LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT - … · LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT ... Dian Agung Wicaksono and Wahyu Yun Santosa 56 The Character of School Governance in …

LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT

Conference Proceedings

The 3rd International Conference on Local Government

November 15-16, 2012, Khon Kaen, THAILAND

College of Local Administration

Khon Kaen University

Khon Kaen, THAILAND

-iii-

Table of Contents

Message from the Chairman of the Organizing Committee i

Committee Members ii

Program Schedule 1 List of Paper:

Scoring Local Economic Development Goals in South Africa: Why Local Government is Failing to Score Costa Hofisi and Roland Mbeba

15

The Role of Local Government in Local Economic Development in South Africa Johannes Tsheola, Phophi Nembambula and Matshidisho Ledwaba

25

The Impact Application of Asset-based Approach to Socio-Economic Challenges at Umzumbe Local Municipality (South Africa) Ndwakhulu Tshishonga and Kealeboga J. Maphunye

35

The Impact of Local Economic Development on Poverty Alleviation in the Eastern Cape of South Africa: The Case of Nkonkobe Local Municipality Stephen Mago, Costa Hofisi and Ronald Mbeba

45

Role of Local Government on REDD+ Implementation in Indonesia (Case Study of Central Kalimantan as REDD+ Pilot Province) Dian Agung Wicaksono and Wahyu Yun Santosa

56

The Character of School Governance in South Sumatera, Indonesia Alamsyah Alamsyah and Mardianto Mardianto

65

The Local Government Functions in Social Welfare of Neglected Children in Mataram Chairun Nasirin

80

-iv-

Trends in Municipal Services Marketization and Privatization: Lessons in Service Delivery Reforms in South Africa and Botswana Nyawo Gumede and Kenneth Dipholo

87

Ampersal (Jaminan Persalinan or Labor Warranty) as a Form of Public Health Service Vita Marwinda Retnaningsih and Dyah Retna Puspita

99

Social Participation in Policy Formulation of Developing the West Java International Airport Based on a New Public Service Perspective Fanny Dwipoyanthi and Slamet Rosyadi

107

Local Government and the Fragmented Developmental Mandate: A Case Study of Offender Rehabilitation in South Africa Michael Nkosinathi Khwela

113

Analyzing the Quality of South Africa’s Public Services at the Local Government Level Through the Batho Pele Principles Kealeboga J. Maphunye, Ndwakhulu Tshishonga and Eve D. Mafema

123

Characteristics of the End of Regional Autonomy Era: A Lesson from Indonesia Andy Al Fatih

138

Human Resource Competencies for E-Government in Local Government Ali Rokhman, Rawuh Edy Priyono and Rahab

147

Electronic Government in Local Government Companies Nur Soim Isnanto and Ali Rokhman

162

Moderating Effects of SISP Approaches to the Relationship between SISP Practices and Performance Hisyam Harun and Mohd Khairuddin Hashim

173

Information for Community Management of Local Administrative Organizations in Thailand Phadet Jinda and Lampang Manmart

191

Local Government’s Autonomy and Effectiveness in Nigeria Abdullahi Ayoade Ahmad

204

-v-

A Survey of Community Engagement in Australian Local Government Bligh Grant, Brian Dollery, Michael Kortt and Boyd Blackwell

215

The Quest for Local Sustainability: How to Balance the Development Paradigm Prateep Chayalee

237

Local Fiscal Autonomy of Philippine Local Government Units John Robert Eleccion

252

Local Government and Sustainability in Aotearoa New Zealand: The Te Ao Māori Research Approach Karen Webster

260

Local Government’s Role in Economic Development, Preservation of Local Culture, Social Welfare, and Public Concerns Related to Sustainability, Energy Resources, and the Environment Sunil Kavade, Sudhir Wadekar, Vilas Nabde and Firoj Shaikh

269

Creating a New Ethical Culture in South African Local Governments Noluthando Matsiliza

284

Limitations of the Proportional Representation (PR) Electoral System in South Africa's Local Government Elections: The Case of the 2011 Local Election Alexius Amtaika

294

Reinventing Local Governance in Uganda: Current Governance Perspectives and Future Trends Stella B. Kyohairwe and Gerald K.Karyeija

315

Devolution, Localism, and Good Governance in England David Smith and Enid Wistrich

328

The State of Ethics in the South African Local Government Tadi Daniel Rampai and Vusi Nocholas Mgwenya

344

The Role of Local Governments in Building Democracy: A Study of the Akkaraipattu Municipal Council of Sri Lanka Seeni Mohamed Aliff

361

-vi-

National Strategic Framework, Trans-boundary Institutions and Local Government: An International Defense Perspective Shadrack Baleseng Ramokgadi

376

Managers’ Perceptions of the ASEAN Economic Community: A Case Study of a Company in Khon Kaen Province Jarun Bootdachi

392

Market Success in Addressing Policy Failure in the Utilization of River Resource: Conflicts among Industry, Local Government, Traditional Fishermen, and Collective Action in Cilacap, Indonesia Slamet Rosyadi and Erwin Riyanto Ardhi

407

Grassroots Planning – from Conceptualization to Institutionalization Yogesh Mahor and Ramgopal Singh

421

Consolidation of Thai Sub-District Municipalities and Sub-District Administrative Organizations, into One Organization: Suitable or Not? Supaluck Suvarnajata

431

Collaborative Governance in Community-Based Environmental Sanitation Programs in Banyumas, Indonesia Rridiyah Septiyani and Pawrtha Dharma

443

A Comparative Analysis of the System of Intergovernmental Relations in Botswana and South Africa: The Dynamics of a Two-Tier Versus a Three-Tier System Kenneth Dipholo and Nyawo Gumede

451

A Comparison of Sanitation Case Studies in Three South African Cities - Service Delivery in Turmoil? Barry Hanyane

466

Periodization of South African Local Government Reformation since 1994: (Im)perfect Democratic Transition? Ndwakhulu Tshishonga and Kenneth Dipholo

500

Local Government and Development Administration in Nigeria: Issues and Cases Oyetola Oniwide

518

-vii-

Community Participation Inhibiting Factors: A Community Development Prospective Muhammad Shakil Ahmad and Noraini Bt. Abu Talib

529

The Effects of Municipal Policies on the Livelihood of the Different Demographic Groups or Local Communities in South Africa Tintibane Thamaga

537

Changes in Gender Role among Hair Manufacturers Workers’ Families in Purbalingga, Central Java, Indonesia Dyah Retna Puspita, Rin Rostikawati, Lilis Sri Sulistiani and Slamet Rosyadi

542

Dynamics of Regional Autonomy in the Context of Regional Arrangement: An Evaluation of the Impact of the Poliferation of Administrative Region in Banjar City, Indonesia for Enabling Greater Prosperity Among Local Residents Qurrotul A’yuni and Simin

555

The Specter of Leviathan in the Central-Local Relations: A Comparative Historical Analysis of the Decentralization Reform in Thailand and the Philippines Tatchalerm Sudhipongpracha

562

Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat: Urban Terrorism and Political Violence in Southern Thailand Antonio Rappa

578

Women’s Empowerment through Panchayati Raj Institutions in West Bengal, India Sanjoy Roy

596

An Assessment of the Fiscal Autonomy of Local Governments at the Third-Tier Level in a Federation with Particular Reference to Nigeria Woleola Ekundayo

597

The Possibility of Budgetary Process Reform by Residents’ Participation Naoki Ogawa and Yuji Mori

605

The Local Government System in Pakistan: A Focus on the Musharraf Era Akhtar Sandhu

617

-viii-

The Implementation of Manpower Service Policy in South Sumatera, Indonesia Andries Lionardo

632

Traditional Leadership in Botswana: Opportunities and Challenges for Enhancing Good Governance and Local Development Kenneth Dipholo, Ndwakhulu Tshishonga and Eve Mafema

633

Toward Open Government: A Study of Gerakan Desa Membangun Firdos Putra Aditama and Andi Antono

648

Understanding Discretionary Service Behavior in the Public Sector: The Role of Organizational Justice, Satisfaction with Supervisors, and Organizational Commitment Sinto Sunaryo and Joko Suyono

661

Human Resource Management in Local Governments: An Analysis of Recruitment and Selection Practices in Uganda Lazarus Nabaho and Alfred Kiiza

672

Organizational Puzzles of Agencification: A Kampala City Council Authority Case, Uganda Gerald Kagambirwe Karyeija and Stella B.Kyohairwe

684

Perception of Local Governments in Thailand: Views of People and Local Administration Sarunya Ruangwicha

695

The Right Man for the Right Job: Do Local Regulations Support It? Empirical Evidence from Central Java, Indonesia Retno Mawarini Sukmariningsih

703

The Search for “Common Ground” in Kenora, Northwest Ontario, Canada John Sinclair and Jim Robson

710

Creative Tourism in Phuket Province: A Case Study of Sino-Portuguese Historical Areas Duangjai Panitcharernkit

723

The Isan Culture Maintenance and Revitalization Programme John Draper

735

-ix-

Promoting Proactive Citizens in order to Disseminate Academic Knowledge and Promote Community Strength: A Case Study of Klongpon Subdistrict, Klongthom, Krabi Thawilwadee Bureekul and Nittaya Ponok

760

Using an Ancient Lao Epic to Inspire a Modern Thai Municipality Bonnie Pacala Brereton

777

Sixth Schedule: Negotiating Ethnic Autonomy Discourses in Northeast India Ch. Sekholal Kom and Chintu Brahma

792

Decentralized Governance in Multi-Party Systems in Developing Countries: Challenges to Service Delivery in Uganda Michael Kiwanuka

815

Analyzing Decentralization and Local Government's Role in Development in South Africa Aklilu Asha

820

Unlocking Democracy through Active and Responsible Citizenship: Towards the Convergence of Demand-Supply Side Governance in South Africa Ndwakhulu Tshishonga

831

Redundancies, Competition, and Inefficiencies in Decentralized Education Planning: A Case Study of District Khairpur under Decentralization in Pakistan Mohammed Rehan Malik

843

407

Market Success in Addressing Policy Failures in the Utilization of

River Resource: Conflicts among Industry, Local Government

and Traditional Fisherman and Collective Action in Cilacap,

Indonesia

Slamet Rosyadi, Department of Public Administration, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences,

and Erwin Riyanto Ardhi, Aquatic Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Biology

E-mail address: [email protected]

Abstract

Public policy governing natural resources often fails to address conflicts of

interest among its users. Using the case of Cilacap in Central Java, we examine

conflict resolution initiated by the industry as a response to the ineffectiveness of

local government to regulate the use of the river as both a conservation zone and

ship traffic. By applying the theoretical framework based on the concept of

collective action, we analyze the role of the industry in addressing policy failures

indicated by the river-related conflicts among local government, industrial and

traditional fishing. Our analysis shows that collective action and bargaining

between industry and traditional fisherman has pushed them to develop their

solution. In addition, we found that the conflict resolution negates the transaction

costs incurred by the industry in the form of the cost of securing ship traffic.

Key words: industry, local government, policy failure, traditional fisherman,

collective action, Indonesia

Introduction

In conservation zone of the Segara Anakan Lagoon, conflicts dealing with

the use of natural resources over Donan River which is caused by the practice of

traditional „apong” (a tidal filter net) fisherman in the past constitutes a serious

obstacle to adopt the collaborative use of river (Rosyadi et al, 2007). They do not

only practice unfriendly ways of fishing in terms of environmental aspect, but also

disrupt industrial shipping traffic that relies on the Donan river as a transport

MARKET SUCCESS IN ADDRESSING POLICY FAILURES IN RIVER

RESOURCE UTILIZATION 408

pathway. Ironically, the bureaucracy in developing countries which become the

leading agency to conduct the legal control and supervision of environmental

issues has failed to resolve conflict among the resource users (Khator, 2009).

Since 2010, there has been a major breakthrough in handling conflict of

the Donan River use. Through a program of the profession switch which has been

facilitated by industry, some fishermen possessing the fishing locations and

disrupting industrial ship traffic have no longer practiced the apong nets. Their

profession have been transferred to other profession under mentoring of the

industrial agents. This case is particularly interesting to study because of three

reasons. First, solving the problem of using the resource of common pool involves

collective action between coastal community and industry (market). Initially, each

party has claimed their right to the river use based on their interest (shaped by

economic, cultural and historical factors). Meanwhile, the local government does

not have an adequate conflict resolution except the regulation concerning the

spatial Segara Anakan Lagoon as a conservation zone. Second, industry (market)

is not always passive to the policy failure of management of natural resource that

mostly impinged various developing countries. Third, there is no systematic

attempt to explain under which conditions of traditional fisherman and industry

have achieved agreement to address their conflicts of interest.

Theoretical Background

In this paper, a framework is developed to consider collective action and

bargaining with regard to the resolution of river conflicts. A variety of issues of



natural resource utilization can not be solved by bureaucratic-regulatory approach.

As an alternative, collective action approaches become a potential option to

address the problem of joint utilization of natural resources (Birner and

Gunaweera, 2001: Bouwen and Taillieu, 2004; Anand, 2007; Ray and

Bhattacharya, 2011). In the perspective of social movements, collective action

refers to some types of action taken by some people as a demonstration or strike

(Snow, 2004). In the perspective of economics, collective action is always

associated with the production of public goods together due to the inability to

produce individually (Ostrom, 1998). In this study, the concept of collective

action is used to demonstrate the joint use of access to natural resources by several

different interest groups with the principle of mutual benefit. Collective action

certainly involves issues of power that is bargained among stakeholders. It will

consequently determine the model of agreement that is acceptable to resolve

conflicts among those who use the resource (Birner and Gunaweera, 2001).

Methodology

Collaborative utilization of river resource in the Donan River in Central

Java Indonesia is selected as a case study because it represents an interesting

effort of a local fisherman (community side), industry (market side), and local

government to achieve agreement regarding the use of river resource and reduce

conflicts among them by promoting the profession switch program for some

“apong” fishermen. In this case, the profession switch program facilitated by



industry has been successful to address the conflicts of interest in the use of river

for long period.

Figure 1 shows that the three actors (government, fishermen and industry)

have different interests in the utilization of river-based resource in Laguna Segara

Anakan Conservation Area. The government applies its authority to establish an

area for specific interests. Consequently, all parties must comply with local

regulations made by the government. The industry has a vested interest to utilize

the river as ship transportation pathway. Meanwhile, fishermen rely on the river as

a source for sustainable their livelihood. At first, these three interests lead to

conflict, especially between fishermen versus the government and the industry.

Each side claims to have the rights to use the river resource. Negotiations finally

reached a deal to take advantage of the river by taking into account the economic

interests of fishermen through the profession switch program.



Data

The data was collected by observation, in-depth interviews with key

informants such as leaders of fisherman groups, manager of community relation

of Holcim Cement Company and related-local government officers, and the

analysis of documents issued by the local government and industry from April –

August 2012. Data is analyzed with the “interactive” model (Miles and

Huberman, 1984) with regard to the strategies of the actors applied to the

negotiation process by stipulating a set of causal links about the case. Since the

collaborative process dealing with conflict of river use was still in early stages, the

Industry Actors

Local Government

Actors

Traditional Fisherman

Actors

RIVER

RESOURCES

From Conflict to Collaborative Utilization

Negotiation Process: Profession Switch Program for “Apong”

Fishermen

Figure 1. Negotiation Model leading to Collaborative

Utilization

in River Resource



study focused on analyzing the negotiation processes rather than on evaluating the

outcome.

Findings

The Role of Market

The role of market in the area research was reflected by a problem

solution facilitated by industry together with fishermen in utilizing the Donan

River. For years, the fishermen and the industry failed to reach agreement in

resolving conflicts regarding the utilization of river. From 2001 to 2004, the

placement of the apong net had interfered the lines of shipping traffic where

Holcim Company usually passes through. Table 1 shows that the incidence of

apong net disruption to the shipping line has increased quite high, especially in

2001-2004. Average interference in the form of a net crash incidence by ships

reached 7 times per month. This situation has brought about losses both for

fishermen and Holcim Company. For fishermen, the ship crash against their

Apong nets has not only disrupted their livelihoods, but also damaged fishing gear

as their live hood investment. As a result, they claim costs of damage against

Holcim. For Holcim, of course, the compensation has burdened on their budgets.

Each year, according to the Community Relations Manager of Holcim, the

company must provide budget cost of securing as much as 600 million rupiahs

annually. However, the budgetary cost of this protection does not reduce the

frequency of conflicts with the fisherman community regarding the use of the

river Donan.



Figure 2. Frequency of Apong Net Disturbance against Shipping

Activities

Source: Holcim Company Tbk (2001-2004), data of 2005-2009 is not

available, Interview with The Holcim Manager and Cilacap Harbour

Administration (2010-2012)

To resolve the conflict of interest based on the agreement of the apong

fishermen, in 2010 Holcim Company offered economic incentives supported by

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) funds to the fishermen to participate in the

program of profession switch. This program has been designed to encourage the

fishermen to install their apong net in the trajectory of the ship. As compensation,

Holcim provides venture capital assistance to the apong fishermen by an average

of 25 million rupiahs to each fisherman. In addition, Holcim facilitate the

participants of program with continuous assistance in order to make fishermen

household economy stable during the transition period. According to Community

Relations Manager of Holcim, the program of profession switch will only be

successful if the participants have earned a steady income when they have no



longer relied on the catch of fish cages. If they do not receive ongoing mentoring,

they are prone to get back into fishing with a tidal filter nets.

The Role of Local Government

In principle, there are three types of regulation enforced by the local

government dealing with the problem of river utilization in Segara Anakan

Lagoon, as follow:

1. Law No. 28/2008 on Shipping.

2. Local Law No. 6/2001 on Spatial Plan of Segara Anakan Area.

3. Local Law No. 16/2001 on Fishery Management in Segara Anakan Area.

Law 28 /2008 on Shipping. In general, the Act is intended to ensure the

safety and security of shipping by Local Port Administration and encourage the

participation of local communities in a positive way regarding the organization of

shipping and port activities. But this law is difficult to implement in the case of

Donan River since it confronts with the local fishing culture which traditionally

not forbid people to set up tidal filter nets along the river. Strict law enforcement

in order to clear the Donan River from obstacles is almost impossible because it

will face strong resistance from the apong nets community. Consequently, the

IMO (International Maritime Organization) categorizes the Port of Cilacap as

Black Area due to disruption and threat to the safety of cruise ships.

Local Law No 6/2001. According to this local regulation, Segara Anakan

Lagoon is designated as a limited conservation zone. This law is stipulated due to

the fact that Segara Anakan is naturally spawning areas (nursery ground) and a

habitat of diversity of flora and fauna. To keep the sustainability of the unique



biodiversity resource, therefore, the local government of Cilacap controls the

fishing and land use practices in this area. However, at the implementation level,

it is not effective altogether to control the rate of destruction of the lagoon.

Instead, along with the increasing number of people around the Laguna Segara

Anakan, pressures on lagoon ecosystems have been becoming more extensive.

One of the pressures is fishing practices by the apong nets.

Local Law No. 16/2001. One of the purposes of this regulation is

intended to prohibit the use of apong nets. However, the Government of Cilacap

found serious problem to stop local fishermen using Apong nets. Moreover, the

amount of apong net use is still very high. According to the Local Agency of

Marine, Fisheries and Segara Anakan Area, the distribution of apong nets has

reached 1660 whose property owned by 912 fishermen. Prohibition of apong nets

has been done, but the fishermen demanded higher compensation and the

initiation of making the profession switch program for them. However, the limited

government budget is not possible to fulfill the fisherman demands.

Collective Action and Bargaining as a Solution

This section discusses the case of collective action and bargaining among

apong fishermen, industry, and local government in building “agreement” among

them particularly in the joint utilization of Donan River.

For Holcim, it is not a good idea to rely on the legal approach since the

people is no longer respect to the law enforcement. According to its spoke person,

the root of the problem is how to meet the household economy of fishermen so

they will not fish anymore with the apong nets. Apart from environmental



reasons, the placement of apong nets in Donan River was very disturbing the

Holcim‟s transport ships carrying raw materials for the manufacture of cement.

Thus, the main interest of Holcim is to secure the continuity of the production

process. Delivery of raw materials which is not conducted timely due to the

existence of apong nets would certainly disturb the process of cement production.

Moreover, Holcim is heavily dependent on the existence of Donan River because

the average traffic of ships that enter the Holcim can reach 3-4 times each day.

Meanwhile, the shipping line through Donan River is the most efficient option

than a landline.

Apart from their effort to maintain the sustainability of the production

process, Holcim is also concerned to keep the image of Holcim. Conflicts of river

use that occurred a few years ago could not only damage the image of Holcim

business, but it also damaged the relationship between Holcim and the local

community. This trend contravened one of the company objectives that seek to

realize a harmonious relationship with the environment and society. Therefore, in

2009, Holcim with local leaders of apong fishermen did a lot of meetings to

design a solution that benefits all parties. An important outcome of this

negotiation was the program of profession switch. However, the main target of

the program is focused on the profession switch of fishermen who apply their

fishing practices disrupting shipping lines. Based on the joint mapping undertaken

in 2004, it was reached an agreement that 27 apong fishermen in two villages

were targeted to be the participants of the program of profession switch.



For the apong fishermen, the program of profession switch agreed in 2009

was considered highly beneficial than any other program. Actually, the offer of

the program of profession switch was also ever been offered by Holcim to the

apong fishermen along the Donan River in 2004. However, the compensation

money received by the fishermen is not worthy for the investment spent on the

cost of manufacture and installation of apong nets. Besides, the process of

profession switch was not bound by a legal contract. As a result, the fishermen

who participate in the program reneged and re-installed their apong nets on the

shipping line.

Learning from the failure of the previous program of profession switch,

Holcim has no longer provided incentive compensation in the form of cash but

with the assistance of equipment, livestock or vehicles in accordance with the

suggestions made by the participants of the program. To strengthen the agreement

between them, the contract is legally witnessed by the local government to be the

basis of a profitable partnership between Holcim and program participants. In

addition, Holcim keep monitoring and provide assistance for economic enterprises

run by former apong fishermen until their household economy is relatively stable.

For Holcim, mentoring is essential in the form of social corporate responsibility to

the surrounding community. The response of the fishermen also indicates

favorable development to the idea of the current program of profession switch

offered by Holcim.

For local government, the agreement between Holcim and apong

fishermen is very beneficial in reducing ecological pressures of Segara Anakan



Area. The limitation of budget does not allow the government to contribute to the

program of profession switch. The government support has been manifested in

fostering an environment that is conducive for the cooperation between Holcim

and fishermen apong to jointly utilize Donan River without harming both party.

Conclusion

The study of traditional fishermen, industry and local government in

utilizing common pool resource like Donan River allows one to draw several

conclusions on conditions that have facilitated collective action. First, business

philosophy oriented towards environmental sustainability becomes an important

foundation that encourages the industry to work with the surrounding community.

Second, conversion of transaction costs into the cost of empowerment programs

has positive impacts on the reduction of conflict, continuity of business processes,

and collaboration. Third, mutual beneficial cooperation in economy and

sympathetic to the interests of society has facilitated agreement among the

fishermen, industry and local government to minimize disputes in the utilization

of natural resources.

Research Recommendations

Another important aspect that needs to be explored further is: how is the

fate of apong fishermen who do not involve in the program of profession switch?

Regarding the fishing location outside the shipping line, does the program affect

the relationship between program participants and non-participants? Further



studies should focus on these issues so that the efforts of collective action that

have been built in this case, do not lead to negative external impacts.

References

Anand, Paul B. (2007). Capability, Sustainability, and Collective Action: An

Examination of a River Dispute. Journal of Human Development, 8(1),

109-132

Birner, Regina and Hasantha Gunaweera. (2001). Between Market Failure, Policy

Failure and “Community Failure”: Property Rights, Crop Livestock

Conflicts and the Adoption of Sustainable Land use Practices in the Dry

Zone of Sri Lanka. CAPRi Working Papers 13, IFPRI, Washington.

Bouwen, Rene and Tharsi Taillieu. (2004). Multi-party Collaboration as Social

Learning for Independence; Developing Relational Knowing for

Sustainable Naturan Resource Management. Journal of Community and

Applied Social Psychology, 14, 137-153.

Ray, Biswajit, Rabindra N. Bhattacharya. (2011). Transaction Cost, Collective

Action and Survival of Heterogenous Co-Management Institutions:

Case Study of Forest Management Organisations in West Bengal, India.

Journal of Development Studies, 47(2), 253-273.

Khator, Renu. (2009). Bureaucracy and the Environmental Crisis: A Comparative

Perspective. In: Farazman, Ali (Edt). Bureaucracy and Administration.

Taylor and Francis Group, New York.

Miles, Mattew B. and Michael Huberman, (1984). Qualitative Data Analysis: An

Expanded Sourcebook. Beverly Hills: Sage.

Ostrom, Elinor. (1998). A Behavioral Approach to the Rational Choice Theory of

Collective Action Presidential Address. American Political Science

Review 92(1), 1-22.

Rosyadi, Slamet, Imam Widhiono and Petrus Hary Tjahja Sudibya. (2007).

Governance Problems in Managing Donan River Uses, Java, Indonesia.

In: Yuwono, Edy et al (Edt). Synopsis of Ecological and Socio-



Economic Aspects of Tropical Coastal Ecosystem with Special

Reference to Segara Anakan. Research Institue, The University of

Jenderal Soedirman, Purwokerto, Indonesia.

Snow, David A. (2004). “Framing Procesess, Ideology, and Discursive Filed” in

The Blackwell Companion to Social Movement, edited by David A.

Snow, Sarah A. Soule and Hanspeter Kreisi. Oxford, England:

Blackwell.

Documents

LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT - … · LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT ... Dian Agung Wicaksono and Wahyu Yun Santosa 56 The Character of School Governance in …