ISSN.OIIO-O408

SOUTH PACIFICMARINE GEOLOGICAL NOTESTECHNICAL SECRETARIAT Yol 2 No 6cCOP-SOPAC ESCAP May 1982SUVA

MANGANESE NODULES IN THE KIRIBATI REGION,EQUA TO RIAL WESTERN PACIFIC

N.F. Exon *

UN Offshore Mineral Prospectingc/o Mineral Resources Department

Private Mail BagG.P .0. Suva

Fiji

ABSTRACT

Manganese nodules have been recovered from 160 concentrations. The plankton provide abundantof 285 deepwater stations in an area of about Ni and Cu for incorporation into the bottom9000 000km2 extending from 168°E to 149OW and sediments as the organisms dissolve, so metalf;om '6°N to' 10°5. About 25~~ of this region lies grades in the broad equatorial belt are generallywithin 200 nautical miles of the islands of high. The narrow equatorial zone of lower gradesKiribati. Kiribati consists, from west to east of is probably related to depression of the carbonatethe Gilbert, Phoenix and Line Island groups ali of compensation depth, the depth at which carbonate iswhich are atolls topping volcanic chains and dissolved, which means that the valuable metals aresurrounded by deep basins. The Mel~nesian Basin retained in the bottom sediments rather thanlies west of the Gilbert Islands, the Central migrating into nodules.Pacific and North Penrhyn Basins lie between the "G' lb t d L ' I 1 d d th N th t P ' f ' ThJ.s study has shown that features whJ.ch favourJ. er an J.ne s an s, an e or eas acJ. J.C, ' /B J.' I '

t f th L ' I 1 d hJ.gh nodule concentratJ.ons and or metal grades are:

as n J.es eas 0 e J.ne s an s.

Nodules occur in all the basins. Maximum 1. Water depths of 5ooo-56oomnodule concentrations (kg/m2) and grades 2. The presence of Antarctic Bottom Water(Ni+Cu+Co~~) are 56.4 and 1.58 in the western 3. Siliceous ooze or red clay substrate

Central Pacific, 31.6 and 3.55 in the eastern 4. Latitudes of l-6°N and I-7°SCentral Pacific, 5.63 and 3.22 in the NortheastPac~fic, and 10.69 an? 2.23.in the North Penrhyn Particularly favourable areas are the northeasternBasJ.n. In the MelanesJ.an BasJ.n there are few data, and southeastern Central Pacific Basin and thebut the maximum known grade is 1.47~~. southern Melanesian Basin. Other areas which merit

more work are the North Penrhyn Basin and theA latitudinal zonation in nodule concentrations southwestern Central Pacific Basin.

and grades is clearly apparent in this and the Cook The major conclusion of this paper is thatIsland region to the south. Maximum concentrations nodules of potentially economic concentrationare at 5°N, 5°S, 11-15°5 and 23°5, with minima at (>10kg/m2) occur in the same areas as nodules ofthe Equator and 8°S. Maximum grades are at 1-6°N potentially economic grade (>2~~ Ni+Cu+Co) in theand I-5°S, with minima at the Equator and from 10° eastern Central Pacific Basin. The existenceto 25°5. The latitudinal zonation is here of nodule grades of 3.55~~ in the eastern Centralattributed to the contrast between the equatorial Pacific and 3.22~~ in the Northeast Pacific Basinszone of high plankton productivity and the southern in the Kiribati region is particularly encouraging.tropical low productivity region. High plankton The data presented here clearly justify more noduleproductivity increases carbonate sedimentation cruises in the region, and allow target areas to berates, resulting in low equatorial nodule properly defined.

* Present address: Bureau of Mineral Resources, P.O. Box 378, Canberra City 2601, Australia.

77

INTRODUCTION basin, is mostly 5000-6000m deep. It is flooredwith siliceous ooze in the north and calcareous

clay in the south. A recent detailed study of

Kiribati (Figs. 1-4) consists of three groups reflection seismic and core data by Orwig (1981)

of islands -The Gilberts, Phoenix and Line Islands showed that siliceous ooze floors the deep eastern

-which straddle the Equator in the central Pacific Central Pacific Basin west of the 5200m contour

Ocean. The Gilbert Islands lie about 2700km west from the.. Equator northward, and at least as far

of the Line Islands, and the Phoenix Islands lie west as 170DW.

roughly equidistant between the other two island

groups. The land area of the atolls of Kiribati is There are some deepwater connections through

684km2 and the area of their 200 mile zones is the Line Islands (Figs. 3 & 4) between the Central

about 2,550,000km2, which gives a sea: land ratio Pacific Basin and the Northeast Pacific Basin, but

of 5,190. The Kiribati population is about 56,000, all are less than 5000m deep. The Northeast

with the great bulk of it in the Gilbert Islands. Pacific Basin in this region is itself mostly less

than 5000m deep, with a couple of isolated deeps of

The above figures indicate the potentially 5100m in the far south. It is floored with

great importance of marine resources to Kiribati calcareous ooze and marl in the north and

(formerly the Gilbert Islands) which became calcareous clay in the south.

independent in 1979. In 1975 the Gilbert and

Ellice Islands became a member of CCOP/SOPAC, and South of the Central Pacific Basin is the

an "investigation of the occurrence of manganese Manihiki Plateau, which rises to water depths of

nodules in the Gilbert Islands region" was included 3000m and less, and the North Penrhyn Basin. The

in the CCOP/SOPAC work programme; the first North Penrhyn Basin is separated from the Central

CCOP/SOPAC cruise for this purpose was in 1979. Pacific Basin to the north, and the Northeast

Six such cruises have beerl made to Kiribati: two Pacific Basin to the east, by deep-sea rises with

to the Line Islands (Halunen, 1980; Lewis, 19BO) water depths of less than 5000m. The North Penrhyn

two to the Phoenix Islands (Gauss, 1980; Tiffin, Basin is mostly more than 5000m deep, and reaches a

1981), and two to the Gilbert Islands (McDougall & maximum of 5500m north of Penrhyn Island. It is

Eade,1981; Exon, 1981a). floored with calcareous clays.

Kiribati is formed of three north-northwest T~is paper co~pares ~nd contrasts. the nodule

trending volcanic chains lying on the western part deposJ.ts -of. ~he fJ.ve basJ.ns: Mela~e~J.an, western

of the Pacific Plate. All three chains are on Cen~r~l PacJ.fJ.c, eastern Central PacJ.fJ.c, Northeast

oceanic crust which is believed to be of Cretaceous Pac~ fJ.c and No.rt.h Penrhyn. A number of broadage and may represent the movement of the crust reVJ.ews of PacJ.fJ.c Oc~a~ no~ules have presented

over hotspots in the underlying mantle. The data of relevance to KJ.rJ.batJ. (e.g. Skornyak~va &

volcanoes have long been inactive and are either Andruschenko, 1974; Skorny.akova, 1979; PrJ..ce. &buried dee beneath the coralline atolls or form Calver.t, 1969; .C~lvert & PrJ..ce, 1~77), but ~h~s J.~d t P t ' the fJ.rst specJ.fJ.cally dealJ.ng wJ.th the KJ.rJ.batJ.

eepwa er seamoun s. .

Th S th P h B . d th M . h . k . regJ.on. e ou enr yn asJ.n an e anJ. J. J.

Plateau, also shown in Figs. 3 & 4, were discussed

Th h 1 f th K ..b t . b d -by Exon (1981b) and will not be considered in any

e morp 0 ogy 0 e J.rJ. a J. sea e J.S

d t . 1 h..-4 th b tht e aJ. ere.

illustrated by FJ.gs. 1; e a yme ry J.S

generalized from the Mammerickx ~~. (1971, 1973)

bathymetric maps of the South Pacific, and the

Chase ~~. (1970) bathymetric maps of the North Previous Relevant Manqanese Nodule Reviews

Pacific. Some idea of the bottom sediments in the

region can be obtained from the map of Rawson & Manganese nodules consist largely of oxides of

Ryan (1978). Figs. 1-4 clearly show the three manganese and iron and contain lesser amounts of

island chains, and the intervening ocean basins metals such as nickel, copper and cobalt which fit

that are of interest for manganese nodule search. into the crystal lattices of the manganese oxides

In the west (Figs. 1 & 2) is the Melanesian Basin, (Cronan, 1980). The nodules generally form by very

which slopes down from the Ontong Java Plateau slow precipitation of oxides at the seabed, and the

towards the Gilberts-Tuvalu island chain. Only off metals may come both directly from the sea water

the southernmost Gilbert Islands and Tuvalu, in the and from the sediment porewater. Nodules vary

Ellice sub-basin, do water depths in this basin greatly in size, shape and surface texture. Those

exceed 5000m; the maximum water depth is roughly which precipitated at the seabed often have a

5400m. In this region the bottom sediments are smooth upper surface which formed in sea water, and

Globiqerina oozes above _4000m, ~n~ reddish a rough lower surface which formed in pore water.

siliceous muds below 5000m, WJ.th transJ.tJ.onal types Where nodules formed at the seabed, there is a

between. general tendency for Fe and Co to be concentrated

in their upper parts, and for Mn, Ni and Cu to be

..concentrated in their lower parts and J.- t J..SNorth of Tuvalu there J.S a deepwater connectJ.on ,

between the Melanesian Basin and the western generally accepted that the former come largely

Central Pacific Basin which lies between the from the sea water and that the latter come largely

Gilbert Islands' and the Howland- from. the .porewater (Cronan, 1980). Japanese nodule

Phoenix-Tokelau-Samoa island chain. In this region studJ.es Just north. of the Equ.ator have shown that

the western Central Pacific Basin is generally rough nodules,- whJ.ch are belJ.eved ~o have formed

5000-6000m deep, and is floored with siliceous ooze below the .sedJ.ment .surface, form fJ.elds of lower

in the north, and red pelagic clay in the south. c~~centratJ.on but hJ.gher grade than smooth nodules

There are numerous deepwater connections between ( J.zuno ~~. 1980).

the western and eastern Central Pacific Basins Because nodules grow very slowly, most Pacific

through the Howland-Samoa chain. In this region nodules forming at rates of less than 10mm/million

the eastern Central Pacific Basin, like the western years (Cronan, 1980), they tend to form in areas

78

where sedimentation rates are very low. Thus nod- (1979). Under this definition the CCD lies atules tend to be concentrated in the deep ocean, about 4800m in the Southwest Pacific Basin at 200s,where most of the pelagic "rain" of organisms is 4900m in the South Penrhyn Basin, and 5100m in thedissolved either in the water column or at the North Penrhyn Basin (see also Exon 1981b).seabed (i.e. well below the lysocline -see later), According to Berger et al. (1976)' in theand far from major terrestrial sources of material. equatorial basins it lieS-some 200m dee~er than itAnother factor which aids nodule formation is the does at 70S, which places it at about 5300m.presence of cold oxygen-rich bottom currents whichtend to sweep away fine sediments, to dissolve As the water deepens from the lysocline to the7arbonate, and. to bring various metals in solution CCD, Globiqerina ooze normally gives way to marl,1nto contact w1th the seabed. and then to calcareous clays or siliceous oozes

with a calcareous component. Below the CCD areNot a great deal is known about th~ path of siliceous oozes or red clays, depending on whether

bottom water in the region. However, it is known or not siliceous microplankton (radiolaria andthat Antarctic Bottom Water makes its way northward diatoms) are abundant in the surface waters. Asinto the deep Central Pacific Basin through the more and more calcite is removed by solutionSamoan Passage at 1700W west of the Manihiki sedimentation rates normally decline, and thi~Plateau (e.g. Hollister ~~. 1974). It has been gives the slow-growing manganese nodules a bettersuggested by Pautot & Melguen (1979) that Antarctic chance to form at or near the sediment-water inter-Bottom Water also passes through the Aitutaki Pas- face. There are of course areas where turbiditysage southeast of the Manihiki Plateau into the currents cause rapid deposition of sand and siltSouth Penrhyn Basin, and thence eastward through beds, and such areas of "turbidite" deposition arethe Marquesas Fracture Zone; it is possible that hostile environments for nodule formation.some of this water makes its way northward into the Widespread turbidite deposits have been identifiedNorth Penrhyn Basin. There is little chance that west of Christmas Island in the eastern CentralAntarctic Bottom Water enters the other Kiribati Pacific Basin, as far west as 166OW (Orwig, 1981),basins. Thus the basins whose nodule deposits and are probably present near most of the islandmay be favoured by the presence of Antarctic Bottom chains. However the small sizes of the land masseswater are the eastern and western Central Pacific in the region, and the lack of active volcanism,Basins and the North Penrhyn Basin. suggest that the deep basins are largely floored

with pelagic sediments (Table 4) some of which areThe Kiribati region lies out on the Pacific deposited so slowly that nodules may form

Plate, well away from major volcanic activity, and unhindered.should have a low influx of terrigenous andvolcanogenic detritus. However, part of the region (' .lies beneath the equatorial zone of high biological .Sko~nyakova ,1979) p01~ted out that there 1S aproductivity, which increases the flux of organic lat1tud1nal zo~e .of h1gh nodule. ~bundan7esmaterial to the seabed. The tongue of high produc- (coverage 1~-15/0) 1n the North Pac1f1c,. wh1chtivity water, with primary production rates of gener~lly 11~s be.tw.een 7ON and 35ON.. .Th1s she100-200 grammes of organic carbon per m2 per year, assoc1ated :~th s11~ceous ooze and s11~ceo~s mudextends westward through the Line Islands, where it south of 14 Nand w1th.red clay north 0: 14 N. Aranges from IoN to 4OS to the Phoenix Islands second, less well-def1ned zone of h1gh nodulewhere it ranges from 2ON'to 2OS (Dietrich & Ulrich' abundances (coverage average 50%) extends south of1968). Outside this high productivity zone ar~ 80S, which she.g~nerally associated with areas ofzones of moderate productivity (50-100g Corg/m2/yr) red clay .depos1t1~n. Skornya~ova showed that thewhich extend across the entire Kiribati region ~one of h1gh .organ1c product1v1ty along the Equatorincluding the Gilbert Islands, and range from 4ON 1S character1~ed by only rare nodule occurrenc7sto 50S. Outside the zon~s of moderate producti- west of the G11~e~t Isl~nds, patchy occurrences ~nvity, organic productivity is low (less than 50g the Central Pac1f.1c. Bas1n., and rare occurrences 1nCorg/m2/yr). Thus the flux of organic debris to the Northeast Pac1f1c Bas1n.the seafloor in the region is greatest at the Equa-tor, and decreases away from it. This means that Skornyakova (1979) also showed that there is asedimentation rates should increase towards the zonation in the metal grades of nodules in theEquator in similar water depths. Pacific. In the Kiribati region high Mn, Ni and Cu

grades were found in a zone extending westward toIn the deep parts of the Pacific Ocean sedimen- the Phoenix Islands, between 2OS and 70S. Another

tation rates are generally less than 5mm/lOOO yr zone of high Mn, Ni and Cu grades was found in thefor the Globiqerina oozes normally found above" eastern Central Pacific Basin around 5ON. Both4O00m and less than O.lmm/lOOO yr for the sili- these zones were shown by Skornyakova to beceous' oozes and red clays generally found below associated with radiolarian clays.5000m. The top of the intervening zone is thelysocline, which is the depth at which widespreadsolution of calcareous organisms commences. The The Present Reviewlysocline is a well defined facies boundary betweenwell preserved and poorly preserved foraminiferal This review makes use of all the pub-lished andassemblages, and generally lies at about 3500m in unpublished data available. Most. come from

the equatorial Pacific (Berger ~~. 1976). CCOP!SOP~C records, J.apanese Geolog1c~1 Surveypub11cat10ns, and pr1ntouts of pub11shed and

'. unpublished data made available by Jane Frazer ofThe calc1~e compensat10n depth (CCD) was re- Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1978, and by

ga~ded by Ber2er ~~. (1.976), .as the lev71 below Mary Fisk of the UN Ocean Economic and Technologywh1ch only 10/0 of the sed1ment 1S Ca C03 1.e. the Branch in 1981. The first printout covered thelevel below which most calcareous organisms have area from the Equator to 25OS and from 155OW tob7en completely dissolved. For o~r purposes it is 1700E, and the second the area from 5ON to 25OS ands1mpler to regard the CCD as the level at which all from 1500w to 168OE. Altogether in the Kiribaticalcite has been dissolved, as did Pautot & Melguen region 285 stations were considered, at 160 of

79

~ +~u'

""' ...."",c~, ., N1't~

';. .e: p.S~: .." Ii +

~"c", + +

._"-~ ,,

, ;'?

~V '#4;§I~ ~ *'..

++

++(l::Z>+

Nodule abundance. mostly as concentration.O-lOkg/m 2 * low « 20~.) coverage

.lO-20kg/m 2 * medium (20-50~.) coverage.> 20kg/m 2 * high (> 50~.) coverage + Nodules absent

B ' 1 " J.' t ~ Crusts alone present---asJ.n J.m

~ .Nodules present, abundance unknown

~ Water shallower than 4000m

c==J Water deeper than 5000m

Fig. 1. Relationship of nodule abundance to geography forwestern Kiribati. Bathymetry in metres (afterChase ~ &.19701, and Mammerickx ~ &. 1973).

80

~-',

+

4-

+cZ:])+

Nodule Qrades (~~i+Clt+Co).0-0.99~~ + Nodules absent

.1.0-1.49% ~ Crusts alone present

~ 1.S-1.99~~ .Nodules present, grade unknown

.>2%---Basin limit~ Water shallower than 4000m

Water deeper than SOOOm

Fig. 2. Relationship of nodule grade (~~Ni+Clt+Co) togeography for western Kiribati. Bathymetry inmetres.

81

+1

+ ,, ,

++ + ~.+ 8

~<:z:Z2~

.t1ll.+-0 O'(]) "'S>

, QJ ~ ~"-< ~, ~ ~

.(l) I "~ .\ ., ,!~ G)

-~ "'S>Malde1<i:\ ~

"\ -z. 5.~, ,~'-' '#' +

~(lJ.'(j\ (}l .

~~~+~,-', ~Caroline Vostock .10

~~INE ISLAND

~+\ ,\

,

Nodule abundance. mostly as concentration.O-lOkg/m 2 * low « 20~~) coverage

+ Nodules absent.lO-2Dkg/m 2 * medium (20-50~~) coverage1 t~ Crusts a one presen. > 20kg/m 2 = high (> 50~~) coverage

., Nodules present, abundance unknown---Basin limit

~ Water shallower than 4000mWater deeper than 5000m

Fig. 3. Relationship of nodule abundance to geography for eastern Kiribati. Bathymetryin metres (after Chase & &. 1970, and Mammerickx & &. 1971).

82

+

cz== I

= +~" +8"Z.0 ~ ,

+ +~-\~ ++ + .8~ +'

~ a:z:x:::z=z::.., cP (Z::z~j~~~~P~~

8 +-0<0 ~

'Q) ~, '5

.' ,,

U3'»(.n

'Z 50

+

6' ., \~

~'Ck

E

+

Nodule qrades (%Ni+CLt+Co)

.0-0.99% + Nodules absent

.l.0-l.49~~ ~ Crusts alone present

tt l.5-l.99~~ , Nodules present, grade unknown

.> 2~~---Basin limit

~ Water shallower than 4000mWater deeper than 5000m

Fig. 4. Relationship of nodule grade (%Ni+Cu+Cb) to geography for eastern Kiribati.Bathymetry in metres.

83

which nodules were recovered. Metal values were areas such as the Kiribati basins are considered,

available from 180 anal yses at 97 station s an d the present author believes that averages from the, 1 .

bl .d. t. f thenodule concentrations from 55 stations. These are measured va ues gJ.ve a :easona e J.n J.ca J.on 0

tabulated in Table 1 in the Appendix. true average concentratJ.ons.

The nodule grade data (Figs. 2 & 4) were moreThe CCOP/SOPAC data were collected by R.V. homoge~eous. Frazero, (1979) considers that

MACHIAS (Halunen, 1980; Lewis, 1980; Gauss, 1980; analytJ.7al. errors of 10,0 may be made, but t~a~ theT. ff . 1981 . M D 11 & E d 1981 . E uncertaJ.ntJ.es caused by large composJ.tJ.onalJ. J.n, , c ouga a e, , xon . f d 1 t d 1 .'

111981 ) d th J G 1 . 1 S d t b dJ.fferences rom no u e 0 no u e J.n sma areas

a , an e apanese eo ogJ.ca urvey a a y ...

) fR.V. HAKUREI MARU (Mizuno & Moritani 1977. (or even J.ndJ.vJ.dual grab sa~ples are much more 0..."a problem. However, as J.n the case of noduleMorJ.t~nJ., 1979~ MJ.zuno & Nakao (In prep.). T~~ concentrations, if nodule grades are studied over

data. J.n the prJ.ntouts c.ame largely from the HawaJ.J. broad areas, the average of the measured values is

InstJ.t~te of GeophysJ.cs (~IG), Lam?nt~oherty robabl quite representative of these areas.GeologJ.cal Observatory, ScrJ.pps InstJ.tutJ.on of p y

Ocea~ography and the USSR Institute of Oceanolo~y. The proportions of Ni, Cu and Co have beenDesP7t~ the lar.ge volume of data, no .papers. dealJ.ng lotted in order to see how they vary overall andspecJ.fJ.cally ~J.th the nod~les ~f thJ.s ~egJ.on have ~rom basin to basin (Fig. 6). Nodule

yet been publJ.shed. Prev~ously unpublJ.shed CC?P/ concentrations and grades have been plotted against

SOPAC data .are presented J.n Table 1. (All avaJ.~- water depth in Figs. 7, 8 & 9, as this was found toable analyt.J.cal and abundan.ce data a.re tabulat.ed J.n be a significant control on both these factors inthe AppendJ.x). As the aJ.m of thJ.s paper J.S to French Polynesia (Pautot & Melguen, 1979) and thedetermine areas of economic potential, attention Cook Islands (Exon, 1981b). Nodule grades havehas been concentrated on nodule abundance and been plotted against concentrations (Fig. 10) tograde, rather than such aspects of the nodules as see whether there is a negative correlation asshape, si.ze and miner~logy. .Info:mation on suggested by Menard & Frazer (1978), and againstconcentratJ.on and grade J.8 summarJ.zed J.n Table 2, Mn:Fe ratios to see whether there is the usualfor the five Kiribati basir,s. positive correlation (Fig. 11).

Skornyakova (1979) had indicated that there wasThe available economic information exists in the some zonation of metal grades parallel to the

form of the grades of various metals including Mn Equator. To confirm and re~ine this concept, allFe Ni Cu and Co and of nodule concentration~ nodule grades and concentratJ.ons have been plotted(kllog:ams of wet 'nodules per square metre) or against latitude (Figs. 12,13 & 14).

~opulation (percentage of bottom cove.red by nodules Seibold (1978) suggests that the following areJ.n bottom photographs). Samples whJ.ch were taken ..f f. t t. in in site

by dredge or normal corer yield information about pre-requJ.sJ.tes. or a J.rs genera J.on m. g ,. and they are J. ncl uded as a reasonable g uJ.de to thenodule sJ.ze sha p e and grade only but samples ..., ,conomJ. . C S i g ni ficance of the KJ.rJ.batJ. nodule

taken by free-fall grabs, tethered grabs or box e

corers also give nodule concentrations. Deep sea occurrences:

cameras reveal the nodule population on thesediment surface; if the cameras are attached tothe samplers the population can be directly related a) Minimum concentrations of about 10kg "wet"to concentration. The term abundance is used here nodules/m2 (i.e. about 15kg dry nodules).to cover both concentration and population. (Other authors, e.g. Menard & Frazer

(1978), suggest that the cut-off grade isNodule abundances and grades (Ni+Cu+Co%) have likely to be 5kg/m2).

been related to geography in Figs. 1-4, considering285 deepwater stations in all. Rather b) Combined contents of Ni+Cu+Co of more thanheterogene~s information was used to p~ot 2~~ (or Ni+Cu of about 1.76~~ assuming anabundance (Figs. 1 & 3). The best data are average of 0.24~~ associated Co).concentrations measured from grab samples or boxcores; photographic evidence of the percentage of c) Areal extent of fields of at least 20-the bottom covered by nodules has also been used, 30,000km2. This assumes an area of fa-although the relationship of percentage coverage to vourable relief, favourable engineeringconcentration is not accurately known. The properties of underlying sediments and lackstations plotted as revealing no nodules are grab, of hard rock obstacles, to give a miningbox core or photographic stations; lack of nodules life of at least 20 years. (Recoveries ofin narrow diameter cores is not considered 1-3 million tonnes of dry nodules per yeardefinitive. In many cases, the presence of nodules seem to be necessary).has been recorded but no estimate of abundance wasmade; such stations are plotted with a distinctivesymbol. Nodule abundance data are consideredrather suspect, and even when photographic and grabinformation are available at the same station, and RESULTSare combined statistically, Bastien-Thiry (1979)

concludes that relative errors of 50~~ can occur.Japanese work in the Pacific suggests that the The summary table relating nodule concentra-highest values from a number of samples in a small tion and grades to individual ocean basins (Tablearea are close to the true average concentration in 2), and the geographic distribution maps (Figs.that area (T. Moritani, pers. comm.). When large 1-4), reveal a number of interesting features.

84

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85

TABLE 2: Summary of Nodule Metal Grades and Concentrations in Kiribati Basins, andComparative Figures from the Equatorial Northeast Pacific region

Nodule Metal GradesBasin Value Concentr~tions

(Kg/m )9~n %Fe Mn:Fe 9~Ni 9~Cu 96Co 9~Ni+Cu+Co

Melanesian Min 12.67 11.10 0.66 0.37 0.25 0.13 0.94 No stations(4 stations) Max 19.50 19.90 1.76 0.63 0.71 0.45 1.47

Mean 16.4 16.4 1.07 0.46 0.43 0.27 1.16

West Central Min 6.90 7.00 0.49 0.08 0.05 0.04 0.28 2 stations (4.20Pacific Max 21.00 17.10 3.00 0.80 0.69 0.37 1.58 (56.40(14 stations) Mean 14.7 14.6 1.08 0.37 0.32 0.20 0.89

East Central Min 6.10 3.60 0.54 0.14 0.06 0.09 0.37 40 stations (0.1Pacific Max 32.40 21.50 6.00 1.71 1.74 0.53 3.55 (31.60(57 stations) Mean 20.3 10.7 1.89 0.80 0.74 0.21 1.73 ( 7.83

Northeast ~iin 12.80 6.20 0.84 0.40 0.10 0.09 1.06 4.83Pacific Max 28.90 18.20 4.35 1.57 1.47 0.33 3.22 5.63(8 stations) Mean 16.8 11.2 2.44 0.85 0.67 0.22 1.74

North Penrhyn Min 7.50 5.30 0.52 0.30 0.14 0.09 0.59 0.002(18 stations) Max 32.50 31.20 5.16 1.06 0.97 0.45 2.23 10.69

Mean 18.6 11.5 1.62 0.60 0.47 0.25 1.32

EquatorialNortheastPacific *Red clay Mean 17.4 11.4 1.53 0.76 0.50 0.28 1.54Siliceous Mean 22.4 8. 1 2.76 1.16 1.02 0.25 2.43ooze

*Data from Horn, Horn & Delach (1972) and Horn, Delach & Horn (1973)

Nodule abundances (Table 2, Figs. 1, 3 & 5) are Manganese percentages (Table 2) are not markedlypoorly kno~n. In the Melanesian Basin nodules different in the Melanesian and ~estern Centraloccur at only 30% of stations, being present in the Pacific Basins, ~ith maxima around 209~ and meansdeep~ater areas of the south only; abundances are around 15%. Ho~ever, the values are considerablyalllo~. Nodules are rare in the north~estern part higher and generally similar to one another in theof the ~estern Central Pacific Basin but common in eastern Central Pacific, Northeast Pacific andits central parts; they are present in 459~ of North Penrhyn Basins; maxima are around 309~ andstations overall. Abundances vary, ~ith a very means around 209~.high maximum concentration of 56.40kg/m2 at VITYAZstation 5937 ~est of Ho~land Island. Nodules arerelatively rare in the northern part of the eastern Iron percentages (Table 2) are similar in theCentral Basin but occur in 68% of stations in the Melanesian and ~estern Central Pacific Basins, ~ithbasin as a ~hole. Abundances vary, ~ith a maximum maxima around 199~ and means around 159~. Percentagesconcentration of 31.60kg/m2 at CCOP/ SOPAC station vary much more in the eastern Central ~acific andKI-80(1)-9 southeast of Sydney Island. Nodules are Northeast Pacific Basins ~here maxima are about 209~apparently evenly distributed in the Northeast and means about 119~. The most variable percentagesPacific Basin, and are present at 519~ of stations. are in the North Penrhyn Basin, ~here the maximumLittle is kno~n about abundances, but they appear is 31% and the mean is 119~.to be lo~. Nodules are generally present in theNorth Penrhyn Basin, and occur at 709~ of stations;abundances are lo~. In summary then, nodules are Mn:Fe ratios (Table 2) vary considerably fromcommonly found in all except the Melanesian Basin. basin to basin. Maxima are 1.76 in the MelanesianConcentrations are highest (maxima over 30kg/m2) in Basin, 3 in the ~estern Central Pacific Basin, 4.35both eastern and ~estern parts of the Central in the Northeast Pacific Basin, 6 in the easternPacific Basin. Central Pacific Basin and 5.16 in the North Penrhyn

86

':;'

120c:=J Totol stotions

100 -Nodules present

g 68 ~ Nodules absent:;:E 80 51 PercentaQ8 of stationsOJ

'060

~.D

~ 40z

20

0Melanesian West Central East Central Northeast North

Basin Pacific Pacific Pacific PenrhynBasin Basin BOSIn Basin

Fig. 5. Histograms showing the number of stations which recovered and did not recovernodules in each basin.

Basin. Higher Mn:Fe ratios generally denote higher next. The tabulated data (available on requestNi+Cu percentages, so the higher the ratio, the from the CeopJSOPAC Technical Secretariat) indicatemore favourable is this aspect of the economics of that, in fact, the percentage of cobalt in thethe nodule deposits. nodules remains fairly constant, and it is the

combined percentage of Ni+Cu which varies most. SoThe percentages of Ni and Cu (Table 2) the percentages of Ni and Cu are dependent

generally vary in unison. They are similar in the variables, whereas the percentage of Co is notMelanesian and western Central Pacific Basins, with related to the other two. The way in which themaxima of about 0.70% and means of about 0.40~~ for three proportions varies appears to be slightlyboth Ni and Cu. The percentages are nearly twice different in the North Penrhyn Basin, where theas high in the eastern Central Pacific and proportion of Ni remains constant at about 50~~, butNortheast Pacific Basins, where they are similar to the proportions of Cu and Co vary (Fig. 6).one another: maxima are 1.71% and 1.57% for Ni and1. 74~~ and 1.47~~ for Cu, means are 0.80~~ and 0.85% Because the abundance and grade of nodules hasfor Ni &Ild O. 74~~ and 0.67% for Cu: Coba~t been reported as being related to water depth inpercentages do not vary greatly from bas~n to bas~n. French Polynesia (Pautot & Melguen 1979) and the: maxima are 0.53% and 0.33~~ and means 0.21~~ and Cook Islands (Exon, 1981b) , these'variables have0.22%. also been plotted against each other for Kiribati.

.Fig. 7 shows that overall the highest nodule~he comb~ned percentages of the valuable m~tals concentrations occur in water depths of 5000-5700m,

-n~ckel, copper and cobalt -are essent~ally but there are too few data to reveal the variationcontrolled by the Ni+Cu%, as cobalt does not vary from one basin to another. In the eastern Centralgreatly. These percentages are economically Pacific Basin where there are abundant data alluni~t~restin~ in the Melan~sian and western C~~tral values greate; than lOkg/m2 lie in water depths ofPac~f~c Bas~ns whe~e max~ma are about 1.5,. and 5250-5750m. This compares with well-defined maximamea~s. about 1%. However,. ~n the. eastern Cen~ral at 4800-5300m in the South Penrhyn Basin, and atPac~f~c and Northeast Pac~f~c Bas~ns the comb~ned 4500-5100m in the Southwest Pacific Basin south ofpercentages are of considerable economic interest, Rarotonga (Exon 1981b). In the Tapu Basin a sub-with maxima of 3.55% and 3.22~~ and means around basin of the 'southern Northeast Pacifi~ Basin1.7~~. The North Penrhyn Basin is in an intermediate centred on 80S 148°W (northeast of Carolinecategory with a maximum of 2.23% and a mean of Island) the ~aximum concentrations are at1.32%. 4800-5000m. Thus there appears to be a general

deepening of the level of maximum concentrationsWhen the proportions of Ni, Cu and Co (related from south to north (Table 3).

to Ni+Cu+Co = 100~~) are plotted against one another(Fig. 6) the results suggest that, in the Central As there is relatively little variation in Co~~Pacific and Northeast Pacific Basins, the relative in the deepwater samples of this region, whereasproportions of nickel and copper remain fairly the percentages of Ni+Cu do vary considerably andconstant at about 1:1, but that the proportion of are linked, it was decided to plot Ni+Cu+Co~~cobalt varies considerably from one sample to the against water depth, knowing that the percentages

87

% Ni x Melanesian Basin

0 West Central Pacific Basin.East Central Pacific Basin.Northeast Pacific Basina North Penrhyn Basin

.

a

I '_.10. .a~ '\rtQ ~'O 0

, ..a a.a a a~ ...

~tJ c ',O!,". ~ '

.o. ..,.0 0(> .

0.a

"'.Cu %Co

Fig. 6. Triangular plot of variations of proportions of Ni, Cu and Co for all basins.Values are percentages IUhere Ni+Cu+Co = 1009~. Note the distinctive trend ofanalyses from the North Penrhyn Basin.

of Ni and Cu are strongly dependent on lUater depth There are only 38 stations in the Kiribati(e.g. Cronan, 1980). This lUould effectively plot region IUhere both nodule concentrations and gradesthe total grade of economically important minerals (Ni+Cu+C09~) are knolUn. When concentration isagainst lUater depth. In the lUestern Central plotted against grade for these stations (Fig. 10)Pacific Basin (Fig. 8) there is no clear maximum of there is a clear tendency for high concentrationsgrade against lUater depth, although there is a to be associated lUith 10IU grades and vice versa.general increase in combined grade from 19~ at 4600m Only one sample (GH76-1-FG12-2), from the easternto 1.59~ at 6000m. In the eastern Central Pacific Central Pacific Basin, falls in the area ofBasin on the other hand, all grades higher than potentially economic concentrations (more than1.39~ lie at 4900-5600mj grades exceeding 39~ lie at 10kg/m ) and potentially economic grades (more than5100-5600m. In the Northeast Pacific Basin (Fig. 29~ Ni+Cu+Co). HolUever this particular data set is9) combined grades exceeding 1.19~ lie at too small to allolU any definite conclusions to be4800-5300mj the maximum grade of 3.2% lies at dralUn.4900m. In the North Penrhyn Basin grades exceeding1.89~ lie at 4850-5350m. These maxima compare lUith A plot of nodule grade (Ni+Cu+C09~) against themaxima at 5000-54QOm in the South Penrhyn Basin and Mn:Fe ratio (Fig. 11) sholUs that in the Centralat 4800-5100m in the Sout~lUest Pacif.ic Basin (Exo~, Pacific., Northeast Pacific and North Penrhyn Basins

1981b). In the Tapu Bas~n the max~mum grades l~e there ~s a marked positive correlation. Maximum~t 4750-5100m (Pautot.& Melguen, 1979). Thus t~ere ratios of 4-6 coincide lUith maximum grades of~s an overall deepen~ng of the level of max~mum 2-3.5% for the eastern Central Pacific, Northeastgrades from south to north, as lUith concentrations. Pacific and North Penrhyn Basins. In the lUesternZones of high grade often overlap lUith zones of Central Pacific Basin the maxima are 10lUer -anhigh concentration, but they do not coincide (see Mn:Fe ratio of 3 corresponds lUith a nodule grade ofTable 3). 1.69~.

88

TABLE 3: Water depths in metres of zones of high nodule concentrations and grades inthe Southwest Pacific Ocean

Feature S.W. Pacific S. Penrhyn Tapu N. Penrhyn East Central NortheastBasjn (A) Basin (A) Basin (B) Basin (A) Pacific Basin Pacific Basin

Zone of high 4500-5100 4800-5300 4800-5000 5200-5600 5250-5750concentration

Zone of high 4800-5100 5000-5400 4750-5100 4850-5350 5100-5600 4800-5300grade

A. After Exon (1981b)

B. After Pautot & Melguen (1979)

JOOO

0 Western Central Pacific Basin -

.Ealtern Central Pacific Basin.Northeast Pacific Basin

~ 4000 0 North P.,rhyn Basin

£0-~-c'- .~

~ 5000 0.,.

0..- ..~ ..00 ..7

6000

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Nodule concentration (Kg/m2)

x Melanesian Basin3000 oWestern Central Pacific Basin 3000 c

.Eastern Central Pacific Basin .Northeast Pacific Basin0 North Penrhyn Basin

--E .!-4000 .Co 4000.Co . .1). i..-c-c ..

0 c0 c' '-.: oQJ x .!.. c ..c c 00 c .~ 5000 C1. ~ .~ 50 0 ..

~. ...c, ...c .~. c c c.~.t c C0.0 .c c

.8 0 9

6000 60000 1 2 3 0 I 2 3

Nodule grad. (Ni. Cu. Co %) Nodule grade (Ni + Cu .Co %)

Fig. 7. Plot of nodule concentration against water depth for various basins. Highestconcentl"ations lie between 5250m and 5750m. Zero concentrations are numerous buthave not been plotted.

Fig. 8. Plot of nodule grade (~ONi+Cu+Co) against water depth in Melanesian and CentralPacific Basins. Highest grades are in eastern Central Pacific Basin and liebetween 5100m and 560Om.

Fig. 9. Plot of nodule grade (~oNi+Cu+Co) against water depth in Northeast Pacific andNorth Penrhyn Basins. Higher grades are between 4800m and 5350m.

89

80 6 ..0 . ...50 5. .... .

0 West Control Pacific Basin c ....East Central Pacific Basin-40 4.

1 ..N«thoost Pacific Basin c"" .~ c North Penrhyn Basin 0-..~ ..~Cia ci oc"~ 81. .6 lJ...u c~ .-5 ...j20 .2. ..,.. I.

.QQ. a ~'"..8 ~ X Melanesian Basin

.~ I i~:~ 0 West Central Pacific Basin10 ~ :If .East CSltral Pacific Basin

Oe x' ..Northeast Pacific Basin0 0 ...". 0 c 0 Q North Penrhyn Basin

ca. .a aa 0 I 2 3 .

Nodule grade (Ni + Cu + Co %> NoGJle grade (Ni + Cu + Co %>

Fig. 10. Plot of nodule grade (9~Ni+Cu+Co) againstnodule concentration (kg/m2) in variousbasins. High grades tend to coincide w~th Fig. 11. Plot of nodule grade (9~i+Cu+Ca) againstlow concentrations, and low grades with Mn:Fe ratio, for all basins. 5hows ahigh concentrations. strong positive correlation.

Nodule metal concentrations and grades have 0.3°N, where the concentration is 56.4kg/m2 andbeen plotted against latitude for the five Kiribati one station in the southernmost North Penrhyn 'Basinbasins and, additionally, the 50uth Penrhyn and (CK-80(1)-4), where the concentration is50uthwest Pacific Basins to the south (using the 10.69kg/m2. However there are several stations indata discussed by Exon, 1981b). These plots show the Northeast Pacific Basin and the North Penrhynquite clearly that the zonation indicated by Basin with concentrations around 5kg/m2, which can5kornyakova (1979) is real, and of major be regarded as the approximate "cut-off grade" forsignificance in terms of both concentration and mining operations.grade (Figs. 12 and 13).

When one considers the distribution of metalThe maximum nodule concentrations (Fig. 13) are grades at the various latitudes (Fig. 12), it is

highest at 5°N, 5°5, 11-15°5 and 23°5. They exceed apparent that Mn, Ni and Cu are behaving similarly,the concentration of 10kg/m2 regarded as of and that there is some similarity in the behavioureconomic significance at 3-6°N, 3-7°5 and 9-25°5. of Fe and Co. For Mn, Ni and Cu, there is a peak50 for a large part of the region maximum from 1° to 6°N (maximum Mn 30%, Ni 1.719~, Cuconcentrations are in the economic range. These 1.749~), a trough from IoN to 1.5°5 (maximum Mn 229~,occur in the eastern Central Pacific Basin (5°N and Ni 1.29~, Cu 0.99~), a peak from 1.5 to 5°5 (Mn 349~,5°5 peaks), in the 50uth Penrhyn Basin (11-15°5 Ni 1.79~, Cu 1.69~) and then a general declinepeak) and in the 50uthwest Pacific Basin (23°5 southwards reaching a trough at 14° to 19°5, withpeak). Normal maximum values are 17.5, 13.5, 32 Cu percentages. declirling more drastically than Niand 35.5kg/m2 respectively; in the 50uth Penrhyn percentages. Iron percentages generally increaseBasin one station (VITYAZ 6332) revealed an southward from about 109~ at 6°N to about 259~ atabnorrrial concentration of 62kg/m2. In the other 25°5. There is some tendency for Fe to behave inbasins recorded concentrations do not exceed the opposite manner to Mn, with subdued Fe peaks at10kg/m2, with the exception of one station (VITYAZ 2°N, 5°5 and 17°5 and subdued troughs at 3°5 and5937) in the western Central Pacific Basin at 14°5. Like iron, cobalt shows a general tendency

90\

to increase in value southward from about O.2~6 at Mn, Ni and Cu on the one hand, and Fe and Co on the6°N to about O.5~6 at 25°5. However there is little other hand (see Fig. 12). The maximum combineddetailed correlation between Co and Fe values. grades of Ni+Cu+Co, which are clearly controlled by

variations in Ni and Cu, are at 1-6°N (max 3.55~6)When one compares the latitudinal plots of and 1.5-5°5 (max 3.35~6). They exceed 2~6 from 10N

Mn:Fe ratio and total grade of valuable metals to 6°N and from 1.5°5 to 9.5°5. There is a trough(Ni+Cu+Co~) there is good agreement (Fig. 13). at 15-18°5 where combined grades are 1% or less,This is clearly because of the similar behaviour of and a rise southward to a maximum of 1.6% at 25°5.

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Combined grades commonly exceed 2% in the eastern with this ratio. Thus the combined grade ofCentral Pacific Basin, Northeast Pacific Basin, and Ni+Cu+Co was positively correlated with the Mn:Fethe North Penrhyn Basin, and in the former two ratio. The same applies in the Kiribati regionbasins maximum grades are 3.55~6 and 3.22~6. (Figs. 12 & 13).

As mentioned earlier, at the limited number ofstations where both concentrations and combined The enhanced nickel and copper values centredgrades ~re known, potentially economic on 3°N and 305 (Fig. 12) are probably due to theco~centrat~ons and grades s.eldo.m occur together increased organic productivity in the equatorial(F~g. 10.). However, the ~at7tud~nal plot of these zone. These elements are present in various plank-data ~F~g. 13) ~learly ~nd~cates. areas of re~l tonic organisms, and are released after death intoeconom~c potent~al. Potent~ally econom~c the water column and bottom sediment as the organ-concentrations (more than 10kg!mZ) are fou~d in the isms decay during and after their fall to the bot-same general areas as potent~ally econom~c grades tom. Thus in general a greater surface productivi-(mo~e thano 2~6 Ni+C~Co) fro~ 2.?oN to 6°N and fr~m ty means a greater availability of Ni and Cu to be3.5 5 to 7 S. Deta~led exam~nat~on shows that th~s incorporated into nodules forming on the seabed.applies only to the eastern Central Pacific Basinon the data in hand. If concentrations of 5kg/mZare considered, then the Northeast Pacific Basin According to D. Cronan (pers. comm. 1981), thealso has good potential. probable reason for the reduced manganese, nickel

and copper in the equatorial nodules is that theseelements are being retained in the organisms abovethe depressed CCD in the area, and that what Mn isavailable for nodule formation may be precipitatingas amorphous oxides or 8MnOz, which do not have

DISCUSSION sites in which Ni and Cu can easily substitute.

In an attempt to understand the economicpotential of the region better, the maximumcombined nodule grades and concentrations at each

The distribution of abundances indicated by latitude were multiplied together to give maximumSkornyakova (1979) is generally borne out by the possible weight of valuable metals on the seabed,data assembled for the present paper. In this from the data available (Fig. 14). This plot showsregion nodules are most abundant in the eastern that maximum possible weights of Ni+Cu+Co on theCentral Pacific Basin, where they are particularly seabed exceeding 0.2kg/mZ (equal to 2% Ni+Cu+Co andconcentrated. about 50S and 5°N, in the South 10kg/mZ concentration) can be expected at 10-6°N,Penrhyn Bas~n between 100 and 1805, and in the 10-705, 90-17.505 and 220_2405. Peaks are at 5°N,Southwest Pacific Basin about 2305 (Fig. 13). This 50S and 1205. This points to the fact that notdistribution is almost certainly largely caused by only are the equatorial sub-basins of the easternvariations in sedimentation rates. The zone of Central Pacific and Northeast Pacific Basins likelyhigh organic productivity along the Equator to contain ore grade nodules in sufficient abun-depresses the CCD and allows high sedimentation dance to be of economic value, but the Southrates in deep water, inhibiting nodule formation. Penrhyn Basin and Southwest Pacific Basin may haveThe zones of low concentrations in the southern some long-term economic potential, even thoughpart of the North Penrhyn Basin and the Southwest large numbers of nodules would have to be processedPacific Basin may well be related to the presence to yield reasonable quantities of valuable metals.of turbidites.

The present study has extended the work ofSkornyakova (1979) in showing a marked latitudinalzonation of nodule grades, with high grades of Mn,Ni and Cu present in the eastern Central Pacific, CONCLUSIONSNortheast Pacific and North Penrhyn Basins. Highgrades of the valuable metals Ni and Cu are foundcentred on 3°N and 305 with lower values along the Some offshore areas in Kiribati clearly haveEquator (Fig. 12). potential for economic deposits of manganese no-

dules. The features of potential economic signi-ficance in the various basins are listed in Table

This latitudinal distribution of valuable metals 4, which shows that favourable water depths ofis more difficult to explain than that of nodule 5000-5600m are widespread in all except the North-concentrations. It is known that Mn, Ni and Cu are east Pacific Basin. That such water depths aregenerally positively correlated, probably because those at which high nodule concentrations andNi and Cu fit easily into the lattice of, grades can be expected are shown by Figs. 7, 8 andTodorokite, a manganese o~ide which is abundant in 9 and discussed on pages 87 and 88. The reasonsthose deepwater nod~les w~th a low Fe content (e.g. for the favourable nature of these depths areCronan, 1980). It ~s also_known that Fe and Co are firstly that sedimentation rates are low and hencepositively correlated, perhaps because Co (unlike the slow-growing nodules can form without beingNi and Cu) fits easily into the lattice of 8MnOz, rapidly buried and secondly that metals such asthe manganese oxide which is preferably formed in Ni and Cu are being released from decayingFe rich nodules (Cronan, 1980). Thus Ni and Cu are planktonic organisms into the sediments, where theypositively correlated with the Mn:Fe ratio, whereas can be concentrated in nodules.Co is negatively correlated overall. In theadjacent Cook Islands region, Exon (1981) showed apositive correlation of Ni and Cu with the Mn:Fe The presence of currents carrying Antarcticratio in deepwater nodules but no correlation of Co. Bottom Water is favourable to nodule formation

93

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because the currents tend to reduce sedimentation ~ ~ ~ ~rates by carrying away fines and by dissolving i ~ ~ ~carbonate, and also because they bring dissolved ~ ~ 0 .-imetals into contact with the bottom sediments. ~ ~ 0 U

..: c 'u'.Antarctic Bottom Water is known to be present in '.-I .co u!:!. '" ~ '", , , ~ 0) 0) .-i ~ u, u, u,both the Central Pac~f~c Bas~ns, and may be ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ gpresent in the North Penrhyn Basin (see page 79).

The nature of the deep water sediment is an uindication of the sediment rates applying. ~Globiqer_in_a ooze is rapidly deposited and is'~ U1therefore an unfavourable substrate, whereas red ~ ~clay and siliceous ooze are very slowly deposited ~and are therefore favourable substrates. In the ~ ~ ~equatorial Northeast Pacific, where most of the ~ ~ c ~ ~ .search for nodules has been concentrated, average 8J ~'aJ g?, ~ ,5:: 0) 0) 0)metal grades are high on red clay, and higher on 3 ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~siliceous ooze (see Table 2). Siliceous ooze is a ]common substrate in the deep water of the northern CCentral Pacific Basin (Table 4) and this is a very g?,favourable feature of this basin. Red mud ~characterizes the southern Melanesian Basin, and ~ , C .-icalcareous clay the other southern basins; these ~ ~ c ~ U1substrates are only moderately favourable. The E ~'aJ Q) ~

marl of the northern Northeast Pacific Basin is not ~ ~~ ~ ~particularly favourable, and the calcareous ooze of ~ c u 0 ~the northern North Penrhyn Basin is unfavourable. ~ ~~ ~ u .It should be noted that the distribution of these ~ "C ~ '~ 0) 8J;::'=: 0) 0) 0) 0)

sediment types is generalized from rather few ~,~ ~~ ~ ~ '00' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~data, and they should not be regarded as Q)~universally present in the deep water areas of the g~various basins. For example turbidites are probably ~ 0)

'.-Iquite commonly present. ~,~,.-I O).-i , §,~ ~ z , The plots of nodule concentrations and grades ,.-I CD t,~ ~ ~

against latitude (Figs. 12, 13 & 14) have shown a U) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

marked latitudinal zoning in the region, which is ,~ U CD g ~clearly related to the productivity of plankton in 5,~ ~,~ ~. uthe surface waters. Maximum nodule concentrations § B~ ~ ,~ U(see page 90) exceed 10kg/m2, the density regarded 3 ~ ~ 8J ~ ~ ~ ~ 8J 0 0 ~as of economic significance, at 3-6°N, 3-7°5 and.-i 3~ >- ~ 0) U >- >- z z ..:j"

9-25°5. Essentially, such concentrations occur in ,~the Kiribati region only in the eastern Central ~Pacific Basin (5°N & 50S peaks); they are also B ffi Ifound in the Cook Islands region in the South ~ 'aJ~Penrhyn Basin (11-15°5 peak) and the Southwest ~ ~U)Pacific Basin (23°5 peak). In the eastern Central 0 ~ ~

Pacific Basin, the maximum concentration is ~ ~;::31.6kg/m2. There is one occurrence of a very high ~ cd ~ ~concentration (56.4kg/m 2) in the western Central ~ ~ ~ -::: ~ g gPacific Basin, and there are concentrations of ~ :5,~,~ ~ E .;:{. ~around 5kg/m2 in the Northeast Pacific and around 5 ~ ~ ~ jg ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ (:)10kg/m 2 in the southernmost North Penrhyn Basins. .;; U) CD .c >- c( ~ z >- Z Z \D

Maximum nodule grades (Ni+Cu+Co~6) exceed 2~6, ~the grade regarded as of economic significance, ~from 6°N to 9.5°5; they peak at 3°N and 3°5 (see ~

page 91). Grades commonly exceed 2~6 in the eastern ~Central Pacific and Northeast Pacific Basins, and 0) Noccasionally in the North Penrhyn Basin; in the 5 ~former two basins maximum grades are 3.55~6 and ~ ~ ~3.22% respectively. These high grades are a very "C Z ~ ~encouraging feature of the nodule deposits of the ~ ~ ~ ~ "CK' ' b t ' , Q) I. Q)

~r~ a ~ reg~on. ~ ~ ~ N.-i Q) 0)::J ~ 3C t) C

Q) Q)Q)X 0~ .c E E "C"C Q) ~~ ,.-IoJ) 0 ,.-I :J:J NT t f t t ' ,

h ' h d 1 L.. '.-I "C .-i.-i 0) ~

he percen ages 0 s a ~ons ~n w ~c no u es ~ Q) U U C "C , th d o ff t K' ' b t ' b ' h ' 0 U) c C 0 Q) 0) 0)

occur ~n e ~ eren ~r~ a ~ as~ns are s own ~n 0) CD '.-I ,.-I ,.-I Q) Q)

Table 4. Nodules are most common in the eastern ~a U ~ 0) 0) ~ ~ 8.3Central Pacific Basin and the North Penrhyn Basin. ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t Q) 2]In the eastern Central Pacific Basin they are more Q)~ ~ ~ B B ~ ~ ~ c

' th 0' (:) ~ a. '.-I ,.-I U "C U .ccommon ~n the south than the nor .~(:) Q) c ~ ~ ~ (:) C Q) ~ ~ 0 ~ Q) '.-I

-l~ c( 0 -l -l U ~ ~~

95

TABLE 5: Areas Warranting Further Sampling

Southern Melanesian Western Central Eastern Central North PenrhynBasin (Ellice Sub- Pacific Basin Pacific Basin Basinbasin)

Location: north 2-6°N; 178°E-178°W 1-6°N; 16o-173°Wsouth 1.5-7°5; 171-175°E 1.5-7°5; 179°E-176°W 1-7°5; 168-173°W 5-7°5; 155-16OoW

Water depths 5000-5500 5000-5500 5000-5600 4800-5300favoured

Priority High Low Very High Fairly Low

Maximum known con- ? 56.4 31.60 10.69centration (kg/m2)

Maximum known 1.47 1.58 3.55 2.23grade (Ni+Cu+Co~~)

Priority High Low Very High Fairly Low

Notes Tuvalu waters Southern area Northeastern andmore important southeastern areas

most important

The major conclusion of this paper is that in REFERENCESthe Kiribati region nodules of potentially economicconcentrations occur in the same general areas asnodules of potentially economic metal grades. BASTIEN-THIRY, H. 1979: Sampling and surveyingThere are six large areas which warrant further techniques in "Manganese Nodules: Dimensionssampling (Table 5). Two of these lie north of the and Perspectives". UN Natural Resources ForumEquator and four to the south of it. The highest Library 2: 7-19.priority areas are in the eastern Central PacificBasin, where existing data on concentrations and BERGER, W.H.; ADELSECK, C.G.; MAYER, L.A. 1976:grades are particularly encouraging; the higher Distribution of carbonate in surface sedimentspriority is here assigned to the northern area, of the Pacific Ocean. J. qeophys. Res. 81(15):which is known to be floored with siliceous ooze. 2617-2627.Another high priority area is the SouthernMelanesian Basin, in which little sampling has been CALVERT, S.E.; PRICE, N.B. 1977: Geochemicaldone, but which lies in favourable latitudes and is variations in ferromanganese nodules andfloored with red mud. However, this basin lies in associated sediments from the Pacific Ocean.the waters of Tuvalu which is not a CCoP/SoPAC Mar. Chem. 5: 43-74.member. A fairly low priority is assigned to theNorth Penrhyn Basin, where known nodule CHASE, T.E.; MENARD, H.W.; MAMMERICKX, J. 1970:concentrations are low, although grades are high. Bathymetry of the North Pacific. ScrippsSome further work in the western Central Pacific Institution of oceanoqraphy Charts: 7 & 8.Basin is justifiable, especially in the vicinity ofthe Nova Canton Trough in the south, but this is of CRONAN, D.S. 1980: Underwater Minerals. Academicrelatively low priority. Press, London.

DIETRICH, G.; ULRICH, J. 1968: Atlas zur oceano-graphie. Bibliographisches Institut, Mannheim.

EXoN, N.F. 1981a: Kiribati manganese nodules sur-vey cruise KI-81(1), 4-15 April 1981.CCoP/SoPAC Cruise Report 56: (unpublished).

EXON, N.F. 1981b: Manganese nodules in the CookACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Islands region, Southwest Pacific. South Pacif.

mar. qeol. Notes 2(4): 47-65.

D ~ .' .FRAZER, J. 1979: The relationship of availabler~fts of th~s paper were seen by.Dav~d Cronan data on element concentrations in seafloor

(Imperl.al C?11ege, London) and T.. Mor~tan~ (Japan- manganese nodules in "Manganese Nodules:~se Geolog~c';ll Survey) and the~r comments were Dimensions and Perspectives". UN Naturall.ncorporated ~n the text. Resources Forum Library 2: 21-36.

96

GAUSS, G.A. 1980: Kiribati offshore survey, 9-25 MORITANI, T. 1979: Deep sea mineral resourcesFebruary 1980, KI-80(1). CCOP/SOPAC Cru!~e investigation in the central-western part ofReport 36: (unpublished). Central Pacific Basin, January-March 1977

(GH77-1 Cruise). Geol. Surv. Japan Cruise Rep.HALUNEN, A.J. 1980: Southern Line Islands survey, 1l: 256 pp.

29 February-17 March 1980, KI-80(2). CCOP/SOPACCruise Report 36: (unpublished).

MORITANI, T.; NAKAO, S. 1981: Deep sea mineralHOLLISTER, C.D.; JOHNSON, D.A.; LONSDALE, P.F. resources investigation in the western part of

1974: Current controlled abyssal sedimentation, Central Pacific Basin, January-March 1978Samoan Passage, Equatorial West Pacific. ~ (GH78-1 Cruise). Geol. Surv. Japan Cruise Rep.~ g: 275-300. !I.

HORN, D.R.; DELACH, M.N.; HORN, B.M. 1973: Metal ORWIG, T.L. 1981: Channelled turbidites in thecontent of ferromanganese deposits of the eastern Central Pacific Basin. Mar. Geol. 39:oceans. !ech!;)~cal- Report International Decad~ 33-57.Ocean Exploration 3.

PAUTOT, G.; MELGUEN, M. 1979: Influence of deepwater circulation and seafloor morphology on the

HORN, D.R.; HORN, B.M.; DELACH, M.N. 1972: Fer- abundance and grade of central South Pacificromanganese deposits of the North Pacific. manganese nodules. Pp. 621-649 in Bischoffrec~nic~* Report International Decade Ocean J.L. and Piper, D.Z. (eds), "MarineGeologyandExplorat~on 1. Oceanography of the Pacific Manganese Nodule

Province". Plenum Press, N.Y.: 842 pp.LEWIS, K.B. 1980: Northern Cook Islands Offshore

Survey, 16-28 April 1980, CK-80(2). CCOP/SOPACCruise Report 42: (unpublished). PRICE, N.B.; CALVERT, S.E. 1969: Compositional

yariation in Pacific Ocean ferromanganeseMcDOUGALL., J.C. & EADE., .J.V.. 198~: Manganese Nod- nodules and its relationship to sediment

ules ~n Western K~r~bat~ (G~lbert Islands). accumulation rates. Mar. Geol. 9: 145-171.

South Pacif. mar. qeol. Notes 2(5): 67-75.

MAMMERICKX, J.; CHASE, T.E.; SMITH, S.M.; TAY- RAWSON, M.D.; RYAN, W.B.F. 1978: Ocean floorLOR, I.L. 1971: Bathymetry of the South sediment and polymetallic nodules. UnitedPacific. Scripps Institution of Oceanoqraphy States Office of the Geographer Map.~: 12.

MAMMERICKX, J.; SMITH, S.M.; TAYLOR, I.L.; CHASE, RECY, J.; MISSEGUE, F.; MONZIER, M. 1977: Chemi-T.E. 1973: Bathymetry of the South cal analysis results about metal contents ofPacific. Scripps Institution of Oceanoqraphy polymetallic nodule samples in the Cook Islands~: 13. Archipelago. ORSTOM-CNEXO Report

NR/CCOP/SOPAC(7)CR.28: (unpublished).MENARD, H.W.; FRAZER, J.Z. 1978: Manganese nod-

ules on the seafloor: inverse correlationbetween grade and abundance. Science 199: SEIBOLD, E. 1978: Deep sea manganese nodules -the969-971. challenge since "CHALLENGER". Episodes 1978(4):

3-8.MIZUNO, A.; MORITANI, T. 1977: Deep sea mineral

resources investigation in the central-eastern ...part of the Central Pacific Basin, January-March SKORNYAKOVA, N.S. 1979: Zonal regula.r~t~es ~n1976 (GH76-1 Cruise). Geol. Surv. Japan Cruise occurrence, morphology and chem~stry ofRep. 8: 217 pp. ..manganese nodules in the Pacific Ocean. Pp.

699-727 in Bischoff, J.L. and Piper, D.Z. (eds),"Marine Geology and Oceanography of the Pacific

MIZUNO, A. & NAKAO, S. (In prep.): Regional data Manganese Nodule Province". Plenum Press, N.Y.:of marine geology, geophysics and manganese no- 842 pp.dules: Wake-Tahiti transect in the CentralPacific January-March 1979 (GH80-1 Cruise). SKORNYAKOVA, N.S. and ANDRUSCHENKO, P.F. 1974:Geol. Surv. Japan Cruise Rep. Iron-manganese concretions in the Pacific Ocean.

Int. Geol. Rev. 16: 863-919.

MIZUNO, A.; MIYAZAKI, T.; NISHIMURA, A.; TAMAKI,K.; TANAHASHI, M. 1980: Central Pacific Man-g~nese nodules and th.eir relation to sedimentary TIFFIN, D. 1981: Kiribati, Phoenix Islands, manga-hlstory. Proceed~nqs Offshore Technoloqy nese nodule survey KI-81(3). CCOP/SOPAC CruiseConference. Houston: 331-336. Report 58: (urlpublished).

97

APPENDIX

TABLES OF STATION AND ANALYTICAL DATA FOR MANGANESE NODULES FROM THEKIRIBATI REGION

TABLES lA-IE STATION AND ANALYTICAL DATA FROM VARIOUS BASINS

TABLE 2 NODULE ABUNDANCE DATA AT STATIONS WHERE GRADES ARE UNKNOWN

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TABLE lC. EAST CENTRAL PACIfIC BASIN

Water No. ofReference Station Oapth Abundance Analyaes Mn ~ fe ~ Mn/fe ratio Ni ~ Cu ~ Co ~ Ni+C~o Longitude Latitude

(m) (kg/m2) ~

3040D44 Styx 56ff (G) 4904 2 31.60 B.50 3.72 1.21 1.07 0.22 2.50 155.7B3°W 3.900°53040064 Styx 5Bff7 (ffC) 4065 5 16.B7 10.40 1.62 0.67 0.51 0.16 1.34 155.7B3°W 3.900°53040054 Styx 64ff16 (ffC) 4939 3 15.B5 10.70 1.48 0.55 0.41 0.3.1 1.27 155.783°W 3.900°53040069 Styx 27ff (G) 5065 1 15.60 9.50 1.64 0.70 0.06 O.fiB 0.84 156.0500W 3.750°53040070 Amph 10(); (GC) 5115 1 14.02 8.74 1.60 1.00 1.05 0.18 2.23 156.617°W 3.667°53040108 CNEXO 811 (G) 5175 4 30.13 6.23 4.84 1.08 1.32 0.14 2.54 158.497°W 3.520°53040110 CNEXO 810 (G) 5150 1 32.40 5.40 6.00 1.57 1.54 0.11 3.22 158.507°W 3.515°53040111 CNEXO B13 (G) 5100 1 30.60 5.60 5.46 1.70 1.41 0.09 3.20 158.508°W 2.027°53040109 CNEXO B9 (G) 5150 2 29.BO 6.80 4.38 1.13 1.33 0.16 2.62 158.5100W 3.513°53040113 CNEXO B7 (G) 5150 1 30.00 6.50 4.62 1.12 1.lB 0.14 2.44 158. 5200W 3.507°53040114 CNEXO B8 (G) 5150 1 30.50 5.30 5.75 1.42 1.39 0.30 3.11 158.520°5 3.510°53040112 CNEXO B6 (G) 5150 2 29.60 5.90 5.01 1.14 1.23 0.17 2.54 158.523°W 3.505°53400280 Vit 37-5429 (G) 5163 0.45 1 21.70 12.50 1.74 0.71 0.52 0.14 1.37 159.878°W 0.003°N3420046 Pros 103V (C) 5000 1 6.10 11.30 0.54 0.30 0.27 0.11 0.68 176.3000W 3.617°N3420109 GH76-1 -5470 2.20 1 27.50 5.44 5.05 1.46 1.51 0.15 3.12 172.972°W 4.9900N

fG25-2 (G)3420108 GH76-1 -5470 3.50 1 27.57 6.98 3.95 1.38 1.55 0.14 3.07 172.972°W 4.9900N

fG25-1 (G)3420106 GH76-1 -5430 17.20 2 21.19 B.27 2.56 0.93 1.05 0.18 2.16 172.972°W 4.9900NfG12-2 (G)3420105 GH76-1 -5430 16.40 2 17.14 9.45 1.81 0.78 0.70 0.16 1.64 172. 972°W 4.9900NfG12-1 (G)

3050012 Styx 36fT (G) 5027 5 14.60 8.35 1.75 0.70 0.56 0.12 1.38 160. 9500W 4.283°53050029 RC 12-87 (PC) 5243 6 17.57 12.30 1.43 0.45 0.34 0.35 1.14 163.958°W 2.292°53050046 Styx 8Off34 (ffC) 5045 3 20.30 18.25 1.11 0.45 0.33 0.40 1.18 166.1000W 3.800°53050050 Styx 81ff43 (ffC) 5045 2 20;90 30.00 0.70 0.44 0.34 0.45 1.23 166.1000W 3.800°53050056 Styx ff42 (ffC) 5045 1 25.10 11.60 2.16 1.04 0.74 0.20 1.98 166.1000W 3.800°53050057 Styx 81ff42 (ffC) 5217 2 19.90 17.70 1.12 0.41 0.43 0.30 1.14 166.1000W 3.800°53050115 EROC 205 (0) 6965 5 16.06 12.74 1.26 0.75 0.64 0.33 1.72 168. 243OW 1.265°53050137 Styx IX 03BX (BC) 1 15.80 12.90 1.2~ 0.51 0.39 0.25 1.15 166.583°W 8.017°53050072 Styx 46G (GC) 5204 3 19.90 18.30 1.08 0.30 0.16 0..50 0.96 168. 283°W 4.233°53050075 Styx 43G (GC) 5451 1 18.20 17.70 1.02 0.43 0.30 0.30 1.03 168. 283°W 4.233°53050076 Styx 48ff (G) 5230 2 18.50 20.70 0.89 0.26 0.20 0.53 0.99 168.283°W 4.233"53060056 Styx IV 7G (GC) 4162 1 14.70 20.40 0.72 0.17 0.15 0.17 0.49 170.617°W 9.617°53060057 Styx IV 12G (GC) 5440 1 13.20 21.50 0.61 0.15 0.06 0.16 0.37 170. 8500W 7.683°53060011 Vityaz 3802(0) 5329 1 24.41 7.22 3.38 0.75 1.10 0.24 2.09 172.873°W 3.283°53060024 Vityaz 5139 (G) 5139 1 17.21 9.74 1.77 0.79 0.77 0.13 1.69 176.122°W 0.053°5Gausa (1980) KI-80(1) -6(ffG) 4800 3.44 2 10.98 12.45 0.88 0.24 0.16 0.20 0.60 169°30.4'W 2°01.0'5Gauss (1980) KI-80(1) -8(ffG) 5320 21.54 2 10.85 13.30 0.82 0.21 0.15 0.21 0.57 169°30.7'W 4°00.7'5Gauss (1980) KI-80(1) -9(ffG) 5280 31.60 3 12.27 14.87 0.82 0.23 0.13 0.29 0.65 169°29.3'W 5°00.4'5Gauss (1980) KI-80(1) -10(ffG) 5440 10.80 2 12.45 13.10 0.95 0.31 0.18 0.25 0.74 169O31.9'W 6°00.1'5Gauss (1980) KI-80(1) -16(GC) 5215 21.04 1 13.00 13.60 0.96 0.26 0.17 0.32 0.75 170058.1'W 4°05.1'5Gausa (1980) KI-80(1) -17(ffG) 5270 6.88 2 9.15 11.15 0.82 0.25 0.17 0.15 0.57 171°04.9'W 4°13.8'5Mizuno & GH76-1 -426 5430 1.4 5 27.40 5.84 4.69 1.35 1.50 0.13 2.98 170000.1'W 5O59.95'NMoritani (1977)M~zuno & Nakao GH80-1 -1599 5245 0.3 3 14.92 7.87 1.89 0.81 0.77 0.12 1.70 173°46'W 5°27'N(.n prep)M~zuno & Nakao GH80-1 -1600 5590 Trace 173°12'W 4°41.4'N(.n prep)Mi( :zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1601 5350 4. 0 3 27.24 4.96 5.49 1.71 1.71 0.13 3.55 172°10'W 3°17.5'N

.n prep~zuno & Nakao GH80-1 -1602 5386 0 m037'W 2°33.3'N(.n prep)M(~zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1603 5509 O. 1 2 26.39 6.05 4.36 1.70 1.42 0.09 3.21 170042'W 1°17.5'N

.n prepMi( :zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1604 5457 Trace 1 19.65 8.63 2.28 1.14 0.92 0.13 2.19 170002'W 0024.7'N

.n prep~zuno & Nakao GH80-1 -1605 5455 0 169O01'W 0°57.4'5(.n prep)Mi( :zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1606 5215 19. 9 2 12.48 10.59 1.18 0.30 0.20 0..21 0.71 168°26'W 1°44.9'5

.n prepM(~zuno &) NakaO GH80-1 -1607 5690 11.8 3 16.37 12.13 1.35 0.55 0.37 0..23 1.15 167°29'W 3°02.2'5

.n prepMizuno & Nakao GH80-1 -1608 5434 Trace 166°52'W 3°52.0'5(.n prep)Mi( :zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1609 4395 O. 4 1 19.43 16.05 1.21 0.45 0.27 0.40 1..12 165O51'W 5°12.5'5

.n prepM~zuno & Nakao GH80-1 -1627 5001 Trace 163°46'W 5°27.4'5(.n prep)Mi( :zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1628 4981 O. 1 1 26.39 5.34 4.94 1.36 1.48 0.11 2.95 164°09'W 3°30.6'5

.n prepM(~zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1629 5212 4. 5 3 22.09 8.00 2.76 1.06 0.92 0..18 2.16 164°56'W 2°52.9'5

.n prep~zuno & Nakao GH80-1 -1630 5485 Trace 165°52'W 1°30.6'5(.n prep)Mi( :zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1631 5355 7. 3 3 23.65 8.25 2.86 1.36 1.05 0.16 2.57 166°20'W 0°58.9'5.n prep

Mi( :zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1632 5251 Trace 1 10.89 9.21 1.18 0.44 0.49 0.06 0.99 167°33'W 0025.9'N.n prep

~zuno & Nakao GH80-1 -1633 5360 0 168°10'W 1°15.8'N(.n prep)Mi( :zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1634 5082 7. 2 2 22.91 12.73 1.80 0.87 0.80 0.19 1.86 169°06'W 2°31.5'N.n prep

Mi( : zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1635 5350 3. 2 3 28.28 5.48 5.16 1.63 1.74 0.14 3.51 169O41'W 3°16.3'N.n prep

Mi{ :zuno &) Nakao GH80-1 -1635A 5350 3. 5 3 10.90 8.99 1.21 0.57 0.38 0.14 1.09 169°40'W 3°16.4'N.n prep

~zuno & Nakao GH80-1 -1636 5743 Trace 170"42'W 4°43 l'N(.n prep) , .

~zuno & Nakao GH80-1 -1637 5970 0! 171°19'W 5°31.4'N

(.n prep)

U~SR unpub- 2 21.0 3. 6 5.83 0.72 0.55 ca. 168°40'W ca. 3°00'N1.shed data(1981)USSR unpub- 3 22.4 11. 5 i.95 0.90 0.67 I ca. 168°40'W ca. 2°20'N1.shed data(1981)

~~: u{'f9tl~ished 4 30. 1 5. 1 5.90 1.37 1.45 ca. 168°40'W ca. 1°10'N

100

TABLE 2: NODULE ABUNDANCE DATA AT STATIONS WHERE GRADES ARE UNKNOWN

Basin and Station Water Coverage Concentration Latitude LongitudeReference Depth ~~ kg/m2

(in)

3400194 NE Pac Wahine 4500 < 20 4°N 1500W3400164 NE Pac MN7401-05G14 4710 0.12 2.917°N 150.975°W3420112 EC Pac GH76-1-FG23-1 5610 0.10 4.99°N 170.017°W3420111 EC Pac GH76-1-G191 5640 0.10 4.985ON 170.032°W3420110 EC Pac GH76-1-C6 5410 20-50 4.985°N 172.983°W3420104 EC Pac GH76-1-FGl-2 5660 0.10 4.9600N 173.948°W3420089 WC Pac Vema 28-203 3243 <20 0.9500N 179.417°WExon (1981) EC KI-81(1)-4 4840 < 0.1 3°30.85'5 174°30'E

PacExon (1981) EC KI-81(1)-6 4960 < 0.1 2°59'5 174°31'E

PacExon (1981) EC KI-81(1)-9 4620 < 0.1 1°30.4'5 173°31.39'E

Pac

Publications in this series of Notes are intended toinclude results of local studies, brief reportsdealing with field observations, and short summaries

:; I ~~ -and data relevant to the aims of CCOP/SOPAC.

.co"-"~1 ff'fi ~ .it' ", OJ. 0': '"! :C:,l') ,-~ PRINTED BY SUVA PRINTING & PUBLISHING CO. LTD.

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