicians alike. Chapter 4 deals with voting behaviour by identifying the most significant groups in the electorate, the main influences upon voting and some continuing uncertainties about the future.

Part II considers the sources of power, pressure and opinion within the British political system. Chapter 5 deals principally with the two main political parties by considering their ideological principles, political functions, national organisation and constituency activities. Chapter 6 reviews the main functions, organisation and power of pressure groups, and analyses the nature and extent of their involvement in the political process. Chapter 7 looks at the important role of the media, and assesses the nature and extent of their influence within the political system. Chapter 8 considers public opinion by seeking to clarify its composition, the process by which it is formed and its effects upon British politics.

Part III describes the activity and significance of the three traditional institu­tions which constitute Parliament in Britain. Chapter 9 reviews the powers and functions of the Monarchy, and assesses its special relationship with the British public. Chapter 10 on the House of Lords describes the composition, powers and functions of that ancient institution, and reviews briefly the various proposals for its reform. Similarly Chapter 11 describes the composition, powers and functions of the House of Commons and then reviews briefly the prospects for its reform.

Part IV deals with the main components of central government in Britain. Chapter 12 describes the machinery of Cabinet government, and goes on to consider the power of the Prime Minister and the role of the Cabinet. Chapter 13 describes the work of central government Departments, considers the role of Ministers and reviews some of the key problems which arise in Whitehall. Chapter 14 deals with the civil service, describes its composition and functions, and considers the various methods of controlling the bureaucracy. Chapter 15 looks at policy and decision making in British central government by identifying the main stages in the process and analysing some of the key aspects and possible improvements.

xn Preface

Part V is concerned with the other public institutions in the British political system. Chapter 16 describes the structure and composition, powers and functions of local government, before going on to consider its relations with central government and the various attempts by the latter to achieve greater control. It also discusses some of the ways in which the balance between central power and local autonomy changed in the 1980s. Chapter 17 deals with the public sector, notably the problems posed by public corporations and the continuing argument about how best to control them. It also reviews the wide-ranging debate on privatisation and the issues raised by the residual public sector. Chapter 18 considers the legal system by dealing briefly with the structure of criminal and civil justice before examining issues of law and order, civil rights and the reform of legal services in this country.

Part VI considers some more philosophical issues about the nature and limits of democracy in Britain. Chapter 19 looks at the impact of the European Commun­ity upon the process of politics in Britain. Chapter 20 concludes the book with a few synoptic observations about the essence of British parliamentary democracy.

Many people have helped in the preparation and development of this book. I would particularly like to thank Robert Marshall for his invaluable help in up-dating and checking many of the facts and figures for the second edition, Keith Povey and Tony Waterman for their editorial services, and Jane Wightwick for her constant encouragement and support. I must also record my thanks to the following for having read and commented upon various parts of the first edition: Sir Clifford Boulton, Sir Kenneth Bradshaw, Keith Britto, Dr David Butler, Rt Hon. Lord Callaghan, John Cole, Professor Ivor Crewe, Bryan Davies, the late Charles Douglas-Home, Frank Field MP, Robin Grove-White, John Hanvey, Rt Hon. Edward Heath MP, Hon. Douglas Hogg MP, Lord Hunt of Tanworth, Peter Kellner, David Lipsey, Dr Edmund Marshall, Peter McGregor, Dr David Menhennet, Dr Janet Morgan, Professor Roger Morgan, Rt Hon. Chris Patten MP, William Plowden, Rt Hon. Enoch Powell, John Roper, Sir John Sainty, Jack Straw MP, Alan Taylor and David Walter. In the Library of the House of Commons Dermot Englefield, Geoffrey Lock and John Palmer were also very courteous and helpful, as were all the staff of that excellent institution.

Any insights achieved in this book owe a great deal to those already mentioned and to many others at Essex University and elsewhere with whom I have discussed aspects of British politics over the years. Any errors of fact or opinion are, of course, entirely my own responsibility.

London, December 1990 F.N. FORMAN

Q List of Figures

1.1 Map of the British Isles 2.1 Classic liberal view of the constitution 2.2 Governmental view of the constitution 2.3 Empirical view of the constitution 3.1 Voting by party in June 1987 4.1 Profiles of some typical voters 5.1 Conservative party organisation 5.2 Labour party organisation 6.1 Pressure group involvement in politics 7.1 Main national newspapers 8.1 The flow of public opinion 9.1 Functions of the Monarchy 10.1 Functions of the House of Lords 11.1 Functions of the House of Commons 12.1 The Cabinet machine 13.1 The structure of Departments 14.1 Civil service staff in post, 1 April 1990 15.1 The policy and decision making process 16.1 The structure of local government 16.2 The distribution of local authority powers and functions 17.1 The composition of the public sector 18.1 The system of criminal courts 18.2 The system of civil courts 19.1 The EEC decision making process

4 14 16 17 26 39 61 65 81 90

109 130 140 156 174 192 206 226 247 251 268 289 291 325