Running head: THE XO-1 LAPTOP 1

Learning with the XO-1 Laptop

Luis Alberto Quiliche Villanueva

The University of Kansas

THE XO-1 LAPTOP 2 2

Abstract

The XO-1laptop is a little green and white computer and it was developed by OLPC Foundation.

The OLPC foundation was created by Nicholas Negroponte and other faculty members from the

MIT Media Lab. Moreover, The North Central Regional Education Laboratory [NCREL] and

Metiri Group (2003) point out that “the digital divide was characterized as a gap in technology

access that translated into inequities in educational, economic, social, and civic opportunities

among sectors of the population” (p.7). In the present paper, it is also presented a literature

review. Thus, it is hypothesized that if the XO-1laptop is used in the classroom as an educational

tool, then it will help to enhance education and eliminate the so-called digital divide. The results

found in the literature review were positive, negative, positive and negative, and unclear.

Moreover, the budget to invest in the Peruvian education in the year 2015 amounts to S /.

22,347,000 (currency of Peru). In addition, there have been some efforts to try to introduce ICT

into the Peruvian education. Thereby, Villanueva-Mansilla (2007) points out that on May 3,

2007, the Minister of Education Jose Antonio Chang announced that Peru would join to the

OLPC program (XO-1Laptop). This program involved the purchase and distribution of XO-1

laptops in schools, but especially those located in rural areas. Currently, the Peruvian

government through the General Direction of Educational Technologies is focused on giving

more priority to the use, appropriation and sustainability of the XO-1 laptop rather than

continuing buying more laptops (OLPC//NEWS, 2012).

Keywords: North Central Regional Education Laboratory (NCREL), XO-1 Laptop (XOs),

Sugar, One Laptop per Child (OLPC) Foundation, the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology Media Lab (MIT Media Lab), Digital Divide, General Education Law,

Ministry of Education/Ministerio de Educacion, Multigrade Teaching

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Learning with the XO-1 Laptop

Nowadays, technology is part of our daily lives because it is everywhere. Technology is

the cornerstone of progress and human development (The International Bank for Reconstruction

and Development / The World Bank, 2008). Thus, Technology has helped in the development of

humankind and it also has led to significant advances in many areas, such as medicine, biology,

agriculture, education and others. In addition, technology has changed many aspects of our

everyday lives. For instance, young people today connect around the world by using laptops,

pagers, instant messaging, cell phones, and so on (NCREL & Metiri, 2003, p. 4). Currently,

laptops are used by students to write, take notes, do homework, keep organized assignments,

connect with their classmates or teachers, and research information on the internet (Apple

Computer, 2005, p. 3). Further, laptops have become an essential tool to educate, access

information, and communicate. Alfred Bork and Alan Cromer (1982) states that “teachers have

begun to recognize that computers are now an essential part of a basic science education” (para.

1). Thereby, one significant promise to improve education is the use of the XO-1 laptop in the

classroom. In the present paper, learning with the XO-1laptop is investigated. Thus, it is

hypothesized that if the XO-1laptop is used in the classroom as an educational tool, then it will

help to enhance education and eliminate the so-called digital divide. The following literature

review attempts to demonstrate and support this hypothesis.

Before moving to the literature review some basic concepts will be defined. The XO-1

Laptop, Sugar Software, the OLPC Foundation, and Digital Divide.

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The XO-1 Laptop

The XO-1laptop is a little green and white computer. It was developed by the One Laptop

per Child (OLPC) Foundation. Besides, this a little computer was designed as an educational tool

to close the digital divide and engage students in their own learning (Buchele & Owusu-Aning,

2007). Moreover, this portable computer was primarily built for poor children from primary

school but later it was upgraded for high school students.

Image1 - XO-1 Laptop

Source: Google Images. (n.d). XO-1 Laptop

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Sugar Software

It was developed as part of the One Laptop per Child (OLPC) project. It is the core of

communication between the student and the machine. It is based on turning the XO-1 laptop into

a fun and easy to use. It is also focused on promoting the learning (One Laptop per Child, 2012).

Image 2 - Sugar

Source: One Laptop per Child (2012). Sugar

Image 3 – XO-1 Laptops

Source: Source: Google Images. (n.d). XO-1 Laptops

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The OLPC Foundation

In 2005 Nicholas Negroponte announced an ambitious project. The Nicholas Negroponte'

idea was to make $100 laptops for children from developing countries (Fahey, 2007). Thus,

Nicholas Negroponte and other faculty members from the MIT Media Lab founded the OLPC

foundation (non-profit organization). The foundation's purpose is focused on providing XO-1

laptops to underprivileged children from less-developed countries (Virtusa Supports One Laptop

per Child Program, 2010). Finally, in a conference Negroponte (2006) stated that people could

view this initiative as a laptop project, but it is not because it is an educational project.

What Is Digital Divide?

The North Central Regional Education Laboratory [NCREL] and Metiri Group (2003) point

out that “the digital divide was characterized as a gap in technology access that translated into

inequities in educational, economic, social, and civic opportunities among sectors of the

population” (p.7). Furthermore, the digital divide generates constraints on access, use and

knowledge about information and communication technologies (Digital divide, 2014, para. 1).

Literature Review

Diaz, Banchoff Tzancof, Harari, and Harari (2006) analyzed the first experience of

children from one school located at the City of La Plata, Argentina (20 students /Ages 10 - 12)

on their first contact with the OLPC program (XO laptop).The researchers found that the

students did all their assignments with very low level of difficulty by using the XO laptop. The

learners also accepted the XO laptop with satisfaction, so they did their assignments with

pleasure and enthusiasm. In conclusion, the results were highly satisfactory.

In contrast, Ziff (2008) stated that in a pilot program researchers from the UW-Madison

College of Engineering (U.S) found that the viability of the XOs as a learning tool on a small

THE XO-1 LAPTOP 7 7

group of children was unclear. But, the XOs offered the promise of catching the students'

attention in a nontraditional way. In this pilot program the researchers watched and documented

data about how a small group of students interacted with the XOs.

Moreover, Flores and Hourcade (2009) indicated that in 2007 they conducted five

workshops about the impact of the XO laptop on Uruguayan students (grades 1-6) and parents.

This workshop was part of a project called “Ceibal.” It was found that children had no issues in

handling the hardware of the XOs, such as touchpad or keyboard. However, adults had often

troubles at trying to open it, using the touchpad, and trying to type on the small keyboard. In

addition, adults could not properly handle the sugar's software (the default interface on OLPC

XO-1), but the students felt free and explored it seamlessly. As well as, it stimulated to the

students to read and write more. Further, the XOs’ mobility and connectivity originated an

atmosphere of collaboration in the classroom. In conclusion, the results of these workshops were

mostly positive (Flores and Hourcade, 2009).

Similarly, the study conducted by Gutierrez (2010) about the use of the XO laptops as a

tool of information and communication technology in language learning in students from a

Peruvian rural school (6th grade) also displayed mostly positive results. Thus, it was found that a

70% of the students mastered the application of “Recording”. However, only 30% of the

participants mastered the application of “Writing". In addition, Gutierrez found that a 42.5% of

the students mastered the components of “Oral Expression and Oral Comprehension.” But, 57,

5% of the participants mastered the component of “Reading Comprehension”. Likewise, a high

percentage (70%) of the students mastered the component of “Text Production.” It is also worth

mentioning that the lack of internet connection was a limitation. In summary, in spite of this

limitation, the students displayed a preference for developing activities in language learning by

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using the XO laptops.

Nevertheless, in an analysis made by Villanueva-Mansilla and Olivera (2012) about the

implementation of the XO-1 laptop (OLPC project) at two primary schools from Cieneguilla,

Peru (Peri-urban), it was found negative results. The analysis was focused on exploring how a

group of students and teachers perceive the capabilities and functionality of the XO-1laptop.

Likewise, if the daily use of the XO-1 laptop changed or not the way of understanding the role of

this small laptop in education and in everyday life. Even though, principals, teachers and

students perceived the XO-1laptop as a positive tool for school, it was found that the students

from the School 0101 used the laptops to play games, record or download music, and chat

through the mesh network when they took them home. Similarity, in the second School 0102, the

researchers found that the XO-1 laptop was used for entertainment because there were no plans

to do specific work with them. For example, the students used the XOs to listen to music, record,

and sing. Equally, a teacher used it to edit audio tracks by using Adobe Audition.

Moreover, the X0-1 laptop also came into conflict with the schools' institutional arrangements

and Peru's educational system. In addition, the XOs didn't meet the expectations of the users

because the students had already had experience with computers at commercial public access

centers. Further, the role of the principals and teachers conflicted with the interest or lack thereof

that students displayed for the XO-1 laptops. In summary, there was no a real plan in the

implementation of the XO-1 laptop (OLPC project). And, it was considered that the strategy of

non-intervention during the implementation require modifications (Villanueva & Olivera, 2012).

Besides, in a study conducted by Guimaraes, Ribeiro, Echeveste and De Jacques (2013),

it was found negative and positive results. They studied the perception of a group of Brazilian

students (63) and teachers (15) regarding the XO laptop (OLPC project). A pilot test was carried

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out in two Brazilian public schools. The findings were as follows. First, the XOs became classes

more attractive. Second, the boys were more interested in using the XOs for recreation, but girls

were more concerned of using the XOs for interacting with people and enhancing their learning

at school. Third, the games were more attractive for younger students while the social interaction

and the search aids were more appealing for older students. Fourth, the XO laptop design was

prefect for children who were 6 years old or under, but it was considered by the older students

like full of trifling play. Thus, these older students recognized the XO laptops as a means of

communication/entertainment rather than an educational tool. Fifth, even though at the beginning

the teachers rejected the XOs, then they considered that XO laptops as a valuable educational

tool. Finally, the researchers pointed out that the technical problems affected the OLCP project

negatively. But, they also stated that even though the students perceived the XOs more as

personal equipment rather than an educational tool, it reduced the educational and social gaps

early at school.

Further, in a study conducted by Guitert and Vázquez (2013) about the teachers’

perceptions of the time factor in OLPC in Catalonia, Spain, it was found that the teachers

considered that the use of technology in the classroom requires a lot of time. For example,

training, creating materials, and fixing technical aspects of ICT when it does not work in the

classroom. It is also worth mentioning that 20% of the teachers believed that ICT (OLPC-XOs-1)

was a distractor and waste of time. However, 80% of them opposed this statement. Most teachers

believed that the use of the XOs in the classroom worthwhile, but that the lack of time was a

limiting factor for its implementation. In other words, the results were positive and negative.

In addition, the study conducted by Fajebe, Best, and Smyth (2013) about the

implementation of the OLPC program in Rwanda at a primary school displayed positive and

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negative results. It was focused on understanding how the teachers felt about the OLPC program,

how the XO laptops were incorporated in the classroom by the teachers, and the impressions of

the teachers about the laptops' impacts on their students. Thus, it was found that the teachers

considered the OLPC program as a computer literacy and rote learning project. Second, they

noted that some students became more enabled (positive), but other students became rude and

disruptive in class (negative). Third, Even though the teachers felt encumbered by the great deal

of implementation burdens, most of them liked the program. Finally, the instructors usually saw

themselves as the main users of the XOs, and not their students.

Moreover, many countries convinced of the great benefits that provides the XO laptops to

education, they began to supply their schools with them. For example, in 2007 the City of

Birmingham, Alabama acquired 15,000 XOs in order to enrich the educational experience of its

students and teachers (Birmingham, Alabama Commits to One Laptop per Child, 2007, para. 1).

Later, in 2008 Colombia's Caldas region purchased 65,000 XOs (Colombia's caldas

region to receive 65,000 XO laptops from OLPC, 2008). After, the Colombian Government and

the OLPC Association joined to continue supplying to the children in Chia, Colombia with the

XOs (One Laptop per Child Launches Social Program with Colombian Government 2012).

Subsequently, in 2009 the OLPC India Foundation also distributed 1,000 XOs in Khairat village,

Maharashtra (Jain, 2009). Then, Uruguay also acquired 90,000 XO laptops from the new XO

laptops (a larger keyboard and upgraded software) which were designed for secondary school

children (Cheap Laptop Aimed at Older Students, 2010).

After that, Australia distributed 15,000 XO laptops to its children from remote places

(One Laptop per Child Australia Bridges the Gap for Remote Children, 2010). Next, the Afghan

government purchased about 4474 XOs (The one laptop per child foundation; one laptop per

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child provides children of Afghanistan access to a modern education 2010). Afterwards, 2,100

XOs were distributed to Palestine refugee children (One Laptop per Child and UNRWA Partner

to Provide New Learning Opportunities for Palestinian Children, 2010).

Moreover, in 2010, the OLPC organization donated unused XOs to Haitian children

(Donate unused XO laptops to the children of Haiti, 2010). Later, in 2012, the State of Sonora,

Mexico distributed 5,000 XOs to elementary school children (State of Sonora Launches One

Laptop per Child Project, 2012). Further, in the same year, 3,300 XO laptops were distributed by

the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (NKR) to children and teachers from 16 schools in Stepanakert,

Shushi and Karin Tak (Nagorno-karabakh Republic Deploys One Laptop per Child, 2012). As

well, 5,000 XO laptops were funded and distributed to primary school children in the West

African nation of Cameroon by the Islamic Development Bank (Islamic Development Bank

Funds One Laptop per Child in Cameroon, 2012).

Discussion

The findings found by Diaz, Banchoff Tzancof, Harari, and Harari (2006) about the first

experience of children from a school (La Plata, Argentina) with the OLPC program (XOs)

suggests that the easy handling of the XO laptop helps students to perform their activities with a

minimum degree of difficulty. As well, it suggests that the use of the XO laptop in the activities

and assignments makes students feel pleased and enthusiastic.

Moreover, the unclear results found in relation to the viability of the XO laptop as a

learning tool on a small group of children (U.S.) suggests that the XO laptop could be used as a

new vehicle to approach to students although it was not yet possible to know how viable the XOs

will be as an educational tool (Ziff, 2008).

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Furthermore, the results obtained by Flores and Hourcade (2009) in five workshops about

the impact of the XO laptop on Uruguayan students and parents suggest that the XO laptop is

more appropriate to be used by children rather than adults. It also suggests that the use of the XO

laptop in the classroom encourages students to read and write as well as it motivates the

collaboration in the classroom.

Besides, the study conducted by Gutierrez (2010) about the use of the XO laptops as a

tool of information and communication technology in language learning in students from a

Peruvian rural school (6th grade) suggests that the XO laptop helps students to develop some

skills. For example, it helps students to develop skills in recording, reading comprehension and

text production. The study also suggests the lack of internet connection is a problem that must be

taken into account in order to be solved because it generates a limitation.

Further, the analysis made by Villanueva-Mansilla and Olivera (2012) about the

implementation of the XO-1 laptop (OLPC project) at two primary schools in Peru (Peri-urban)

suggests that must be developed a good implementation plan in which must be taken into

account some agents. For example, the creation of learning contents to be developed with the XO

laptop in the classroom, the schools' institutional arrangements, the Peru's educational system,

the previous experiences of students with computers, and the role of the principals and teachers.

It also suggests that the hands-off approach in the implementation must be modified.

In addition, the study conducted by Guimaraes, Ribeiro, Echeveste and De Jacques

(2013) on the perception of a group of Brazilian students and teachers regarding the XO laptop

(OLPC project) suggests that the age and sex affect positively and negatively the results of an

educational project. As well, the technical problems must also be kept in mind because these

agents affect the results negatively.

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Another study conducted by Guitert and Vázquez (2013) about the teachers’ perceptions

of the time factor in OLPC in Catalonia, Spain suggests that before using the XO laptops in the

classroom some aspects must be prevented. For instance, training, creating materials and

technical problems that may arise when using the XO laptop in the classroom.

Finally, the study conducted by Fajebe, Best, and Smyth (2013) about the implementation

of the OLPC program in Rwanda at a primary school suggests the following aspects: the XO

laptop could be considered by some teachers as a computer literacy and rote learning project. It

also suggests that the use of the XO laptop could become some students more enabled, but it

could become others rude and disruptive in class.

Limitations of These Studies

The study conducted by Gutierrez (2010) on the use of the XO laptops as a tool of

information and communication technology in language learning in 6th grade students presented

a limitation. This limitation resulted from the lack of internet connection.

Furthermore, in the study conducted by Guimaraes, Ribeiro, Echeveste and De Jacques

(2013) on the perception of a group of Brazilian students and teachers regarding the XO laptop

(OLPC project), it was found that the technical problems affect the results negatively

Finally, the study conducted by Guitert and Vázquez (2013) about the teachers’

perceptions of the time factor in OLPC in Catalonia, Spain stated that that the lack of time was a

limiting factor for its implementation.

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Structure of the Peruvian Education System

The Peruvian education is managed by the Ministry of Education. One of the general

functions of the Ministry of Education of Peru (2014) is to “define, lead, regulate and evaluate in

coordination with regional governments the educational and pedagogical policy around the

nation and establish specific policies of equity” (para. 3).

The United Nations (1948) states the following:

Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the

elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory.

Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher

education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (art. 26, para.1)

Thereby, According to the Political Constitution of Peru enacted on December 29th, 1993,

the government recognizes and guarantees freedom of education (Congress of the Republic,

2009, p. 9, art. 13). Similarly, the Peruvian General Education Law (No. 28044) states that the

Government guarantees an integral and universal education as well as a quality education

(Ministry of Education, 2012, p.1, art. 2). Furthermore, it is also stated that the Government

guarantees a free public education. Moreover, family and society should be involved in

improving education. Moreover, the Peruvian education system is structured in stages,

modalities, levels, cycles and programs (Ministry of Education, 2012, p.8, art. 18).

Stages

They are progressive periods in which the educational system is divided. Thus, there are

two stages in the Peruvian education system and they are as follows: basic education and higher

education.

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Modalities

They are alternative educational services. For example, Basic Education involves three

Modalities which are as follows: Regular Basic Education (RBE), Alternative Basic Education

(ABE), and Special Basic Education (SBE).

Levels

They are gradual periods of the educational process. For instance, there are three levels in

the Regular Basic Education (RBE). Early Childhood Education Level (ECEL), Primary

Education Level (PEL), and Secondary Education Level (SEL).

Cycles

They are educational processes which are developed based on learning achievements and

each level is divided into cycles. For example, the ECEL involves the cycle I – II, the PEL

involves the cycles III-IV-V, and SEL involves the cycles VI-VII.

Programs

They are sets of educational activities. For instance, the national curriculum design

(NCD) from the regular basic education presents a program according to each educational cycle.

Below are described in more detail the Structure of the Peruvian Education System.

Basic Education

This stage is mandatory and is focused on the holistic development in students, such as

in the physical, emotional/ affective, and cognitive aspects. Besides, it is based on developing

competencies, capabilities, attitudes and values. In addition, it is dedicated to developing

learning in the fields of science, humanities, technology, culture, art, physical education and

sports. The basic education involves three Modalities which are as follows: Regular Basic

Education, Alternative Basic Education, and Special Basic Education.

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Regular basic education (RBE). It is focused on teaching children and teens in a normal

educational process according to their physical, emotional/affective and cognitive development.

This modality is structured in three levels (gradual periods of the educational process).

Early childhood education level (ECEL). It ranges from 0 to 5 years old (under 6 years

old). It is focused on the cognitive, physical, motor, social and emotional development of

students. Further, ECEL involves the cycle I (Ages 0 to 2 years) – II (Ages 3 to 5 years).

Primary education level (PEL). It lasts 6 years and ranges from 6 to 11 years old

(Under 12 yrs. old) and is based on providing a holistic education. Besides, PEL implicates the

cycles III (1st & 2nd grade), IV (3rd & 4th grade), V (5th & 6th grade).

Secondary education level (SEL). It lasts 5 years from 12 to 16 years old (under 17 yrs.

old). It is focused on providing students with a humanistic, scientific and technological

education. Further, it develops competencies and capabilities. This level involves the cycles VI

(1st & 2nd year) –VII (3rd, 4th & 5th year).

Alternative basic education (ABE). This modality shares the same goals of Regular

Basic Education. It is based on educating teenagers, young, adults (from 14 years) who usually

work and study at the same time. Furthermore, the literacy program runs within the alternative

basic education (over 15 years old) The ABE is organized in three cycles which are initial,

middle, and advanced.

Special basic education (SBE). It is dedicated to teaching children, teens, and young

with special educational needs, such as people with disabilities as well talented and gifted

individuals. Its goal is to seek the inclusion of them in regular classes.

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Higher education

This stage is charged with consolidating the integral formation of students. It is focused

on generating knowledge and developing research and innovation to create or form high-level

professionals in art, culture, science and technology. Higher education is provided in the

following modalities. At Universities, Institutes, and higher education schools.

Moreover, other modalities and programs are considered in the Structure of the Peruvian

Education System and they are as follows:

Productive – technical education. This Modality is focused on developing skilled labor

and entrepreneurial skills ( from 14 yrs. old). Further, It is organized in Basic Cycle (develops

basic skills of lower complexity) and Middle cycle (develops a specialized labor activity).

Distance education or distance learning. This modality is focused on reaching and

educating those who do not have access an education provided in a traditional classroom setting.

The educational activities are developing through virtual environments using technology

resources, such as

Bilingual intercultural education. This program is focused on educating students in

their native languages ( Quechua, Aimara, cahuapana, and so on) and teach the Spanish as a

second language. It also includes the possibility of studying foreign languages.

Community education. This program is structured through the organization of society

(are not educational institutions). It is focused on enriching the capabilities, skills, attitudes and

knowledge of people in the social, environmental and labor aspect (people of all ages with or

without schooling).

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Early childhood education

(From 0 to 5 yrs. old)

Primary Education

(From 6 to 11 yrs. old)

Secondary Education

(From 12 to 6 yrs. old)

- Regular Basic Education

Basic Education - Alternative Basic Education

- Special Basic Education

- Universities

Higher Education - Institutes

- Higher Education Schools

Others

- Productive – technical education

- Distance education or distance learning

- Bilingual intercultural education

- Community education

Chart 1 - Levels, Cycles, Ages/Grades /Years

Levels Early

Childhood

Educational

Level

Early

Childhood

Educational

Level

Primary

Educational

Level

Primary

Educational

Level

Primary

Educational

Level

Secondary

Education

Level

Secondary

Educational

Level

Cycles I II III IV V VI VII

For ages/

Grades/years

Ages 0 to

2 years

Ages 3 to

5 years

1st & 2nd

grade

3rd & 4th

grade

5th & 6th

grade

1st & 2nd

year

3rd, 4th &

5th year

Stages Modalities Levels

Structure of

the Peruvian

Educational

System

Diagram1

=

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The Budget for Education in Peru

The public budget revenues of Peru in the year 2015 amounts to S /. 130,621,000

(currency of Peru). Thereby, there was an increase of 11.9% of revenue compared to 2014.

Besides, The budget to invest in education in the year 2015 amounts to S /. 22,347,000 (currency

of Peru). Thus, there was a budget increase of 24% compared to 2014 (Republic of Peru-

Ministry of Economy and Finance, 2014).

Chart 2. The public budget revenues of Peru from 2015

Chart 3. The budget to invest in education in the year 2015

Information and Communication Technology or Technologies (ICT) in Peru

There have been some efforts to try to introduce ICT into the Peruvian education. Barrios

states that in 1961 was created the first distance education program on TV called “ telescuela”(as

cited in Balarin, 2013).This program was focused on educating children who were unable to go

at the school (rural areas/poor children). Further, Bueno (2013) states that in 1994 the Red

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Cientifica Peruana / Peruvian scientific network installed 40 computers to promote the public use

of Internet. This program was based on ensuring that all people have access to the Internet

without any restriction.

ICT in the Alberto Fujimori’s government 1990-2000

In this government the Peruvian Ministry of Education launched three programs of

educational technology in public schools. It was framed in a constructivist model, learner-

centered and in a more autonomous learning construction (Balarin, 2013). They are as follows:

La unidad de redes educativas / The educational networks unit. This program was

launched in 1996. Thus, it was focused on connecting around 200 urban secondary schools

through a dial-up network.

Infoescuela. The infoescuela was also launched in 1996. It was a robotics project and

was based on improving the quality of primary education.

El programa piloto de educación a distancia /The pilot program for distance

education. This program was launched near the end of the Fujimori's government.

It was aimed to improve the coverage of basic education in order to reach the most distant places,

such as rural areas.

Moreover, Balarin (2013) states that the application of ICT in Peruvian education has

faced problems. For example, the educational objectives have not been clear. As well, lack of

proper planning, evaluation and implementation of the programs.

Finally, Balarin (2013) also indicates that there were teachers who were reluctant to

incorporate the ICTs into their teachings. This finding could be related to what was said by

Ertmer (n.d) that "additional barriers, specifically related to teachers’ pedagogical beliefs, may

be at work" (p.26).

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ICT in the Alejandro Toledo’s Government 2001-2006

According to Balarin (2013) the project called “Huascaran” was launched in this period.

Huascaran program. It consisted of providing desktop computers to all levels of

regular basic education (Initial Education, Primary Education, and Secondary Education). The

goal of this program was to expand the quality and coverage of education through the use of ICT

as well as promote higher levels of decentralization, democratization and equity. In other words,

it sought to launch a more articulate and inclusive program.

According to Diario La Republica this program was criticized because it did not generate

improvements in education by using ICTs (computers), there was a political management

without planning in the distribution of computers, and there were suspicions of corruption

regarding purchases of goods and concessions (as cited in Balarin,2013).

ICT in the Alan Garcia’s Government 2006-2011

In this stage was created la Dirección General de Tecnologías Educativas / the General

Direction of Educational Technologies and it was launched the program called Una Laptop por

Niño/ One Laptop per Child Program.

The general direction of educational technologies. It was created in 2007 and it sought

to improve the management of the ICT policies by providing it a greater institutionalization and

permanence. Its job was to integrate ICT into the educational process and design a strategy for

national educational technology (Balarin, 2013).

According to Sandro Marcone this program was more concerned about delivering

educational technologies (computers) rather than knowing and facilitating the dynamics of

appropriation and use thereof (as cited in Balarin, 2013). Thus, it caused a weak assessment of

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results due to the evaluations were more focused on the coverage (delivery of computers) rather

than the impact of ICT on learning and management of schools.

The one laptop per child program (OLPC). Villanueva-Mansilla (2007) points out that

on May 3, 2007, the Minister of Education Jose Antonio Chang announced that Peru would join

to the OLPC program (XO-1Laptop).Thus, this program involved the purchase and distribution

of XO-1 laptops to be distributed in schools, but especially those located in rural areas. The

General Direction of Educational Technologies of the Ministry of Education implemented this

program. Oscar Becerra director of the General Direction of Educational technologies during this

government states that the OLPC program in Peru was carried out according to the constructivist

learning ideology (as cited in Balarin, 2013). According to Ministry of Education (2009) the

program goals were as follows:

- Improve the quality of public education in the primary level (rural areas-poor children)

- Generate capacity of educational management in educational institutions to access to

ICT

- Develop capabilities, abilities and skills on students by using the XO-1 laptop

- Train teachers in the educational use of the XO-1 laptop to improve the quality of

teaching and learning (appropriation, curricular integration, methodological strategies and

production of educational material)

Pilot testing. Gomez (2013) indicates that in 2007 a pilot testing was conducted at a

primary school (Apóstol Santiago) from a small town called Arahuay before starting to distribute

the XO-1 laptop. This small town is located in the Mountain Range called “Viuda” at 2600

meters above sea level. The pilot testing had positive influence not only on the students but also

on the teachers, the community, and the implementation team (Gomez, 2013). The use of the

THE XO-1 LAPTOP 23 23

XO-1 laptop in the classrooms encouraged to come back at school to those who stopped

attending. Besides, it changed the bad behavior of some schoolchildren, and motivated them to

focus on doing their class work. For example, Antonio from the 2nd grade (8 years old) used to

have an aggressive behavior with their classmates. However, after he started working with the

XO-1 laptop he changed his behavior positively. He was not only focused on doing his

assignment but also he helped to his classmates on with their assignment by using the XO-1

laptop (Gomez, 2013). Further, the XO-1 laptop allowed to Juana (1st & 2nd grade teacher) to has

a variety of features to enhance her students' learning. Furthermore, the use of the XO-1 laptop

changed the negative attitude of Leticia (3rd & 4th grade teacher) who initially showed little

interest in using the XO-1 laptop in the classroom.

Besides, Margarita (5th & 6th grade teacher) was happy about using the Internet to prepare

her classes and doing research on her own. As well, the community (parents) was more involved

in the learning of their children. Finally, the implementation team enriched their experience as

well as it was full of friendship (Gomez, 2013).

Distribution of the XO-1 laptop. In 2008 the program started distributing 40,000 XO - 1

laptops in 500 schools, but the total number of computers distributed was 850,000 (Balarin,

2013). Cristiá, Cueto et al. indicates that the XO-1 laptop was mainly prioritized for delivering at

schools from rural areas where a single teacher teaches children from two or more grade levels in

one classroom (Multigrade Teaching). But these schools had to have electricity and internet

connection (as cited in Balarin, 2013). Later, this proposal was modified because schools without

internet connection were considered to receive the XO-1 laptop, too.

Moreover, at the begging the program was focused on distributing one XO-1 laptop to

THE XO-1 LAPTOP 24 24

every student, but later only one XO-1 laptop was distributed for each10 students due to the lack

of resources. Besides, in order to expand the OLPC program to all educational levels the

Technological Resources Center (provide a varied technological offer) was created in each

school.

In addition, Balarin (2013) states the creation of the technological resources center

allowed to diversify the supply of technology in schools. For example, it was developed in some

schools a robotics program articulated to work with the XO-1 laptop. Besides, the resources

center from the flagship schools (oldest secondary schools) had XO - 1laptops, notebooks,

robotics kits (to use with the XO-1 laptop), software for reading comprehension, sets of

recreational science, and so on.

Balarin (2013) also indicates that this program emphasized more the coverage or access

of the XO - 1 laptop rather than the dynamics of use and appropriation of them. Further, it was

not possible to know the impact of the OLPC program on the learning’s objectives because there

were no monitoring and evaluation strategies (Balarin 2013).

But, in 2011 el Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo /Inter-American Development Bank

assessed the OLPC program in Peru (as cited in Balarin, 2013). This assessment was focused on

determining the impact of the OLPC program on “lengua” (language) and mathematics learning.

Additionally, it was also focused on determining the cognitive development of students. One of

the hypotheses was that the use of computers can increase the cognitive abilities of children

(Balarin, 2013). The results of this assessment were as follows:

- The access of computers (XO-1 laptop) in the schools increased.

- Most students in the study showed general competencies to operate the XO-1 laptop.

- The program did not increase the language learning and mathematics learning.

THE XO-1 LAPTOP 25 25

- It was found some benefits in the cognitive abilities.

These results generated different points of view. On the one hand, for many people the

technology alone does not generate improvements in learning. On the other hand, Oscar Becerra,

director of the General Direction of Educational Technologies during this program stated that the

results were highly positive because it increased the cognitive abilities (as cited in Balarin,

2013). However, Balarin (2013) states that "the OLPC program took place in a context of little or

no planning" (p. 27).

Moreover, the specialist Sandro Marcone agreed that impact of the XO-1 laptops on the

cognitive abilities was positive (as cited in Balarin, 2013). However, he also points out that the

ICT policy in Peru mainly has generated benefits in coverage or access setting aside the

dynamics of use, appropriation and sustainability of educational technology in schools (as cited

in Balarin, 2013).

According to a survey 83.4% of initial and primary levels were benefited from the OLPC

program. Of these, 89.1% were from urban areas and 81.5% were from rural areas (as cited in

Balarin, 2013). Finally, Balarin (2013) states that "a fairly widespread problem was the fact that

computers ( XO-1) were supposed to cost $ 100 each; but then ended up costing $ 188 dollars

each one" (p. 22).

ICT in the Ollanta Humala’s Government 2011-2016

The General Direction of Educational Technologies in this government is not based on

producing or providing educational technologies. Instead, it aims to provide professional services

(counseling and guidance) to national, regional, and local governments which want to develop

programs about educational technologies. In other words, it is focused on the dynamics of use,

appropriation and sustainability of ICT (XO-1)

THE XO-1 LAPTOP 26 26

Current status of the XO-1 laptop in the Peruvian education system. The total

distribution of the 850,000 laptops (XO-1) ended in 2012. Thus, this government distributed the

remaining XO-1 laptops. In an interview with Sandro Marcone (director of the General Direction

of Educational Technologies) by the OLPC//NEWS states the following goals (OLPC//NEWS,

2012).

- Assess and monitor the status and impact of the XO-1 laptops

- Provide Internet access to schools

- Train future teachers in the pedagogical use of the XO-1 laptop as well as in ICT.

Then they will train to other teachers

- Involve the regional governments in the OLPC program to get more laptops

In other words, the goal is to give more priority to the use, appropriation and

sustainability of the XO-1 laptop rather than continuing buying more of them (OLPC//NEWS,

2012).

THE XO-1 LAPTOP 27 27

Conclusions

Some positive results were found in the literature review. Thus, these results demonstrate

and support the hypothesis that the use of the XO-1 laptop in the classroom as an educational

tool, will help to enhance education and eliminate the so-called digital divide. Therefore,

learning with the XO-1 laptop deepens and enriches student learning and educator teaching.

However, most efforts that have been made to introduce ICT into the Peruvian education system

have failed. These problems come from a bad planning, lack of evaluation, lack of educational

objectives, teachers reluctantly, the supposed evidence of corruption, and so on.

Regarding the OLPC program, it was more focused on emphasizing the coverage or

access to the XO - 1 laptop rather than the dynamics of use and appropriation of them. Thus, it

was not possible to know the impact of the OLPC program on the learning’s objectives because

there were no monitoring and evaluation strategies (Balarin 2013). However, in assessment

conducted by the Inter-American Development Bank about the OLPC program in Peru, it was

found some benefits in the cognitive abilities (as cited in Balarin, 2013). But, Balarin (2013)

states that "the OLPC program took place in a context of little or no planning" (p. 27).

Additionally, the specialist Sandro Marcone states that the ICT policy in Peru mainly has

generated benefits in coverage or access setting aside the dynamics of use, appropriation and

sustainability of educational technology in schools (as cited in Balarin, 2013). Currently, the

Ollanta Humala’s Government (2011-2016) is based on giving more priority to the use,

appropriation and sustainability of the XO-1 laptop rather than continuing buying more laptops

or technologies (OLPC//NEWS, 2012).

To sum up, it is important to conduct a study that examines the constraints or limitations

encountered in the literature review regarding the XO-1 laptop. For instance, lack of internet

THE XO-1 LAPTOP 28 28

connection, technical problems, and lack of time. Besides, it is also important to take into

account other factors, such as planning, evaluation, educational objectives, teachers reluctantly,

corruption, and so on. In order to exploit the great potential of these laptops it is necessary to

resolve all the problems mentioned above. It is important to note that if the implementation of

the XO-1 laptop has not been entirely successful in Peru, it is because there have been secondary

factors that have constrained to take advantage of the educational benefits that the XO-1 laptop

provides.

THE XO-1 LAPTOP 29 29

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