Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 1989, 8 (3), 591-606.

Livestock and food production in Africa: challenge and opportunity for the national

livestock and veterinary services * Addis A N T E N E H **

Summary: The author describes trends and difficulties in livestock production and consumption in Africa. Arguing that this production is less subsistence-oriented than commonly believed, he describes the economic objectives which play an important role in African husbandry. After a comparison of levels of production and performance with those of developed and developing nations, the role of livestock and veterinary services in Africa is examined. Improved disease control, but especially better management practices, and reduced loss and wastage, should be sought in official veterinary activities. The paper ends with a discussion of the role to be played by international organisations such as I B A R , ECA, ILRAD and ILCA.

KEYWORDS: Africa - Animal production - Cattle - International organisations - Management - Milk - Regional cooperation - Training -Veterinary services.

INTRODUCTION

The performance of the livestock sector in sub-Saharan Africa over most of the last two decades has been far from impressive. The production and consumption gap for the major food commodities has widened across the continent. The major technical constraints are known and a number of solutions have been suggested though rarely implemented. In Africa the major burden of responsibility in seeking and applying technical solutions seems to rest on official livestock and veterinary services. These services are blamed for all sorts of failures in the livestock sub-sector, for the right as well as the wrong reasons. We must not forget that many operate in a policy environment which they can neither influence nor change. However, livestock and veterinary services must set their vision high, consonant with the great unexploited potential of the livestock sector and the manpower resources of Africa.

This paper presents a view of the problem, the challenge and a possible direction that the livestock services might take to meet the challenge. The section following this introduction describes the livestock and food situation over the past 15-20 years.

* Paper prepared for the 8th Conference of the OIE Regional Commission for Africa, 16-18 January 1989, Arusha, Tanzania. The views expressed herein are those of the author and should not be attributed to ILCA.

** Economist, International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), P .O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

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The third section sets out the challenge, in view of the poor past performance and some of the major technical constraints that are claimed to have hindered a better one. The fourth section considers the role which livestock and veterinary services can play in facing up to the challenge. The final section discusses what role regional and international organisations could play in searching for longer-term solutions. A brief account of ILCA's programme shows that there are considerable opportunities which African livestock and veterinary services could use to further research and development.

T H E SETTING

The role of the livestock sector

Direct food production in terms of meat and milk is a major activity in Africa as in other developing areas. Two-thirds of the gross value of livestock output is accounted for by meat, milk and egg production (Table I). Livestock outputs which indirectly contribute to food production (mainly crops but also recycled inputs to livestock, e.g. cultivated animal feed, bonemeal, poultry litter) contribute the remaining one-third. The latter contribute much less to livestock output in developed countries.

T A B L E I

Relative contribution of food and food-related livestock outputs

Sub-Saharan Developing Developed Africa1 countries2 countries2

Percent

Meat 47 45' 53 Milk 15 15 34 Eggs 4 7 8

Direct food 66 67 95

Draught 31 29 3 Manure 3 4 2

Total 100 100 1ÖÖ

Sources: 1. Anteneh et al. (1988) - data for 1975 2. FAO 1983. The State of Food and Agriculture 1982. Rome - data for 1980

Disregarding non-food (e.g. hides and skins) and minor food (e.g. blood) items, it is estimated that the value of commodity output of livestock in sub-Saharan Africa is equivalent to 2 5 % of total food production (22). In 1983, livestock contributed about 8% to overall calorie intakes (the world average was 16%) and 2 3 % to protein intake (world average: 34%) (12). The percent contribution of livestock products to total calorie and protein intake increased in the majority of sub-Saharan African countries, particularly in East and Southern Africa (15).

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Many people, including some veterinarians and animal scientists, still believe that African husbandmen keep livestock mainly for prestige and as status symbols or as a means of fostering cultural and social relations. Most believe that African livestock producers are highly subsistence-oriented - producing for their own consumption. There is growing evidence that economic considerations such as risk minimisation and supply security are important in influencing the way African livestock keepers behave. Data from field research indicate that most African households do not, in fact, depend for their food wholly on their own farm and animal product ion. They usually specialise in the production of commodities in which they have a comparative advantage, selling these in order to purchase other foods. Pastoralists and holders of large herds are prominent among those who practise specialised production accompanied by exchange. They have good reasons for doing so because the market value of a calorie of dietary energy from milk or meat is usually much higher than that of a calorie from grain. At typical African domestic price ratios, ten calories in grain can be obtained by the sale of less than two calories in milk or less than half a calorie in meat (22). In pastoral systems of dry tropical Africa 50-60% of livestock output is sold. In mixed crop/livestock systems in the more humid and highland zones of sub-Saharan Africa 35-65% of livestock output is sold (for further discussion: 2).

African pastoralists thus generate a high proport ion of their cash income from livestock in order to purchase grains. Even in production systems where livestock provide a smaller proport ion of the total value of output , the highest cash income may well derive from livestock. Table II presents a range of data collected in the 1970's and 1980's.

T A B L E II

Proportion of total household cash income derived from livestock in selected production systems

Production Predominant Cash income system/ Ecological species derived from country zone kept livestock (%)

Pastoralists Mali Niger Kenya

Agropastoralists Kenya Mali

Mixed farmers Ethiopia Northern Nigeria Southern Nigeria Zimbabwe

Dry Dry Dry

Dry Dry

Highland Subhumid Humid Dry

Cattle Sheep/goats Cattle

Sheep/goats Cattle

Cattle Pigs/goats Sheep/goats Cattle

96 96 76

>90 39

83 56

2-13 < 4

Data sources are summarised in (2)

Livestock thus provide stability in food consumption. Farmers and pastoralists sell livestock when crops fail to generate the cash needed to purchase high-priced

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grain. In good years they invest cash surpluses from crops in livestock purchases or they may shift investment from one livestock species to another (6, 26).

Performance

During 1963-75, except for pork, poultry and eggs, growth in livestock output for the major commodities did not keep pace with growth in human populat ion. Per caput output in beef, mut ton and goat meat as well as milk declined as did per caput consumption of these meats. Both per caput output and consumption of pork and poultry increased. The pressure to import beef and milk has intensified.

Table III presents average annual changes in per caput output and consumption of the major commodities, during the 1975-84 decade. Overall, the aggregate meat, milk and egg output in sub-Saharan Africa grew faster during this decade than during 1963-75. However, the human population also increased faster during the more recent decade (3.4% versus 2 .9% p .a . ) .

T A B L E III

Average annual changes in per caput livestock output and consumption, 1975-84

Per caput Commodity Output Consumption

Beef - 1 . 0 - 0 . 3 Mutton - 0 . 3 \-ñd Goat meat - 0 . 9 Pork - 0 . 3 0.1 Poultry 3.4 4.0

Total meat - 0 . 4 0.2 Cow's milk 0.1 NA

Total milk 0.6 1.9

NA: not available Source: ILCA (1987a)

Populat ion growth, rising income and increased urbanisation in the African countries as well as the subsidised prices of European beef and dairy exports have helped to stimulate the demand for livestock imports in sub-Saharan Africa (27, 28, 20). This is particularly true in West Africa where, by 1984, imports accounted for 4 5 % of total dairy consumption by volume: some countries (e.g. Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana) have become extremely dependent on dairy imports (23).

Whatever increase in aggregate output has occurred is mostly attributed to increases in numbers rather than to increased yield per animal or per herd (2). Africa has about 14% of the world bovine populat ion but produces 16% and 3 % of the world beef and milk output respectively. In contrast, developed countries have about 30% of the world bovine population but produce 7 1 % and 7 7 % of the world beef and milk output . The number of sheep and goats in Africa constitutes 22% of the world populat ion but contributes only 17% of mut ton and goat meat output . The comparable figures for developed countries are 36% of population and 46% of output (3, 18).

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The low yields have obviously contributed little to increases in output . Table IV compares the average productivity of African animals with those in developed and other developing countries. Data were assembled from various sources and for different years to provide indicative comparisons.

T A B L E I V

Average productivity of animals in Africa, other developing and developed countries

Meat (kg) 1. 2 Milk (kg) Country group Bovine Sheep and Per animal Country group Bovine Sheep and Per animal Per productive

goats in herd1, 2 cow3

Developed 79 6.5 900 3,130 Developing 15 4.6 90 660 Africa 14 3.7 40 360

1. per animal in total herd or flock 2. Jahnke et al. (1988); data are for 1985-86 3. FAO (1983); data are for 1979-81

Changes in yield per animal since thebeginning of the 1980's have been very low - at most 10-15% or a maximum compound rate of 0 .5% per annum (2).

T H E CHALLENGE: CONSTRAINTS A N D OPPORTUNITIES

Non-technical constraints

There are a variety of socio-economic and institutional constraints facing livestock development in Africa. They include the low level and rate of investment in the livestock sector (including investment in fixed assets, infrastructure and research) and inadequate funding of the non-salary port ion of recurrent expenditure for services including research. Inappropriate pricing, marketing, land tenure and other policies related to livestock affect producer incentives and the willingness of potential investors to participate in the sector's development. Administrative and organisational inefficiency in the purchase and distribution of production inputs and the extension of credit exacerbate the problems. In situations where qualified staff are in short supply, the problems impeding the sector's development seem particularly serious.

In most cases, these constraints cannot be resolved by directors or managers of veterinary services or livestock projects. The limits to which high-level staff can influence policy-making, particularly in the funding of services, has been qualitatively discussed in an earlier paper (1). Nevertheless, policy-related constraints in the areas of inadequate recurrent funding and manpower shortages can be mitigated. This possibility exists more in a "manage r i a l " than in a policy-decision context. We will come back to this point at a later stage of the discussion.

Livestock policy research at ILCA and elsewhere has begun to generate information about the importance of socio-economic and institutional constraints across Africa.

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Better policies are crucial to livestock development in Africa. Production with existing technology as well as the adoption of new technologies can be ensured only if national policies are appropriate (17). Solutions to technical constraints may still be sought, however, even if the " r igh t" policies are not in place. Policies and solutions to technical constraints influence each other.

Technical constraints

In sub-Saharan Africa, technical constraints remain a major impediment to livestock development. The primary aim of the veterinary/animal science profession must be to seek a n d / o r implement technical solutions to livestock production problems. The main constraints can be grouped in the following broad categories: animal feed and nutrition; genetic factors; animal health and disease problems; and inadequate management practices (2).

Past efforts to identify and eliminate constraints have emphasised the animal health and disease aspect. It was logical that disease control be dealt with to prevent or control losses before turning to the more productivity-orientated problems of health management . Concern has , however, been expressed that in Africa this "preservat ionis t" approach may have been overemphasised at the expense of " h u s b a n d r y " constraints (29). Management constraints relating both to technical problems (e.g. health, nutrition) and resource utilisation may have been unduly neglected.

The components of these technical constraints are very well known to veterinarians and animal scientists and are therefore not discussed any further. However, the complex interactions among these factors could represent an important set of constraints. The identification of these interactions is one of the challenges to the national veterinary and livestock services of Africa.

Opportunities

The opportunities available to the livestock and veterinary services in Africa to increase livestock output through the removal of constraints (or their adverse effects) form part of the current challenge. The magnitude of additional production which could be expected from preventing or reducing loss and wastage, from disease control or eradication, or from productivity-enhancing husbandry could well serve as an impetus to the livestock and veterinary services. Let us look at a few quantified examples from recent studies in Africa.

During 1983-85 Africa incurred a loss of more than US$300 million due to rinderpest (8). This is a case where the technology is already well known but its application is hindered by inappropriate policy (national, regional) or by inadequate management. Blajan (3) reports that foot and mouth disease alone costs the world over US$50 billion and mastitis in cattle another US$35 billion. If Africa accounts for only 1% of these losses, the figure would be a staggering US$1 billion.

In principle, wastage can be prevented with minimal incremental demand on resources or at a cost which is only a small fraction of the benefits which could be derived. Wastage is basically a management problem. For example, a recent study by ECA on the prevention of waste and losses provides data on the number of pregnant cows slaughtered in Cameroon during 1979-83 - approximately 5,800 pregnant cows out of a total of 34,778 cows slaughtered or 17%. Fifty-five percent of the pregnant

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cows slaughtered were carrying 3-9 month old fetuses (8). The contention is that pregnancy is noticeable both at the farm and the slaughterhouse level, and that there is a feasible alternative to such wastage 1 .

E C A (9) define waste and losses as "losses that could be averted provided that optimal use is made of the available (indigenous) resources, disease control measures and techniques, available human resources and economic co-operation and integration ins t ruments" . This definition is too wide-ranging and comprehensive to be distinguishable from the overall effort for the development of the livestock sector. Perhaps the operative phrase is "available (indigenous) resources". If we assume that these indigenous resources are available (at least in West Africa), then we can conclude that considerable wastage and production loss was occurring. According to the ECA study, such losses and waste - attributable to calving rates (lower than an achievable minimum), calf mortality (higher than a feasible maximum) and premature slaughter - account for a minimum annual loss of 180,000 tons of carcass meat in West Africa plus Cameroon (9). This is equivalent to almost 10% of the region's total meat consumption in 1985.

At a more complex level, the control /eradicat ion of trypanosomiasis or tse-tse would offer additional livestock production. Jahnke et al. (18) report assessments of the gross increase in meat and milk outr it that would occur if 7 million k m 2 of tse-tse infested land was made utilisable. The most optimistic estimates made by FAO (the stocking density increasing from 3 to 20 head per km 2 ) give a figure of 1.8 million tons of additional meat per year (at a conservative 15 kg of meat per animal per year). The increased output would represent 50% of the ruminant meat product ion in sub-Saharan Africa or 17% of its ruminant meat consumption in 1985-86 (for production and consumption figures: 13, 15).

The more conservative estimates used by Jahnke et al. (from 6.2 to 9.9 T L U / k m 2

and from 2.8 to 9.3 T L U / k m 2 increase in stocking density in the sub-humid and humid zones respectively) give us 495,000 tons of meat and 1.3 million tons of milk per year. These represent between 14-16% of sub-Saharan African ruminant meat and milk product ion and approximately 5 % and 1 1 % respectively of ruminant meat and milk consumption in 1985-86.

These are plausible and significant figures. Both economically and environmentally acceptable multi-component tse-tse/trypanosomiasis control/trypanotoierance models are being developed and tested (24). Such integrated methods have been used to make a substantial area in Burkina Faso free from tse-tse - 3,500 k m 2 in two years (25). So control/eradication is not a faraway dream.

Gaps in productivity per animal between developed and developing countries have always existed, but for the former, quite remarkable development has taken place since the 1950's (3). Africa's progress does not seem to have kept up with the others. In fact, there seems to have been a tendency for productivity in terms of beef and

1. This is less straightforward than it may appear. The subject of pregnant cow slaughter as a policy issue is attracting the attention of economists because of the necessity to consider a number of factors. Among others, the following need to be taken account of: actual costs farmers/herders will incur by keeping pregnant cows; the risks of loss faced by farmers through the death of cows saved, the probability of calf stillbirths, etc.; government costs of enforcement if a ban is decided on. In brief, it is suggested that the benefits and costs (both present and future) of slaughter versus keeping pregnant cows must be carefully compared before decisions are made to ban slaughter of pregnant cows.

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milk output per animal to decline between the 1970's and 1980's (14, 2). This has widened the gap not only between developed countries and Africa but also probably between Africa and the average for developing countries. The latter is more interesting in the short to medium term because it involves a more modest gap and can be realistically aimed for.

An active search for and application of technical solutions as well as simple but more effective management practices are needed. For example, closing the gap in the average yield per ariimal between Africa and developing countries (Table IV) would mean a huge increase. To be even more modest let us apply the 50 kg yield difference to only 10% of the cattle population in 1986. This would represent an additional 12% of the milk output in 1986. The 10% cattle population is about 2 5 % of the cattle population of the sub-humid and highland zones (Tables V and VI), two zones with high potential for increased milk production (17). Again such improvements should be within the reach of livestock and veterinary services in Africa.

In summary, we should seize every opportunity to increase production by:

- eliminating waste - minimising losses - enhancing productivity.

Another problem not dealt with here involves the input side of livestock production, particularly animal feed, but the principles mentioned are equally applicable.

T A B L E V

Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock population in 1986 (18)

Species 1,000 1,000 Species Head TLU1

Camels 12,320 12,320 Cattle 161,135 112,795 Sheep 121,388 12,139 Goats 142,711 14,271

Total ruminants 437,554 151,525

Horses 2,906 2,325 Mules 1,518 1,063 Asses 7,901 3,951

12,325 7,339

Pigs 10,453 2,091 Chickens 464,000 4,640

1. TLU conversion factor: camel: 1, cattle, mules: 0.7, sheep and goats: 0.10, horses: 0.80, asses: 0.50, pigs: 0.20, chickens: 0.01

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TABLE V I

Food production from livestock in sub-Saharan Africa in 1986 (18)

Species Product Quantity Caloric value Species ( x 1,000 t) Meal/ton

Camels Milk 2,460 836 Cattle Meat 2,245 6,286

Milk 6,451 2,193 Sheep/goats Meat 917 2,568

Milk 2,294 780

Pigs Meat 303 2,145 Chicken Meat 766 2,145

Eggs 667 2,668

Total Meat 4,231 13,144 Total Milk 11,205 3,809

The role of livestock and veterinary services

It would, in fact, be more precise to refer to the role played by the professionals and technicians who have dominated these services in Africa. The present paper does not approach this question from a technical viewpoint. I would rather like to address the issue from the perspective of veterinarians being able to make their profession more manageable and more active in the changing political, economic and social environment in Africa.

It is salutary to note that senior members of the profession are saying that veterinary science, particularly in developing countries, is no longer just a matter of animal health and food hygiene (3). Veterinarians are being increasingly urged to take account of economic factors (4). As an economist I welcome this emphasis because it argues for more cooperation and, eventually, an optimal use of resources.

As mentioned earlier, veterinarians have held most, if not all, of the leading positions in the livestock and veterinary services in Africa. The new orientation requires that they do not just " r u n " the technical interventions but that they manage these services. This management must include the willingness to search for ways to minimise the adverse effects of a difficult policy environment. For example, given a recurrent budget which is unalterable in the short-term, directors of veterinary services may have to devise cost-effective approaches to " s t r e t ch" the service. One answer might be to search for more effective ways of deploying staff (including training them in new skills) who are " t empora r i ly" under-utilised due to operating fund shortages. Management should never be equated with wearisome administrative routine, as several senior veterinarians seem to complain in regard to Africa.

As concerns management , it is not uncommon to distinguish between the "control lable" and "uncontrol lable" environment (10). The former includes elements such as the development of professional skills, team work, motivation, communication and working environment. The question which needs to be asked is how far veterinarians have been able to exploit this controllable environment so that livestock and veterinary services perform better.

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Another management issue concerns multidisciplinary work, which is particularly important in research. Based on my own experience in a livestock research institute, the question may be asked: do we observe a tendency for multidisciplinary research to be more difficult in the livestock area than, say, in the crop area? The veterinarian in Africa faces the usual dilemma of professionals involved in scientific research: the researcher's need to publish versus his obligation to serve development. This partly stems from the philosophy of veterinary training. Some go so far as to state that veterinary training involves the development of technology rather than its transfer (19). In a developing region like Africa, however, it is crucial for livestock development that the veterinarian adopt a multidisciplinary and participatory approach.

The participatory approach should be equally evident in the development area. The practising veterinarian in Africa often seems less disposed than the agronomist to accept an uncertified technician to carry out part of a professional task. For example, there seems to be a great deal of resistance to delegating certain types of animal treatment or drug administration to senior technicians (i.e. auxiliary staff), even after proper training. A major professional reason is the risk of developing drug resistance because of possible maladministration. But a major justification for the use of auxiliary staff is that some of the funds tied to high salaries and allowances may be reallocated to funding for the purchase and distribution of veterinary requisites - drugs, vaccines, etc. In the absence of statistics, it is difficult to determine which had the greater adverse effect on animal production - drug resistance or unavailability of drugs. Perhaps a well-oriented professional association would be a more objective judge and help to look at the problem more realistically.

Strong professional veterinary associations can serve not only to regulate veterinary practices but also as vehicles for introducing responsible private sector service (5). They should also help to establish viable bilateral and regional (intra-African) linkages. These linkages are increasingly important for the co-ordination of economic policy, disease control, the creation of joint ventures and for international collaboration in research and training.

REGIONAL A N D INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

The proliferation of overlapping regional groupings remains a problem in Africa. Many such organisations have broad economic (and sometimes political) objectives - e.g. E C O W A S , CEAO, PTA, SADCC - which may give varying importance to livestock development. In West Africa alone there are at least five inter-governmental and regional organisations with livestock development as the or one of their major objectives. Such groupings provide a potential channel for African livestock and veterinary services to collaborate in the fields of development, research, training and information exchange.

The Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (IBAR) under the O A U is the African organisation with a continent-wide livestock mandate. IBAR has been mainly concerned with animal health and disease control. Its major current activity is the Pan-African Rinderpest Campaign (PARC). The P A R C programme includes a number of activities besides the campaign to control/eradicate rinderpest; other animal health activities to be undertaken concern dermatophilosis and trypanosomiasis. IBAR is soon to launch a tse-tse and trypanosomiasis control project in the Eastern African Region (21).

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IBAR is also planning to support a range of activities in the African livestock sector. These include animal production (small ruminants) , animal breeding (multiplication of trypanotolerant cattle), and research in feed resources (agro-industrial by-products). If the resolutions of the Second Conference of Ministers of Livestock Development are duly implemented, IBAR is likely to become involved in a number of development, research and information activities.

Compared to the national livestock and veterinary services, the great advantage of IBAR is that , being part of a continent-wide political organisation that transcends narrower national interests, it can be directed by O A U member states to undertake activities which facilitate regional co-operation. Resources will remain a limiting factor, however, and the implementing of programmes will certainly be hindered as long as member states do not provide the resources required. Programmes largely dependent on external aid and assistance flows are unsustainable.

If IBAR's activities are allowed to run parallel to other (Africa-mandated but non-African directed) organisations such as ILCA and ILRAD (trypanosomiasis, feed resources), then they may fail to share in the process of research whose results a common clientele would wish to use. Duplicated efforts are costly and they represent a case of resource misallocation in the light of the research needs of Africa's livestock sector.

O A U / I B A R could play an important role in rationalising the selection of priority areas for development, research and training by national and regional organisations and even perhaps international organisations. The political will of its policy-makers and the resources (financial and otherwise) at its disposal will determine the extent to which it can take this role on a sustained basis. In the meantime IBAR's potential as a catalyst for national or regional African organisations must be exploited to influence the content and direction of African livestock research and policy. In this regard, one must note the important political (as opposed to technical) component in IBAR's livestock mandate. This political role could be a source of conflict between IBAR and other regional or international organisations, and this is not necessarily advantageous to the national livestock and veterinary services.

The Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) is an organisation dealing with African economic policy issues. The livestock sector is just starting to emerge as a notable addition to issues studied by E C A in the agricultural sector. The resources committed to livestock at present are too small to enable full-fledged activities even in some areas in which the commission, as a member of the U N system, may have a comparative advantage. For example, African livestock statistics are appallingly inadequate both in quantity and quality. E C A should be in a much better position to support the collection, processing and updating of livestock statistics for Africa's development planners and researchers.

The International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) and the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases ( ILRAD) are two Africa-mandated livestock research centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). ILRAD deals mainly with research on diseases, and has so far emphasised trypanosomiasis and theileriosis. It is also involved in collaborative research and training activities with ILCA on other livestock subjects (e.g. trypanotolerance research). In contrast, ILCA has a much wider research, training and information mandate :

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" t o assist national efforts.. . in the production and marketing systems in tropical Africa so as to increase the sustained yield and output of livestock products and improve the quality of life of the people in this region" (Memorandum of Agreement, 1974).

The operational goals subordinate to this overall purpose have been spelt out as follows (16, 17):

- to strengthen the ability of national agricultural research systems (NARS) to conduct technical and policy research in livestock-related fields and thus to develop their own technical solutions to production problems and to promote livestock and rural development;

- to develop, through ILCA's own research and that of other organisations, technical packages for increasing livestock production and the contribution of livestock to sustainable agricultural production and income;

- to contribute to scientific knowledge in a way conducive to solutions to livestock production problems: such knowledge may relate to the understanding of production constraints and opportunities, or to research methods and techniques.

ILCA's research is organised around three commodity-oriented and three "strategic" programmes. The commodity research programme focuses on: cattle milk and meat; small ruminant meat and milk; and animal traction. Animal feed resources, trypanotolerance and livestock policy and resource use make up the strategic port ion of the research programme. Priority would be given to cattle, sheep and goats (the species) belonging to smallholders and agropastoralists (the target groups) in all ecological zones except the arid zone and to meat, milk, traction and manure (the products).

Research is multidisciplinary. Apar t from the natural sciences, economics and other appropriate social sciences will be an integral part of technical research. Research follows a farming systems approach in order to take into consideration the producers' needs, constraints and reactions to new or improved technology developed through on-station as well as on-farm tested results. More detailed information on criteria for project selection, modes of operation in research planning and implementation are included in the strategy and programme documents of ILCA (16, 17). As concerns modes of implementation, collaborative research with NARS is particularly important in the context of the present paper.

An important component of ILCA's mandate is training and information. ILCA primarily considers these as instruments for strengthening NARS scientific capabilities and for disseminating research results. This is expected to contribute to the further development of livestock expertise in sub-Saharan Africa and to facilitate the sharing of scientific knowledge and skills (17).

ILCA produces publications of varying technical complexity, including newsletters, bulletins, research reports, proceedings and annual reports. At the end of 1987 the main distribution list contained 6,530 addresses of which 4,546 or 70% were in Africa. Almost 55% of the publications in Africa go to NARS; over 70% go to natural scientists working in livestock and related fields. Services related to information such as the "selective dissemination of informat ion" are particularly valued by ILCA's clientele.

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ILCA's training programme has expanded tremendously in the last ten years. Central to this programme are the group training activities which bring working African scientists or technicians together for courses, conferences and workshops. In 1989 ILCA's course schedule will cover eleven topics, an increase from nine in 1988. Tables VII and VIII provide data on the number of courses run since 1977 and a list of the topics covered during 1987. The number of participants from research institutes has increased rapidly, particularly since 1984, rising in percentage shares of the total from 1 3 % in 1984 to 44% in 1988. This reflects the increasing use of training as a means of sharing knowledge and skills with African research organisations.

T A B L E V I I

Number of ILCA courses and participants (1977-88)

Year Courses No. of participants T

Working in1

D R

1977 1 16 3 10 3 1978 1 28 2 26 0 1981 1 17 7 10 0 1982 2 13 4 6 3 1983 4 74 14 55 5 1984 2 24 6 15 3 1985 6 111 27 63 21 1986 8 144 18 90 36 1987 8 160 38 72 50 1988 9 180 36 , 65 80 Total 42 768 155 412 201

1. T = Academic institution D = Development organisation R = Research institute

Source: ILCA Training and Information Department

T A B L E V I I I

Group training courses at ILCA, 1987

Attendance

Course title No. of No. of Course title participants countries

Forage evaluation techniques 13 10 ILCA/FAO rural dairy technology 14 9 Management of agricultural information 22 9 Small ruminant production techniques 25 16 ILCA/FAO standardisation of

livestock production data 22 12 Economics of animal health

and disease control 23 11 African livestock policy analysis 23 15 Animal nutrition and forage analysis 18 14

Source: ILCA Annual Report 1987

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Several African countries have formal agreements with ILCA to conduct collaborative research, or to share information, skills and facilities, or in the provision of training to national staff. The African side invariably includes the livestock and veterinary services. ILCA and the OAU entered upon an agreement of co-operation in 1985. The agreement formalises the "working relation existing between OAU/IBAR and ILCA" and provides for mutual consultation in all matters relevant to animal production and related fields including research, training and information exchange.

This rather lengthy presentation on ILCA is not intended as publicity. It aims to show that opportunities exist for livestock and veterinary services to collaborate with institutions such as ILCA in research, training and information activities for mutual benefit. It is only through the serious study, appraisal and evaluation by the African national, regional and continental organisations concerned with livestock development that the research programmes of such institutes as ILCA will become even more relevant to and reflect suitable priorities for Africa. It should not be an idle wish to expect African institutions to hold new promise in this area.

CONCLUSION

The livestock and veterinary services in Africa have begun to respond to the challenges which are facing livestock development and food production. There seem to be innumerable constraints impeding the effectiveness of the services and the profession, but they are not insurmountable. The approach to these problems must be set on a higher plane. For this reason, regional and continental cooperation can no longer be left a matter of rhetoric.

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GANADERÍA Y PRODUCCIÓN ALIMENTICIA EN AFRICA: UNA OPORTUNIDAD Y UN DESAFÍO PARA LOS SERVICIOS DE GANADERÍA Y LOS SERVICIOS VETERINARIOS NACIONALES. - Addis Anteneh.

Resumen: El autor describe las tendencias y las dificultades de la producción y el consumo de productos de origen animal en Africa y, partiendo de la idea de que esta producción se orienta hacia la subsistencia menos de lo que normalmente se piensa, presenta los objetivos económicos que desempeñan un papel importante en la ganadería africana. Tras haber comparado los niveles de producción y rendimiento en Africa con los de los países desarrollados y los países en desarrollo, examina la función de los Servicios de Ganadería y los Servicios Veterinarios en el continente africano. Las actividades veterinarias oficiales deberían dirigirse hacia una mejora de la lucha contra las enfermedades y, especialmente, hacia mejores prácticas de gestión y la reducción de las pérdidas y despilfarros. El artículo termina con una argumentación sobre el papel que pueden desempeñar las organizaciones internacionales como el IBAR, la CEA, el ILRAD y el ILCA (Centro Internacional para el Desarrollo de la Ganadería en Africa).

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PALABRAS CLAVE: Africa - Bovinos - Cooperación regional - Formación -Gestión - Leche - Organizaciones internacionales - Producción animal - Servicios veterinarios.

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