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7/29/2019 Manufacturing Engineering and Technolog
1/17
1
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-1
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Manufacturing engineering and
technology machining
Department of Mechanical and electrical
Shazhou institute of technology, Zhangjiagang, Rep. Of China
Sep. 2006
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-2
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Preface()
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-3
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
1 This is the 4th
edition of the text book.2 Characteristics in the previous edition:
In the emphasis on balanced coverage of relevant fundamental and real-ward practice.
3 what is new in the 4th edition:
New Examples and case studies;
New questions and problems;
Summaries were Completely rewritten and Expanded;
Bibliographies updated
more Cross-references
New or expanded topics are shown in table at the top of page XVIII
I Edition information
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-4
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
1 Use extensive schematic diagram() and flowchart to present every topic of themanufacturing engineering technology(MET);
2 Emphasis on uses of the concepts and information presented;
3 Analogies, discussions and problems designed to stimulate() the studentscuriosity() about consumer and industrial products and how they are manufactured;
4 Extensive reference material include tables,Illustrations,Graphs, and Bibliographies;
5 Numerous Examples and case studies to highlight() important concepts and techniques;
6 Tables comparing advantages and limitations of manufacturing processes
7 A summary, list of key terms, and concise description of current trends at the end of eachchapter.
II Study aids
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-5
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Audience or readers suitable for this text and course include thestudents in the majors of :
III Suitable audience
Mechanical
Manufacturing
Industrial
Aerospace
Metallurgical() and materials engineering
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-6
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
IV About the authors
Prof. Serope Kalpakjian:
Teach in the Illinois institute of technology
Graduated from Robert college, Harvard universityand the Massachusetts institute of technology
He was a research supervisor in charge of advanced metal-forming processes.
published numerous papers
one of the authors of several encyclopedias
editor of several journals
wrote three manufacturing books(two of which obtained the M. engene merchant award)
life fellow() of ASME
fellow and life member of ASM international
fellow of the SME
full member of the CIRP
one of the founding members and past president of the north Americanmanufacturing
research institution
He received: The best paper .
Excellence in teaching award
Education award
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-7
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
IV About the authors
1 Dr. Steven R. Schmid is:
an associate professor in universityof N otroDame
Director of the manufacturing tribology() Lab. At university of NotroDame.
He received bachelor degree in the Illinois institute of technology(with honors)
Master and Ph. D. degree in Northwestern university
numerous awards: the John T. yoursonsaward
the nevkirkaward for ASME
a national science foundation(NSF) careers award
ALCOA foundation award.He published over thirtypapers
edited three conference proceeding
And he
has held officer positions in the s ociety of manufacturing engineers and the
societyof tribology and lubrication engineers.
is a registered professional engineer and a certified manufacturingengineer.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-8
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Part IV: Material-removal processes and machines
1 1 previous manufacturing processes:
Casting produces a part by means of feeding the fluid metal into a castingcavityand freezing into the shape as the cavity.
Formingproduces a part by means of squeezing the hot metal to be a specificshape.
Shaping () produces a part by means ofvarious methods to force the cold metal to be a specific shape.
Figure 1 Schematic illustrationof asandmold, showingvarious features
Figure 2(a) Solidcylindrical billet upset betweentwo flat dies.(b) Uniformdeformation of the billetwithout friction.(c) Deformation withfriction.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. Bending process
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-9
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Part IV: Why need the material-removal processes
Reason: In many engineering applications, parts must be interchangeable tofunction properly and reliable during their expected service lives. However, none ofthe processes described above can produce a part with such accuracy.
material-removal processes are desirable for:
dimensional accuracy geometric features
finishing operation surface characteristics
economical waste materials unless carried out properly, material-removal processes can have adverse
effects on the surface qualityand properties of the product
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Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-10
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
CHAPTER 23
Machining Processes Used to ProduceVarious Shapes
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-11
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Examples of Parts Produced Using theMachining Processes in the Chapter
Figure 23.1 Typical parts and shapes produced with the machining processes described in thischapter.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-12
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Examples of Milling Cutters and Operations
Figure 23.2 So me of the basic types of milling cutters and milling operations.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-13
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Example of Part Produced on a CNC MillingMachine
Figure 23.3 A typical part that can beproduced on a milling machine equippedwith computer controls. Such parts canbe made efficientlyand repetitively oncomputer numerical control (CNC)machines, without the need forrefixturingor reclampingthe part.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-14
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Conventional and Climb Milling
Figure 23.4 (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. (b) Slab milling operation,showing depth of cut, d, feed per tooth, f, chip depth of cut, tc, and workpiece speed, v. (c) Schematicillustration of cutter travel distance lc to reach full depth of cut.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-15
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Summary of Milling Parameters and Formulas
TABLE 23.1
N = Rotational speed of the milling cutter, rpmf = Feed, mm/tooth or in./tooth
D = Cutter diameter, mm or in.n = Number of teeth on cutter
v = Linear speed of the workpiece or feed rate, mm/min or in./minV = Surface speed of cutter, m/min or ft/min
=D N
f = Feed per tooth, mm/tooth or in/tooth
=v /N n
l = Length of cut, mm or in.
t = Cutting time, s or min
=( l+lc) v , where l
c=extent of the cutters first contact with workpiece
MRR = mm3
/min or in.3
/min
=w d v , where w is the width of cut
T orque = N-m o r lb -f t( Fc ) (D/2)
P ow er = k W o r h p
= (Torque) (), where = 2Nradians/min
Note: The units given are those that are commonly used; however, appropriate units must
be used in the formulas.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-16
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Face Milling
Figure 23.5 F ace-milling operation showing (a)action of an insert in face milling; (b) climbmilling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions inface milling. The width of cut, w, is not necessarilythe same as the cutter radius. Source: IngersollCutting Tool Company.
Figure 23.6 A face-milling cutterwith indexable inserts. Source :Courtesyof Ingersoll CuttingTool Company.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-17
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Effects of Insert Shapes
Figure 23.7 Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks on a face-milledsurface: (a) small corner radius, (b) corner flat on insert, and(c) wiper, consisting of a small radiusfollowed bya large radius which leaves smoother feed marks. Source: Kennametal Inc. (d) Feedmarks due to various insert shapes.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-18
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Face-Milling Cutter
Figure 23.8 Terminology for a face-milling cutter.
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Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-19
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Effect of Lead Angle
Figure 23.9 The effect of lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in facemilling. Note that as the lead angle increase, the chip thickness decreases, but thelength of contact (i.e., chip width) increases. The insert in (a) must be sufficientlylarge to accommodate the contact length increase.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-20
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Cutter and Insert Position in Face Milling
Figure 23.10 (a) Relative position
of the cutter and insert as it firstengages the workpiece in facemilling, (b) insert positionstowards the end of the cut, and (c)examples of exit angles of insert,showing desirable (positive ornegative angle) and undesirable(zero angle) positions. In allfigures, the cutter spindle isperpendicular to the page.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-21
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Cutters for Different Types of Milling
Figure 23.11 Cutters for (a) straddle
milling, (b) form milling, (c) slotting,and (d) slitting with a milling cutter.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-22
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Other Milling Operations and Cutters
Figure 23.12 (a) T-slot cuttingwith a milling cutter. (b) Ashell mill.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-23
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Arbors
Figure 23.13 Mounting a
milling cutter on an arbor foruse on a horizontal millingmachine.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-24
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Capacities and Maximum WorkpieceDimensions for Machine Tools
TABLE 23.2 Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions for
Some Machine Tools
Machine tool
Maximum dimension
m (ft)
Power
(kW)
Maximum
speed
Milling machines (table travel)
Knee-and-column 1.4 (4.6) 20 4000 rpm
Bed 4.3 (14)
Numerical control 5 (16.5)
Planers (table travel) 10 (33) 100 1.7
Broaching machines (length) 2 (6.5) 0.9 MNGe ar cu tt ing (g ear dia me te r) 5 (16 .5)
Note: Larger capacities are available for special applications.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-25
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
ApproximateCost of
Selected Toolsfor Machining
TABLE 23.3 Approximate Cost of Selected Tools for Machining*Tools Size (in.) Cost ($)
Drills, HSS, straight shank 1/4 1.002.00
1/2 3.006.00
Coated (TiN) 1/4 2.603.00
1/2 1015
Tapered shank 1/4 2.507.00
1 1545
2 8085
3 250
4 950
Reamers, HSS, hand 1/4 1015
1/2 1015
Chucking 1/2 510
1 2025
1 1/2 4055
End mills, HSS 1/2 1015
1 1530
Carbide-tipped 1/2 3035
1 4560
Solid carbide 1/2 3070
1 180
Burs, carbide 1/2 1020
1 5060
M il li ng c ut te rs , H SS , s ta gg er ed t oo th , w id e 4 3 5 75
8 130260
Collets (5 core) 1 1020
*Cost depends on the particular type of material and shape of tool, its quality,
and the amount purchased.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-26
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
GeneralRecommendations
for MillingOperations
TABLE 23.4General-purpose starting
c on dit io ns R an ge o fc on dit io ns
Workpiece
m at er ia l C ut ti ng t oo l
Feed
mm/tooth
(in./tooth)
Speed
m/min
(ft/min)
Feed
mm/tooth
(in./tooth)
Speed
m/min
(ft/min)
Low-Candfree-
machiningsteels
Uncoatedcarbide,
coatedcarbide,
cermets
0.130.20
(0.0050.008)
120180
(400600)
0.0850.38
(0.0030.015)
90425
(3001400)
Alloysteels
S of t Un co at ed ,c oa te d,
cermets
0.100.18
(0.0040.007)
90170
(300550)
0.080.30
(0.0030.012)
60370
(2001200)
Hard Cermet s, PCBN 0.100.15
(0.0040.006)
180210
(600700)
0.080.25
(0.0030.010)
75460
(2501500)
Cast iron,gray
S of t Un co at ed ,c oa te d,
cermets,SiN
0.1010.20
(0.0040.008)
120760
(4002500)
0.080.38
(0.0030.015)
901370
(3004500)
Hard Cermet s, Si N,
PCBN
0.100.20
(0.0040.008)
120210
(400700)
0.080.38
(0.0030.015)
90460
(3001500)
Stainless steel,
austenitic
Uncoated,coated,
cermets
0.130.18
(0.0050.007)
120370
(4001200)
0.080.38
(0.0030.015)
90500
(3001800)
High-temperature
alloys, nickelbase
Uncoated,coated,
cermets,SiN,
PCBN
0.100.18
(0.0040.007)
30370
(1001200)
0.080.38
(0.0030.015)
30550
(901800)
Titanium alloys Uncoated,coated,
cermets
0.130.15
(0.0050.006)
5060
(175200)
0.080.38
(0.0030.015)
40140
(125450)
Aluminumalloys
Free machining Uncoated,coated,
PCD
0.130.23
(0.0050.009)
610900
(20003000)
0.080.46
(0.0030.018)
3003000
(100010,000)
High silicon PCD 0.13
(0.005)
610
(2000)
0.080.38
(0.0030015)
370910
(12003000)
Co pp e r a l lo ys Un co a te d , co a te d ,
PCD
0.130.23
(0.0050.009)
300760
(10002500)
0.080.46
(0.0030.018)
901070
(3003500)
Thermoplastics and
thermosets
Uncoated,coated,
PCD
0.130.23
(0.0050.009)
270460
(9001500)
0.080.46
(0.0030.018)
901370
(3004500)
Source:Based ondatafrom KennametalInc.
Note:Depths of cut, d,usuallyare in the range of 18 mm(0.040.3in.).PCBN: polycrystalline cubic boronnitride;
PCD: polycrystalline diamond.
Note:See alsoTable 22.2for range of cutting speeds within toolmaterial groups.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-27
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
General Troubleshooting Guide for MillingOperations
TABLE 23.5Problem Probable causes
Tool breakage Tool material lacks toughness; improper tool angles; cut ting
parameters too high.
Tool wear excessive Cutting parameters too high; improper tool material; improper tool
angles; improper cutting fluid.
Rough surface finish Feed too high; spindle speed too low; too few teeth on cutter; tool
chipped or worn; built-up edge; vibration and chatter.
Tolerances too broad Lack of spindle stiffness; excessive temperature rise; dull tool; chips
clogging cutter.
Workpiece surface
burnished
Dull tool; depth of cut too low; radial relief angle too small.
Back striking Dull cutt ing tools; cut ter spindle t il t ; negative tool angles.
Chatter marks Insufficient stiffness of system; external vibrations; feed, depth, and
width of cut too large.
Burr formation Dull cutting edges or too much honing; incorrect angle of entry or
exit; feed and depth of cut too high; incorrect insert geometry.
Breakout Lead angle too low; incorrect cutt ing edge geometry; incorrect angle
of entry or exit; feed and depth of cut too high.
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Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-28
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Surface Features and Corner Defects
Figure 23.14 Surface features and corner defects in face milling operations; see also Fig. 23.7. Fortroubleshooting, see Table 23.5. Source: Kennametal Inc.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-29
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Horizontal- and Vertical-Spindle Column-and-Knee Type Milling Machines
Figure 23.15 S chematic illustration of a horizontal-
spindle column-and-knee type milling machine. Source:G. Boothroyd.
Figure 23.16 Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindlecolumn-and-knee type milling machine (also called a kneemiller). Source: G. Boothroyd.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-30
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Bed-Type Milling Machine
Figure 23.17 Schematicillustration of a bed-typemilling machine. Note thesingle vertical-spindle cutterand two horizontal spindlecutters. Source: ASMInternational.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-31
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Additional Milling Machines
Figure 23.18 A computer numerical control,vertical-spindle milling machine. Thismachine is one of the most versatile machinetools. Source: Courtesyof BridgeportMachines Division, Textron Inc.
Figure 23.19Schematicillustration of afive-axisprofile millingmachine. Notethat there arethree principallinear and two
angularmovements ofmachinecomponents
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-32
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Examples of Parts Made on a Planer and byBroaching
Figure 23.20 Typical parts that can bemade on a planer.
Figure 23.21 (a) Typical parts made byinternalbroaching. (b) Parts made by surface broaching. Heavylines indicate broached surfaces. Source: GeneralBroach and Engineering Company.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-33
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Broaches
Figure 23.22 (a) Cutting action of a broach, showing various features. (b) Terminology for a broach.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-34
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Chipbreakers and a Broaching Machine
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 23.23 Chipbreaker features on (a) a flat broach and (b) a round broach. (c) Verticalbroaching machine. Source: TyMiles, Inc.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-35
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Internal Broach and Turn Broaching
Figure 23.24 Terminology for a pull-type internal broachused for enlarging long holes.
Figure 23.25 Turn broaching of a crankshaft. The crankshaftrotates while the broaches pass tangentiallyacross thecrankshafts bearing surfaces. Source: Courtesyof IngersollCutting Tool Company.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-36
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Broaching Internal Splines
Figure 23.26
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Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-37
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Sawing Operations
Figure 23.27 Examplesof various sawingoperations. Source:DoALL Company.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-38
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Types of Saw Teeth
Figure 23.28 (a) Terminologyfor saw teeth. (b) Types of toothset on saw teeth, staggered toprovide clearance for the saw blade to prevent binding during sawing.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-39
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Saw Teeth and Burs
Figure 23.29 (a) H igh-speed-steel teeth welded on steel blade. (b) Carbide inserts brazed
to blade teeth.
Figure 23.30 Types of burs. Source:The Copper Group.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-40
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Spur Gear
Figure 23.31 Nomenclature for an involute spur gear.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-41
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Gear Generating
Figure 23.32(a) Producinggear teeth on ablank byfromcutting. (b)Schematicillustration ofgear generatingwith a pinion-shaped gearcutter. (c)Schematicillustration ofgear generatingin a gear shaperusing a pinion-shaped cutter.Note that the
cutterreciprocatesvertically. (d)Gear generatingwith rack-shaped cutter.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-42
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Gear Cutting With a Hob
Figure 23.33 Schematicillustration of three views of gearcutting with a hob. Source: AfterE. P. DeGarmo and SocietyofManufacturing Engineers
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-43
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Cutting Bevel Gears
Figure 23.34 (a) Cutting a straight bevel-gear blank with two cutters. (b) Cutting aspiral bevel gear with a single cutter. Source: ASM International.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-44
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Gear Grinding
Figure 23.25 F inishing gears bygrinding: (a) form grinding with shaped grinding wheels;(b) grinding bygenerating with two wheels.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-45
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Economics of Gear Production
Figure 23.36 Gearmanufacturing cost as afunction of gear quality.The numbers along thevertical lines indicatetolerances. Source:Societyof ManufacturingEngineers.
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Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-46
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
CHAPTER 24
Machining and Turning Centers,Machine-Tool Structures, and Machining
Economics
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-47
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Examples of Parts Machined on MachiningCenters
Figure 24.1 Examples of parts that can be machined on machining centers, using various processessuch as turning, facing, milling, drilling, boring, reaming, and threading. Such parts wouldordinarilyrequire a varietyof machine tools. Source: Toyoda Machinery.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-48
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Horizontal-Spindle Machining Center
Figure 24.2 A horizontal-spindlemachining center, equipped with anautomatic tool changes. Toolmagazines can store 200 cuttingtools. Source: Courtesy ofCincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-49
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Five-Axis Machining Center
Figure 24.3 Schematicillustration of a five-axismachining center. Note that inaddition to the three linearmovements, the pallet can beswiveled (rotated) along two axes,allowing the machining ofcomplex shapes such as thoseshown in Fig. 24.1. Source:Toyoda Machinery.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-50
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Pallets
Figure 24.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the top view of a horizontal-spindle
machining center showing the pallet pool, set-up station for a p allet, pallet carrier,and an active pallet in operation (shown directly below the spindle of the machine).(b) Schematic illustration of two machining centers with a common pallet pool.Various other arrangements are possible in such systems. Source: Hitachi SeikiCo., Ltd.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-51
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Swing-Around Tool Changer
Figure 24.5 Swing-around tool changer on a horizontal-spindle machiningcenter. Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-52
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Touch Probes
Figure 24.6 Touch probes used inmachining centers for determiningworkpieceand tool positions andsurfaces relative to the machine table orcolumn. (a) Touch probe determiningthe X-Y (horizontal) position of aworkpiece, (b) determining the heightof a horizontal surface, (c) determiningthe planar position of the surface of acutter (for instance, for cutter-diametercompensation), and (d) determining thelength of a tool for tool-length offset.Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-53
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Vertical-Spindle Machining Center
Figure 24.7 A vertical-spindlemachining center. The toolmagazine is on the left of themachine. The control panel onthe right can be swiveled bytheoperator. Source: Courtesy ofCincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-54
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
CNC Turning Center
Figure 24.8 Schematicillustration of a three-turret,two-spindle computernumerical controlled turningcenter. Source: HitachiSeiki Co., Ltd.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Chip-Collecting System
Figure 24.9 Schematic illustration of achip-collecting system in a horizontal-spindle machining center. The chipsthat fall bygravityare collected bythetwo horizontal conveyors at the bottomof the troughs. Source: OkumaMachineryWorks Ltd.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Machining Outer Bearing Races on aTurning Center
Figure 24.10
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-57
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Machine-Tool Structure and Guideways
Figure 24.11 An
example of a machine-tool structure. The box-type, one-piece designwith internal diagonalribs significantlyimproves the stiffness ofthe machine. Source:Okuma MachineryWorks Ltd.
Figure 24.12 Steel guidewaysintegrally-cast on top of the cast-ironbed of a machining center. Becauseof its higher elastic modulus, the steelprovides higher stiffness than castiron. Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-58
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Chatter
Figure 24.13 Chatter marks (right ofcenter of photograph) on the surfaceof a turned part. Source: GeneralElectric Company.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-59
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Internal Damping of Structural Materials
Figure 24.14 The relative damping capacityof (a) graycast iron and (b) epoxy-granite composite material. The vertical scale is the amplitudeof vibration and thehorizontal scale is time. Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-60
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
J oints in Machine-Tool Structures
Figure 24.15 The damping of vibrations as a function of the number of components on alathe. Joints dissipate energy; the greater the number of joints, the higher the dampingcapacityof the machine. Source: J. Peters.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-61
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
MachiningEconomics
Figure 24.16 Graphsshowing (a) cost perpiece and (b) time perpiece in machining.Note the optimumspeeds for both costand time. The rangebetween the two isknown as the high-efficiency machiningrange.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-62
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
CHAPTER 25
Abrasive Machining and FinishingOperations
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-63
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Examples of Bonded Abrasives
Figure 25.1 A varietyof bondedabrasives used in abrasive machiningprocesses. Source: Courtesyof NortonCompany.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
General Characteristics of Abrasive MachiningProcesses and Machines
TABLE 25.1
Process CharacteristicsMaximum dimension
(m)*
Surface Flat surfaces on most materials; production rate depends on table size and
automation; labor skill depends on part; production rateis high on
vertical-spindle rotary-table type.
Reciprocating table L : 6
Rotary table D : 3
Cylindrical Round workpieces with stepped diameters; low production rateunless
automated; labor skill depends on part shape.
Workpiece D : 0.8
Roll grinders D : 1.8
Universal grinders D : 2.5
Centerless Round workpieces; high production rate; low to medium labor skill. Workpiece D : 0.8
Internal Bores in workpiece; low production ra te ; low to medium labor skill . Hole D : 2
Honing Bores and holes in workpiece; low production rate ; low labor skill . SpindleD : 1.2
L app in g F lat su rf ace s; hi gh pr od uc ti on rat e; low lab or sk il l. T ab le D : 3. 7
Ultrasonic
machining
Holes and cavities of various shapes, particularly in hard and brittle
nonconducting materials.
*Larger capacities are available for special applications. L=length; D=diameter.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-65
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Workpiece Geometries
Figure 25.2 The types ofw orkpiecesand operations typical of grinding: (a) cylindrical surfaces,(b) conical surfaces, (c) fillets on a shaft, (d) helical profiles, (e) concave shape, (f) cutting off orslotting with thin wheels, and (g) internal grinding. See also the illustrations in Section 25.6.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-66
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Knoop Hardness for Various Materials and
AbrasivesTABLE 25.2
Common glass 350500 Titanium nitride 2000
Flint, quartz 8001100 Titanium carbide 18003200
Zirconium oxide 1000 Silicon carbide 21003000
Hardened steels 7001300 Boron carbide 2800
Tu ng ste n ca rbi de 18 00 24 00 C ub ic b or on ni tr id e 4 00 0 50 00
Aluminum oxide 20003000 Diamond 70008000
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Grinding Wheel
Figure 25.3 Schematicillustration of a physical model ofa grinding wheel, showing itsstructure and wear and fracturepatterns.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-68
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Common Grinding Wheels
Figure 25.4 Common types ofgrinding wheels made withconventional abrasives. Note thateach wheel has a specific grindingface; grinding on other surfaces isimproper and unsafe.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-69
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Superabrasive Wheel Configurations
Figure 25.5 Examples of superabrasive wheel configurations. The annular regions (rim) aresuperabrasive grinding surfaces, and the wheel itself (core) is generallymadeof metal orcomposites. The bonding materials for the superabrasives are (a), (d), and (e) resinoid, metal, orvitrified, (b) metal, (c) vitrified, and (f) resinoid.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-70
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Marking System for Aluminum-Oxide andSilicon-Carbide Bonded Abrasives
Figure 25.6 Standardmarking system foraluminum-oxide andsilicon-carbide bondedabrasives.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-71
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Standard Marking System for Cubic BoronNitride and Diamond Bonded Abrasives
Figure 25.7Standard markingsystem for cubicboron nitride anddiamond bondedabrasives.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-72
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Grinding Chips
Figure 25.8 (a) Grinding chip being produced bya single abrasive grain. (A) chip, (B) workpiece, (C)abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. The inscribed circle is 0.065 mm (0.0025 in.)in diameter. Source: M. E. Merchant. (b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an abrasive grain witha wear flat. Note the negative rake angle of the grain and the small shear angle.
(a) (b)
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Grinding Wheel Surface
Figure 25.9 The surface of agrinding wheel (A46-J8V)showing abrasive grains, wheelporosity, wear flats on grains, andmetal chips from theworkpieceadhering to the grians. Note therandom distribution and shape ofabrasive grains. Magnification:50X. Source: S. Kalpakjian.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-74
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Surface Grinding and Plowing
Figure 25.10 Schematic illustration of the surface
grinding process, showing various processvariables. The figure depicts conventional (up)grinding.
Figure 25.11 Chip formation and plowing of theworkpiecesurface byan abrasive grain. This action is similar to abrasivewear. (See Fig. 32.6).
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-75
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Approximate Specific Energy Requirementsfor Surface Grinding
TABLE 25.3
Specific energy
W or kp ie ce m at er ia l H ar dn es s W-s/mm3
hp-min/in.3
Aluminum 150 HB 727 2.510
Cast iron (class 40) 215 HB 1260 4.522
Low-carbon steel (1020) 110 HB 1468 525
Titanium alloy 300 HB 1655 620
Tool steel (T15) 67 HRC 1882 6.530
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-76
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Shaping Using Computer Control
Figure 25.12 Shaping the grinding face ofa wheel bydressing it w ith computercontrol. Note that the diamond dressingtool is normal to the surface at point ofcontact with the wheel. Source: OkumaMachineryWorks Ltd.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-77
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,ShazhouTech,Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Speed and Feed Ranges and Grinding WheelRecommendations
TABLE 25.4 Typical Range of Speeds and Feeds for Abrasive Processes
Process variable
Conventional
grinding
Creep-feed
grinding Buffing Polishing
W he el s pe ed ( m/ mi n) 1 50 0 30 00 1 50 0 30 00 1 80 0 36 00 1 50 0 24 00
Work speed (m/min) 1060 0.11
Feed (mm/pass) 0.010.05 16
TABLE 25.5 Typical Recommendations for Grinding
Wheels for Use with Various Materials
Material Type of grinding wheel
Aluminum
Brass
Bronze
Cast iron
Carbides
Ceramics
Copper
Nicke l alloys
Nylon
Steels
Titanium
Tool steels ( > 50 HRC)
C46K6V
C46K6V
A54K6V
C60L6V, A60M6V
C60I9V, D150R75B
D150N50M
C60J8V
B150H100V
A36L8V
A60M6V
A60K8V
B120WB
Note: T hese r ecomm endat ions v ary sig nifican tly, d epend ing
on material composition, the particular grinding op eration,
and grinding fluids used.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-78
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Surface Grinding Operations
Figure 25.13 Schematic illustrations of various surface grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding witha horizontal-spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder,producing a groove in thew orkpiece. (c) A vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder (also known as theBlanchardtype).
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-79
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Surface Grinding
Figure 25.14 S chematic illustration of ahorizontal-spindle surface grinder.
Figure 25.15 (a) Rough grinding of steel balls ona vertical-spindle grinder; the balls are guided by aspecial rotaryfixture. (b) Finish grinding of ballsin a multiple-groove fixture. The balls are groundto within 0.013 mm (0.0005 in.) of their final size.Source:American Machinist.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-80
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Cylindrical Grinding Operations
Figure 25.16 Examples of various cylindrical grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding, (b) plungegrinding, and (c) profile grinding. Source: Okuma MachineryWorks Ltd.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-81
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Plunge and NoncylindricalGrinding
Figure 25.17 Plunge grinding of aworkpieceon acylindrical grinder with the wheel dressed to a steppedshape. See also Fig. 25.12.
Figure 25.18 Schematic illustration ofgrinding a noncylindrical part on a cylindricalgrinder with computer controls to produce theshape. The part rotation and the distancexbetween centers is varied and synchronized togrind the particularworkpiece shape.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Thread and Internal Grinding
Figure 25.19 Thread grinding by(a) traverse, and (b) plungegrinding.
Figure 25.21 Schematic illustrations of internal grinding operations.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-83
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Cycle Patterns in Cylindrical Grinding
Figure 25.20
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-84
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Centerless Grinding
(c) Figure 25.22 Schematic illustrations of centerless grindingoperations: (a) through feed grinding. (b) Plunge grinding.(c) A computer numerical control cylindrical grindingmachine. Source: Courtesyof Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-85
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Creep-Feed Grinding
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 25.23 (a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel depth of cut,d. (b) A shaped groove produced on a flat surface bycreep-feed grinding in one pass. Groove depth istypicallyon the order of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped wheel. Thisoperation can also be performed bysome of the processes described in Chapter 26. Source: Courtesy ofBlohm, Inc., andManufacturing Engineering Magazine, Societyof Manufacturing Engineers.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-86
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
General Recommendations for Grinding Fluids
TABLE 25.6Material Grinding fluid
Aluminum
Copper
Magnesium
Nickel
Refractory metals
Steels
Titanium
E, EP
CSN, E, MO FO
D, MO
CSN, EP
EP
CSN, E
CSN, E
D: dry; E: emulsion; EP: Extreme
pressure; CSN: chemicals and synthetics;
MO: mineral oil; FO: fatty oil.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Ultrasonic Machining and Coated Abrasives
Figure 25.24 (a) Schematic illustration of the ultrasonic machining process. (b) and (c) Types of parts madeby this process. Note the small size of holes produced.
Figure 25.25 Schematic illustration ofthe structure of a coated abrasive.
Sandpaper, developed in the 16thcentury, and emerycloth are commonexamples of coated abrasives.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Belt Grinding
Figure 25.26 Example:Belt Grinding of TurbineNozzle Vanes.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Honing and Superfinishing
Figure 25.27 Schematic illustration of a honingtool used to improve the surface finish of bored orground holes.
Figure 25.28 Schematicillustrations of thesuperfinishing process fora cylindrical part. (a)Cylindrical mircohoning,(b) Centerlessmicrohoning.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Lapping
Figure 25.29 (a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production lapping on flatsurfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Polishing Using Magnetic Fields
Figure 25.30 Schematic illustration of polishing of balls and rollers using magnetic fields.(a) Magnetic float polishing of ceramic balls. (b) Magnetic-field-assisted polishing ofrollers. Source: R. Komanduri, M. Doc, and M. Fox.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-92
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Abrasive-Flow Machining
Figure 25.31 Schematic illustration ofabrasive flow machining to deburr aturbine impeller. The arrows indicatemovement of the abrasive media. Notethe special fixture, which is usuallydifferent for each part design. Source:Extrude Hone Corp.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-93
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Robotic Deburring
Figure 25.32 A deburring operationon a robot-held die-cast part for anoutboard motor housing, using agrinding wheel. Abrasive belts (Fig.25.26) or flexible abrasive radial-wheel brushes can also be used forsuch operations. Source: Courtesyof Acme Manufacturing CompanyandManufacturing EngineeringMagazine, Societyof ManufacturingEngineers.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Economics of Grinding and FinishingOperations
Figure 25.33 Increase in the cost of
machining and finishing a part as afunction of the surface finish required.This is the main reason that the surfacefinish specified on parts should not be anyfiner than necessaryfor the part to functionproperly.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-95
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
CHAPTER 26
Advanced Machining Processes andNanofabrication
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Examples of Parts Made by AdvancedMachining P rocesses
Figure 26.1 Examples of parts made by advanced machining processes. These parts are made byadvanced machining processes and would be difficult or uneconomical to manufacture by conventionalprocesses. (a) Cutting sheet metal with a laser beam. Courtesy of Rofin-Sinar, Inc., and ManufacturingEngineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (b) Microscopic gear with a diameter onthe order of 100 m, made bya sp ecial etching process. Courtesy of Wisconsin Center for AppliedMicroelectronics, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
(a) (b)
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
GeneralCharacteristicsof AdvancedMachiningProcesses
TABLE 26.1
Process Characteristics
Processparameters andtypical materialremoval
rateorcuttingspeed
Chemical machining (CM) Shallowremoval (up to 12mm) on largeflat or
curved surfaces; blanking of thinsheets; lowtooling
andcost; suitable for lowproduction runs.
0.00250.1 mm/min.
Electrochemical machining
(ECM)
Complexshapes withdeep cavities; highest rateof
material removal among nontraditional processes;
expensivetooling andequipment; high power
consumption; mediumtohighproduction quantity.
V: 525dc; A: 1.58 A/mm2
;
2.512 mm/min, depending
oncurrent density.
Electrochemical grinding
(ECG)
Cuttingoff andsharpening hardmaterials,such as
tungsten-carbide tools; alsoused as ahoning process;
higher removalrate than grinding.
A: 13A/mm2
; Typically25
mm3
/sper 1000A.
Electrical-discharge
machining (EDM)
Shapingand cuttingcomplex partsmade ofhard
materials;some surface damage may result; alsoused
asa gr inding and cutting process; expensive tooling
andequipment.
V: 50380; A: 0.1500;
Typically 300mm3
/min.
W ir e ED M C on to ur c u tt in g of f l at o r cu r ve d su r fa ce s; e xp en si ve
equipment.
Varies withmaterial and
thickness.
Laser-beammachining
(LBM)
Cuttingand holemaking onthin materials; heat-
affected zone; does not require avacuum; expensive
equipment; consumesmuch energy.
0.507.5m/min.
Electron-beammachining
(EBM)
Cuttingand holemaking onthin materials; verysmall
holes and slots; heat-affectedzone; requires avacuum;
expensiveequipment.
12mm3
/min.
Water-jet machining(WJM) Cuttingall types of nonmetallicmaterials to 25mm
andgreater inthickness; suitablefor contourcutting
of flexible materials; no thermaldamage;noisy.
Varies considerablywith
material.
Abrasive water-jet machining
(AWJM)
Single or multilayercuttingof metallicand
nonmetallicmaterials.
Upto 7.5 m/min.
Abrasive-jetmachining
(AJM)
Cutting, slotting, deburring, deflashing, etching, and
cleaningof metallicand nonmetallic materials;
manuallycontrolled; tends to round offsharp edges;
hazardous.
Varies considerablywith
material.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-98
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Chemical Milling
Figure 26.2 (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured bychemical milling to improve the stiffness-to-weight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical millingaluminum-alloyplates. These panels are chemicallymilled after the plates have first been formedinto shape byprocesses such as roll forming or stretch forming. The design of the chemicallymachined rib patterns can be modified readilyat minimal cost. Source:Advanced Materials andProcesses, December 1990. ASM International.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Chemical Machining
Figure 26.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that no forcesor machine tools are involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity bychemical machining; note the undercut.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Range of Surface Roughnesses andTolerances
Figure 26.4 Surfaceroughness andtolerances obtainedin various machiningprocesses. Note thewide range withineach process (seealso Fig. 22.13).Source:MachiningData Handbook, 3rded. Copyright1980. Used bypermission ofMetcut ResearchAssociates, Inc.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Chemical Blanking and ElectrochemicalMachining
Figure 26.6 Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-machining process. This process is the reverse ofelectroplating, described in Section 33.8.
Figure 26.5 Various parts made by chemical blanking.Note the fine detail. Source: Courtesyof Buckbee-MearsSt. Paul.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Examples of Parts Made by ElectrochemicalMachining
Figure 26.7 Typical partsmade byelectrochemicalmachining. (a) Turbineblade made of a nickelalloy, 360 HB; note theshape of the electrode onthe right. Source: ASMInternational. (b) Thinslots on a 4340-steelroller-bearing cage. (c)Integral airfoils on acompressor disk.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-103
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Biomedical Implant
(a) (b)
Figure 26.8 (a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top pieces) with an ultrahighmolecular weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces). (b) Cross- section of the ECM process as applied to themetal implant. Source: Biomet, Inc.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-104
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Electrochemical Grinding
Figure 26.9 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-grinding process. (b) Thin slot producedon a round nickel-alloy tube bythis process.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Electrical-Discharge Machining
(a) (b)
Figure 26.10 (a) S chematic illustration of the electrical-discharge machining process. This is oneof the most widelyused machining processes, particularlyfor die-sinking operations. (b)Examples of cavities produced by the electrical-discharge machining process, using shapedelectrodes. Two round parts (rear) are the set of dies for extruding the aluminum piece shown infront (see also Fig. 15.9b). Source: Courtesyof AGIE USA Ltd. (c) A spiral cavityproduced byEDM using a slowly rotating electrode, similar to a screw thread. Source:American Machinist.
(c)
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Examples of EDM
Figure 26.11 S tepped cavities produced with a square electrode by theEDM process. The workpiece moves in the two principal horizontaldirections (x-y), and its motion is synchronized with the downwardmovement of the electrode to produce these cavities. Also shown is around electrode capable of producing round or elliptical cavities.Source: Courtesyof AGIE USA Ltd.
Figure 26.12 Schematicillustration of producing aninner cavityby EDM, using aspeciallydesigned electrodewith a hinged tip, which isslowlyopened and rotated toproduce the large cavity.Source: Luziesa France.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Wire EDM
Figure 26.13 (a) Schematicillustration of the wireEDM process. As much as50 hours of machining canbe performed with one reelof wire, which is thendiscarded. (b) Cutting athick plate with wire EDM.(c) A computer-controlledwire EDM machine.Source: Courtesyof AGIEUSA Ltd.
(a)
(b) (c)
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Laser-Beam Machining
Figure 26.14 (a) Schematic illustration of the laser-beam machining process. (b) and (c) Examplesof holes produced in nonmetallic parts byLBM.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
General Applications of Lasers in Manufacturing
TABLE 26.2
Application Laser type
Cutting
Metals PCO2 , CWCO2 , Nd : YAG, ruby
Plastics CWCO2
Ceramics PCO2
Drilling
Metals PCO2 , Nd : YAG, Nd : glass, ruby
Plastics Excimer
Marking
Metals PCO2 , Nd : YAG
Plastics Excimer
Ceramics Excimer
Surface treatment, metals CWCO2
W el di ng , m et al s P CO 2 , CW CO 2 , N d : YA G, N d : gl as s, r ub y
Note: P pulsed, CW continuous wave.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Electron-Beam Machining
Figure 26.15 Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machiningprocess. Unlike LBM, this process requires a vacuum, so workpiecesize is limited to the size of the vacuum chamber.
Kalpakjian SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology Page 7-111
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Water-J et Machining
Figure 26.16 (a) Schematic illustration of water-jet machining.(b) A computer-controlled, water-jet cutting machine cutting agranite plate. (c) Examples of various nonmetallic parts producedby the water-jet cutting process. Source: Courtesyof PossisCorporation.
(c)
(a) (b)
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Abrasive-J et Machining
Figure 26.17 Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Nanofabrication
(a) (b)
Figure 26.18 (a) A scanning electron microscope view of a diamond-tipped
(triangular piece at the right) cantilever used with the atomic force microscope.The diamond tip is attached to the end of the cantilever with anadhesive. (b )Scratches produced on a surface bythe diamond tip under different forces. Notethe extremelysmall size of the scratches.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
CHAPTER 27
Fusion-Welding Processes
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
General Characteristics of Fusion WeldingProcesses
TABLE 27.1
J oi ni ng p ro ce ss O pe ra ti on A dv an ta ge
Skilllevel
required
Welding
position
Current
t yp e D is to rt io n*Costof
equipment
S hi el de d me ta l- ar c M an ua l P or ta bl e an d
flexible
High All ac, dc 1 to 2 Low
Submerged arc A utomati c Hi gh
deposition
Low to
medium
Flatand
horizontal
ac, dc 1 to 2 Medium
G a s me ta l -a rc S em i au to ma ti c
orautomatic
M os t m et al s L ow t o
high
All dc 2 to 3 Medium to
high
Gas tungs ten-a rc Manualor
automatic
M os t m et al s L ow t o
high
All ac, dc 2 to 3 Medium
F l ux -c or ed a rc S em i au to ma ti c
orautomatic
High
deposition
Low to
high
All dc 1 to 3 Medium
Oxyfuel Manual Portable and
flexible
High All 2 to 4 Low
Electron-beam,
Laser-beam
Semiautomatic
orautomatic
M os t m et al s M ed iu m
to high
All 3 to 5 High
*1, highest;5,lowest.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Oxyacetylene Flames Used in Welding
Figure 27.1 Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cuttingoperations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gasmixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.
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Torch Used in Oxyacetylene Welding
Figure 27.2 (a) General view of and(b) cross-section of a torch used inoxyacetylene welding. The acetylenevalve is opened first; the gas is litwith a spark lighter or a pilot light;then the oxygen valve is opened andthe flame adjusted. (c) Basicequipment used in oxyfuel-gaswelding. To ensure correctconnections, all threads on acetylenefittings are left-handed, whereas thosefor oxygen are right-handed. Oxygenregulators are usuallypainted green,acetylene regulators red.
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Pressure-Gas Welding
Figure 27.3 Schematic illustration of the pressure-gas welding process.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
Figure 27.4 S chematic illustration of the shieldedmetal-arc welding process. About 50% of alllarge-scale industrial welding operations use thisprocess.
Figure 27.5 Schematic illustration of the shieldedmetal-arc welding operations (also known as stickwelding, because the electrode is in the shape of astick).
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Multiple Pass Deep Weld
Figure 27.6 A deep weld showingthe buildup sequence of individualweld beads.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Submerged-Arc Welding
Figure 27.7 Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding process andequipment. The unfused flux is recovered and reused. Source: American WeldingSociety.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Gas Metal-Arc Welding
Figure 27.8 Schematicillustration of the gas metal-arcwelding process, formerlyknown as MIG (for metal inertgas) welding.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Equipment Used in Gas Metal-Arc Welding
Figure 27.9 Basic equipmentused in gas metal-arc weldingoperations. Source: AmericanWelding Society.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Flux-Cored Arc-Welding
Figure 27.10 Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This operationis similar to gas metal-arc welding, showing in Fig. 27.8.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Electrogas Welding
Figure 27.11 Schematic illustration of theelectrogas welding process. Source: AmericanWelding Society.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Equipment for Electroslag Welding
Figure 27.12 Equipment used forelectroslag welding operations.Source: American Welding Society.
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Designations for Mild Steel Coated Electrodes
TABLE 27.2
The prefix E designates arc welding electrode.
The first two digits of four-digit numbers and the first three digits of five-digit numbersindicate minimum tensile strength:
E 60XX 60 ,000 psi mi ni mum t ensi le st re ng th
E 70XX 70 ,000 psi mi ni mum t ensi le st re ng th
E110XX 110,000 psi minimum tensi le st rength
The next-to-last digit indicates position:
EXX1X All positions
EX X2 X F la t po sit io n a nd ho ri zo nt al f il le ts
The last two digits together indicatethe type of covering and the current to be used.
The suffix (Example: EXXXX-A1) indicates the approximatealloy in the weld deposit:
A1 0.5% Mo
B1 0.5% Cr, 0.5% Mo
B2 1.25% Cr, 0.5% Mo
B3 2.25% Cr, 1% Mo
B4 2% Cr, 0.5% Mo
B5 0.5% Cr, 1% Mo
C1 2.5% Ni
C2 3.25% Ni
C3 1% Ni, 0.35% Mo, 0.15% Cr
D1 and D2 0.250.45% Mo, 1.75% Mn
G 0.5% min. Ni, 0.3% min. Cr, 0.2% min. Mo, 0.1%min. V,
1% min. Mn (only one element required)
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Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding
Figure 27.13 The gas tungsten-arc welding process,
formerlyknown as TIG (for tungsten inert gas) welding.
Figure 27.14 Equipment for gas tungsten-arcwelding operations. Source: AmericanWelding Society.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Plasma-Arc Welding
Figure 27.15 Two types of plasma-arc welding processes: (a)transferred, (b) nontransferred. Deep and narrow welds can be madeby this process at high welding speeds.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Comparison of Laser-Beam and Tungsten-ArcWelding
Figure 27.16Comparison of thesize of weld beads in(a) electron-beam orlaser-beam welding tothat in (b)conventional(tungsten-arc)welding. Source:American WeldingSociety, WeldingHandbook(8th ed.),1991.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Example of Laser Welding
Figure 27.17 Laser welding of razorblades.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Flame Cutting and Drag Lines
Figure 27.18 (a) F lame cutting of steel plate with an oxyacetylene torch, and a cross-section of the torch nozzle. (b) Cross-section of a flame-cut plate showing drag lines.
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CHAPTER 28
Solid-State Welding Processes
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Roll Bonding
Figure 28.1 Schematic illustration ofthe roll bonding, or cladding, process
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Ultrasonic Welding
(a) (b)
Figure 28.2 (a) Components of an ultrasonic welding machine forlap welds. The lateralvibrations of the tool tip cause plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of theworkpieces. (b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller. (c) An ultrasonicallywelded part.
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Friction Welding
Figure 28.3 (a) Sequence of operations in the friction welding process: (1) Left-handcomponent is rotated at high speed. (2) Right-hand component is brought into contact under anaxial force. (3) Axial force is increased; flash begins to form. (4) Left-hand component stopsrotating; weld is completed. The flash can subsequently be removed bymachining or grinding.(b) Shape of fusion zone in friction welding, as a function of the force applied and the rotationalspeed.
(a)
(b)
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Friction Stir Welding
Figure 28.4 The principleof the friction stir weldingprocess. Aluminum-alloyplates up to 75 mm (3 in.)thick have been welded bythis process. Source: TWI,Cambridge, U.K.
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Resistance Spot Welding
Figure 28.5 (a) Sequencein resistance spot welding.
(b) Cross-section of a spotweld, showing the weldnugget and the indentationof the electrode on thesheet surfaces. This is oneof the most commonlyused process in sheet-metal fabrication and inautomotive-bodyassembly.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
WeldingMachineDesign
Figure 28.6 (a)Schematic illustrationof an air-operatedrocker-arm spot-welding machine.Source: AmericanWelding Society. (b)and (c) Electrodedesigns for easyaccessinto components to bewelded.
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Examples of Spot Welding
(c)
(a) (b)
Figure 28.7 (a) and (b) Spot-welded cookware and muffler.(c) An automated spot-welding machine with aprogrammable robot; thewelding tip can move in threeprincipal directions. Sheets aslarge as 2.2 m X 0.55 m (88in. X 22 in.) can beaccommodated in thismachine. Source: Courtesy ofTaylor-Winfield Corporation.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Spot Welding Example
Figure 28.8 Robots equipped with spot-welding guns and operated bycomputer controls, in amass-production line for automotive bodies. Source: Courtesyof Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Resistance Seam Welding
Figure 28.9 (a) Seam-welding process inwhich rotating rolls actas electrodes. (b)Overlapping spots in aseam weld. (c) Rollspot welds. (d)Resistance-weldedgasoline tank.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
High-Frequency Butt Welding
Figure 28.10 Two methods of high-frequencybutt welding of tubes.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Resistance Projection Welding
Figure 28.11 (a) Schematic illustrationof resistance projection welding. (b) Awelded bracket. (c) and (d) Projectionwelding of nuts or threaded bosses andstuds. Source: American WeldingSociety. (e) Resistance-projection-welded grills.
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Flash Welding
Figure 28.12 (a) Flash-welding process for end-to-end welding of solid rods or tubular parts. (b)and (c) Typical parts made byflash welding. (d) Design Guidelines for flash welding.
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Stud Welding
Figure 28.13 The sequence of operations in stud welding, which is used for welding bars, threaded rods,and various fasteners onto metal plates.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Comparison of Conventional and Laser-BeamWelding
Figure 28.14 The relative sizes of theweld beads obtained byconventional(tungsten arc) and byelectron-beam orlaser-beam welding.
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Explosion Welding
Figure 28.15 Schematicillustration of the explosionwelding process: (a) constantinterface clearance gap and(b) angular interface clearancegap. (c) and (d) Cross-
sections of explosion-weldedjoints. (c) titanium (top piece)on low-carbon steel (bottom).(d) Incoloy800 (an iron-nickel-based alloy) on low-carbon steel. Source:Courtesyof E. I. Du Pont deNemours & Co.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
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Diffusion Bonding Applications
Figure 28.16
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Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical,Shazhou Tech, Source:Prentice-Hall, 2006
Diffusion Bonding/Superplastic Forming
Figure 28.17 The sequence of operations in thefabrication of various structures bydiffusion bondingand then superplastic forming of (originally) flatsheets. Sources: (a) After D. Stephen and S.J.Swadling. (b) and (c) Rockwell International Corp.