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Literature Review
Khazima Tahir
Muhammed Riaz
La Saundra Haynes
Contents 1. Literature review – What and why2. Searching and finding print and online sources3. Evaluating sources for relevance and reliability4. Reading critically5. Analyzing and synthesizing findings6. Writing and presenting literature review7. Citing sources in text and reference list / bibliography8. Avoiding plagiarism
3
Developing Literature Developing Literature ReviewReview
Learning CheckLearning Check
What is Literature Review?
5
Literature review - DefinitionLiterature review - Definition
A body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge on a particular topic
A comprehensive survey of publications in a specific field of study or related to a particular line of research
Non-quantitative summary of existing published literature made by experts who select and weigh findings available from the literature
A summary and interpretation of research findings reported in the literature
A process and documentation of the current relevant research literature regarding a particular topic or subject of interest.
6
Purposes of literature reviewPurposes of literature review
Define and limit problem◦ Develop familiarity with topic◦ Limit research to a subtopic within larger body of
knowledge Place study in historical perspective
◦ Analysis of way in which study relates to existing knowledge
Avoid unintentional and unnecessary replication◦ Awareness of prior studies so as to avoid unneeded
replication◦ Replication is reasonable if it is needed to verify prior
results, investigate results that failed to be significant, or relate problem to a specific site.
7
Purposes of literature reviewPurposes of literature review Select promising methods and measures
◦ Knowledge of and insight into specific research designs for investigating a problem
◦ Awareness of specific instruments, sampling procedures, and data analyses
Relate findings to previous knowledge and suggest future research needs◦ Relating prior research to what is known places current
study in perspective◦ This knowledge allows researcher to focus problem on
what is not known Develop research hypotheses
◦ Suggestions for specific research hypotheses
8
Meta-analysis Quantitatively combines the results of studies that are the result of a systematic literature review. Capable of performing a statistical analysis of the pooled results of relevant studies.
Literature review designs
Narrative review Selective review of the literature that broadly covers a specific topic. Does not follow strict systematic methods to locate and synthesize articles.
Systematic review Utilizes exacting search strategies to make certain that the maximum extent of relevant research has been considered. Original articles are methodologically appraised and synthesized.
9
When we need to do a When we need to do a literature reviewliterature review
At the beginning of the research project◦ Proposal◦ Chapter 2, 1 & 3
Constantly update during the research
When writing the discussion and conclusion chapters
10
What is literatureWhat is literature
BooksJournalsConference papers
Theses and dissertations
BibliographiesMapsInternetIndexes/Abstracts
Audio-visual materialCDs/DVDsElectronic databasesGovernment reportsMagazinesNewspapersGrey literatureInterviews and other
unpublished research
11
Three types of literatureThree types of literature
ActivityActivity
Enlist the literature usually used in your discipline.
13
Searching and Finding Searching and Finding Information SourcesInformation Sources
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Start searchingStart searching
15
Start searchingStart searching
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Finding information sourcesFinding information sources
Formal ways◦ University libraries◦ Special libraries and government departments◦ Inter-library loan
Informal ways◦ Authors◦ Personal libraries of experts◦ Your friends
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Bibliographic aidsBibliographic aids
Library catalogIndexing journalAbstracting journalBibliographyBibliographic databasePeople
◦ Experts◦ Librarians
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Online Searching TechniquesOnline Searching Techniques
Boolean OperatorsPhrase SearchingTruncation / Wildcard SearchingProximity SearchingFocusing / Limiting a Search
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Boolean OperatorsBoolean Operators
AND
OR
NOT
Boolean operators allow you to join terms together, widen a search or exclude terms from your search results. This means you can be more precise in locating your information.
20
Boolean Operators at EmeraldBoolean Operators at Emerald
21
Phrase SearchingPhrase Searching
It narrows your search down by searching for an exact phrase or sentence. It is particularly useful when searching for a title or a quotation. Usually quotation marks are used to connect the words together.
For example“Towards a healthier Scotland”
22
Truncation / WildcardTruncation / Wildcard
These search techniques retrieve information on similar words by replacing part of the word with a symbol usually a * or ?. However, different databases use different symbols, so check what is used.
In truncation the end of the word is replaced.◦ For example physiother* will retrieve physiotherapy,
physiotherapeutic, physiotherapist and so on. In wildcard searching, letters from inside the
word are replaced.◦ For example wom*n will retrieve the terms woman and
women.
23
Proximity SearchingProximity Searching
It looks for documents where two or more separately matching term occurrences are within a specified distance, where distance is the number of intermediate words or characters
For example◦Term A NEAR Term B◦Term A ADJ Term B
24
Focusing / Limiting a SearchFocusing / Limiting a Search
There are many ways to focus your search and all search tools offer different ways of doing this. Some of the ways of limiting your search are as follows:
Date Language Place Publication type Age groups Type of material e.g. you could just need to
find case studies
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General Search EnginesGeneral Search Engines
GoogleYahooAltaVistaFAST SearchMSN SearchLycosExcite
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Google Simple SearchGoogle Simple Search
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Google Advanced SearchGoogle Advanced Search
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Scholarly Search EnginesScholarly Search Engines
Google ScholarInfomineLibrarians’ Internet IndexIntutePinakesBusiness ResearchISI Web of Science
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Librarians’ Internet IndexLibrarians’ Internet Index
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Subject DirectoriesSubject Directories
Also called Information Gateways and Virtual Libraries Yahoo Directory Google Directory Librarians’ Internet Index About.com Infomine The WWW Virtual Library Specialized Subject Directories
◦ Abi Logic◦ Solid Crawler◦ Academic Info◦ SOSIG - Social Science Information Gateway
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Yahoo DirectoryYahoo Directory
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Electronic Theses and Electronic Theses and Dissertations - ETDsDissertations - ETDs
Networked Digital Library of Theses and
Dissertations◦ Catalog of theses and doctoral dissertations contributed
by some 176 universities and 27 institutions worldwide
British Library EThOS◦ 250,000+ theses of British universities◦ Many are free
Proquest Dissertations & Theses Database◦ World’s most comprehensive collection of dissertations
and theses with over 2.7 million titles
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Networked Digital Library of Networked Digital Library of Theses and DissertationsTheses and Dissertations
34
Online DatabasesOnline Databases
Bibliographic databases◦ERIC, Agricola, Medline, EconLit, PsychINFO
Numeric databases◦Stat-USA, UN Common Database
Full text databases◦ScienceDirect, Emerald, JSTOR
35
ERIC DatabaseERIC Database
36
Science Direct DatabaseScience Direct Database
37
Free e-booksFree e-books
Gigapedia◦300,000+ books, the largest e-book repository
The Online Books Page◦35,000+ books
Project Gutenberg◦30,000+ books
Internet Public Library◦20,000+ books
38
HEC – Online ResourcesHEC – Online Resources
National Digital Library◦Over 30 databases with over 23,000 journals◦Accessible by 250 institutions in Pakistan◦50,000 e-books◦Links to open access resources
Pakistan Research Repository◦Full text of over 1800 Pakistani doctoral theses
39
HEC – National Digital LibraryHEC – National Digital Library
40
Pakistan Research RepositoryPakistan Research Repository
41
Library web OPACsLibrary web OPACs
Libdex◦Worldwide index of library catalogs
WorldCat◦1.4 billion items from 10,000+ libraries
worldwideLibrary of CongressThe British LibraryNational Library of Pakistan
ActivityActivity
Enlist 10 keywords related to your research topic.
Search these online resources and mention 10 most relevant and helpful resources of your discipline.
43
Evaluating Information Evaluating Information SourcesSources
44
Evaluating information sources for Evaluating information sources for relevance – Bookrelevance – Book
Skim its index for your key words, then skim the pages on which those words occur.
Skim the first and last paragraphs in chapters that use a lot of your key words.
Skim introduction, summary chapters, and so on.Skim the last chapter, especially the first and last
two or three pages.If the source is a collection of articles, skim the
editor’s introduction.Check the bibliography for titles relevant to your
topic.
45
Evaluating information sources for Evaluating information sources for relevance – Articlerelevance – Article
Read the abstract.Skim the introduction and conclusion, or if
they are not marked by headings, skim the first six or seven paragraphs and the last four or five.
Skim for section headings, and read the first and last paragraphs of those sections.
Check the bibliography for titles relevant to your topic.
46
Evaluating information sources for Evaluating information sources for relevance – Onlinerelevance – Online
If it looks like a printed article, follow the steps for a journal article.
Skim sections labeled “introduction,” “overview,” “summary,” or the like. If there are none, look for a link labeled “About the Site” or something similar.
If the site has a link labeled “Site Map” or “Index,” check it for your key words and skim the referenced pages.
If the site has a “search” resource, type in your key words.
47
Use colour post-its to mark Use colour post-its to mark relevancerelevance
◦Red - high relevance◦Blue – medium relevance◦Yellow – low relevance
48
AudienceAuthorityBiasCurrencyScope
Evaluating information sources for reliability
49
AudienceAudience
What age group/education level/political affiliation/etc. is the audience?
Is this for a person with in-depth knowledge or a layperson?
50
AuthorityAuthority
Does the author’s name appear on the Web page?
What are his/her credentials?Does the author provide contact
information?
51
BiasBias
Is the source objective?Could the writer or the organization’s affiliation put a different spin on the information presented?
What is the purpose of the source?
52
CurrencyCurrency
When was the work published?When was the work last updated?How old are the sources or items in the bibliography?
How current is the topic?If a Web page, do the links work?
53
ScopeScope
What does/doesn’t the work cover?
Is it an in-depth study (many pages) or superficial (one page)?
Are sources and statistics cited?If a site, does it offer unique info not found in any other source?
ActivityActivity
What was your practice for searching the literature? How would you incorporate these tips for enhancing your searching skills?
55
Critical ReadingCritical Reading
56
What is “critical reading?”What is “critical reading?”
“Critical” is not intended to have a negative meaning in the context of “critical reading.”
Definition: An active approach to reading that involves an in depth examination of the text. Memorization and understanding of the text is achieved. Additionally, the text is broken down into its components and examined critically in order to achieve a meaningful understanding of the material.
57
Passive vs. Active ReadingPassive vs. Active ReadingPassive Reading: - (4 traits)1. Largely inactive process.2. Low motivation to examine the text
critically or at an in-depth level.3. Important pieces of data and
assumptions may be missed. 4. Data and assumptions that are
perceived by the passive reader are accepted at face value or are examined superficially, with little thought.
58
Passive vs. Active ReadingPassive vs. Active Reading
• Active Reading: - Active reading involves interacting with the text and therefore requires significantly more energy than passive reading.
• Critical reading ALWAYS involves active reading. The active reader invests sufficient effort to understand the text and commit important details to memory.
• The active reader identifies important pieces of data, the assumptions underlying arguments, and examines them critically. They rely on their personal experiences and knowledge of theory to analyze the text.
59
Techniques of Critical ReadingTechniques of Critical Reading
1. Previewing2. Writing3. Critical Reading (at least two times)4. Summarizing5. Forming a Critical Response6. Finding a Focus for Your Paper
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PreviewingPreviewingForm meaningful expectations about the
reading.Pace yourself – decide how much time
you will dedicate to the reading.Skimming.
◦Look for Title, Section Headings, Date◦Expectations about the Author (previous
works)◦Define the important vocabulary words◦Brief summaries of chapters◦The goal is to obtain a general grasp of the
text
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WritingWriting
1. Writing While Readinga. Marginb. Divided Page Methodc. Landmark/Footnote Methodd. Reading Journale. Online Documents
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Writing - MarginWriting - Margin
Mark, highlight, or underline parts of the text that you think are very important.
Option 1 - Write a few words in the margin that capture the essence of your reaction.
Option 2 – Write a few words that will help you to remember the passage. This is useful for learning definitions or parts of a theory.
63
Divided Page MethodDivided Page Method
On a separate piece of paper, divide your page into two columns.
Label one column “text” (meaning from your reading) and the other “response” (meaning your response).
Write down a part of the text you think is important in the “text” column and then write a reaction to it in the other column.
64
Landmark/Footnote MethodLandmark/Footnote Method
On a separate piece(s) of paper or in your reading journal, dedicate an adequate amount of space to an article, book, chapter, etc, you are reading.
Highlight, mark, or underline a critical part in your reading. In the margin, indicate that you are going to write a footnote. For example, write a 1 or a (or whatever you want).
In your reading journal, write a ‘1’ or ‘a’ (or whatever symbol you chose) and then write your critical response.
65
Reading JournalReading Journal In addition to the other uses described above, use
the reading journal to track what you are reading and to form critical responses to articles, chapters, etc you have read in their entirety.
Try to summarize the entire article, describe the main points, define key terms, and express your reactions.
Remember, do NOT refer back to the text until you absolutely have to! Give your memory a workout! Force yourself to learn the material as you read and be able to write it down clearly afterwards.
Also, put concepts into your own words. A general rule is 3-5 pages of notes per 100 pages of
text.
66
Online DocumentsOnline Documents
Two ways to write while reading online documents…
1) Reading Journal2) Cut and Paste in Word Processor, then
insert comments
67
First ReadingFirst Reading
Read in an environment where you will be free from distractions.
Read steadily and smoothly. Try to enjoy the work.
Write notes, but do so sparingly.What works best for you?We suggest avoiding your cell phone,
television, computer, and music.
68
Second ReadingSecond Reading
Re-read the material more slowly than during your first read.
The two most important objectives are:1. Understand the content of the material2. Understand the material’s structure
69
3 Responses to Texts3 Responses to Texts
Restatement- Restating what a text says; talking about the original topic.
Description- Describing what a text does; identifies aspects of text.
Interpretation- Analyze what a text means; asserts an overall meaning.
70
SummarizationSummarization
Summarization: Pull out the main points of the text and write them down.
The summary’s complexity and length will vary according to the complexity and length of the text you have read!
71
Forming Your Critical ResponseForming Your Critical Response
AnalysisInterpretationSynthesisIn forming your critical response, you will
now go beyond what the author has explicitly written to form your impressions of the text.
72
AnalysisAnalysis
Analysis is the separation of something into its parts or elements, which helps to examine them more closely.
To analyze reading, you can take at least these two approaches:
1) Choose a question to guide analysis.2) Look at the author’s argument
structure.
73
Analysis (continued)Analysis (continued)
Examine the argument structure.Claims: Statements that require support
by evidence.Assumptions: The writer’s underlying
beliefs, opinions, principles, or inferences that connect evidence to the claims.
74
Analysis (continued)Analysis (continued)Types of evidence
◦Facts: Verifiable evidence.◦Opinion: Judgments based upon facts.◦Expert Opinion: Judgments formed by
authorities on a given subject. ◦Appeal to Beliefs or Needs: Readers are asked
to accept a claim in part because they already accept it as true WITHOUT factual evidence or because it coincides with their needs.
◦Appeal to Emotion: A claim that is persuasive because it evokes an emotion within the reader, but may or may not rely on factual evidence.
75
Analysis (continued)Analysis (continued)
To judge the reliability of evidence, look at the following areas:◦Accuracy◦Relevance◦Representativeness◦Adequacy
76
Analysis (continued)Analysis (continued)
Logical Fallacies: Errors in reasoning.Examples:
◦Red herring- introduction of an irrelevant issue in an argument.
◦Non sequitur- linking two or more ideas that have no logical connection.
◦Making broad generalizations without proven empirical evidence.
77
InterpretationInterpretation
After breaking down the text into its components and examining them, ask yourself about the conclusions you can draw from this evidence.
What claims does the author make?What evidence supports these claims?Can you infer anything beyond what
the author has explicitly written that either strengthens or weakens the claims made by the author?
78
SynthesisSynthesis
Now that you have broken down the text into its parts, analyzed them, and interpreted it all, you should make new connections with what you know.
Ask yourself again:◦What are the main points of this text?◦Were my expectations for this article met?◦If I “read in between the lines” do I learn
anything else about what the author is saying?◦Overall, what can I conclude from this text?
79
Analyzing and Analyzing and Synthesizing FindingsSynthesizing Findings
80
Completely in each topic togetherCompletely in each topic together
Take notesTake notes in an organized manner: in an organized manner: computer files, note cards, etc.computer files, note cards, etc.
Include all bibliographic info, especially Include all bibliographic info, especially page number when quoting!page number when quoting!
Flag like information with same color post-Flag like information with same color post-its across articles.its across articles.
Read the articlesRead the articles
81
SummarizeSummarize
main purpose (research questions)main purpose (research questions)methodologymethodology
◦qualitative/quantitative qualitative/quantitative ◦subjects, controls, treatmentssubjects, controls, treatments
findingsfindingsrelevant detailsrelevant details
82
varying definitions of key termsvarying definitions of key termsmethodology usedmethodology used
◦ size & generalizability of subject size & generalizability of subject pool pool
◦innovative methodology innovative methodology enough evidence?enough evidence?findings consistent with those of similar findings consistent with those of similar
studies? studies?
AnalyzeAnalyze
83
AnalyzeAnalyze
currency: lit review shows the latest work currency: lit review shows the latest work done in subject area. (last 5 years on done in subject area. (last 5 years on average)average)
Include older articles if: Include older articles if: landmark study landmark study only evidence on a topic only evidence on a topic helps explain the evolution of the helps explain the evolution of the research research
84
Synthesize the LiteratureSynthesize the Literature
How does each article relate to your topic How does each article relate to your topic and purpose?and purpose?
Define your argument/thesis.Define your argument/thesis.
Identify major trends or patterns emerging Identify major trends or patterns emerging from your reading.from your reading.
85
SynthesizeSynthesize
Reassemble your notes based on results of Reassemble your notes based on results of reading, using organizational aids such as post-reading, using organizational aids such as post-its, flags, etc.its, flags, etc.
Revise original outline of categories Revise original outline of categories
Create a detailed topic outline Create a detailed topic outline ◦ begin with your “argument” or claim begin with your “argument” or claim ◦ present evidence from articles researched that proves present evidence from articles researched that proves
your claimyour claim
Do not string together a summary of articles. The Do not string together a summary of articles. The outline is topic driven.outline is topic driven.
86
SynthesizeSynthesize
Note landmark studies and if replicated.Note landmark studies and if replicated.Note how individual studies help illustrate Note how individual studies help illustrate
or advance theoretical notions.or advance theoretical notions.Note gaps or areas needing more Note gaps or areas needing more
research.research.Make sure your detailed outline follows a Make sure your detailed outline follows a
logical sequence of topics and subtopics. logical sequence of topics and subtopics. This will give your literature review the This will give your literature review the coherence it needs.coherence it needs.
87
Writing and Presenting Writing and Presenting Literature ReviewLiterature Review
88
Structure of review articlesStructure of review articles
Literature reviews are in reality a type of research
Should conform to the anatomy of a typical scholarly article ◦Abstract◦ Introduction◦Methods◦Results◦Discussion◦Conclusion◦References
89
Structure of literature reviewStructure of literature review
Introduction• Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review,
such as the central theme or organizational pattern.
Body• Contains your discussion of sources.
Conclusions/Recommendations• Discuss what you have drawn from reviewing literature
so far. Where might the discussion proceed?
90
Organization of literature Organization of literature reviewreview
A general organization looks like a funnel
◦Broader topics◦Subtopics◦Studies like yours
91
How to organize studiesHow to organize studies
Chronological◦By publication date◦By trend
Thematic◦A structure which considers different themes
Methodological◦Focuses on the methods of the researcher, e.g.,
qualitative versus quantitative approaches
92
Making links between studiesMaking links between studies
Agreements Similarly, author B points to… Likewise, author C makes the case that… Author D also makes this point… Again, it is possible to see how author E agrees with author
D…
Disagreements However, author B points to… On the other hand, author C makes the case that… Conversely, Author D argues… Nevertheless, what author E suggests…
93
Summary tableSummary table It is useful to prepare. Such a table provides a quick overview that
allows the reviewer to make sense of a large mass of information.
The tables could include columns with headings such as◦ Author◦ type of study◦ Sample◦ Design◦ data collection approach◦ key findings
94
Citation Sample Environment Method Conclusions
Colour
Bellizzi, Crowley and Hasty (1983)
125 Adults Furniture store Laboratory experimentPhotographic slide simulations
Warm and cool colours created different emotional responses. Customers view red retail environments as more negative and unpleasant than blue.
Bellizzi, & Hite (1992)
70 Adult women107 Students
Televisions shown with different colour backgroundsFurniture stores
Laboratory experiments Photographic slide simulations
Study based on PAD affect measures and approach-avoidance behaviours.More positive retail outcomes occurred in blue environments than red.
Music
Smith and Curnow (1966)
1100 Supermarket shoppers
Retail store Field experiment
Time in store reduced with loud music but level of sales did not.
Milliman (1982) 216 Shoppers Supermarket Field experiment
The tempo of background music influenced the pace at which customers shopped. Slow tempo music slowed customers down but resulted in increased volume of sales.
Hui, Dubé and Chebat (1997)
116 Students Bank branch- waiting for service.
Laboratory experimentVideo simulation
The positive impact of music on approach behaviours is mediated by an emotional evaluation of the environment and the emotional response to waiting. Pleasurable music produced longer perceived waiting times.
Lighting
Areni and Kim (1994) 171 Shoppers Wine store Field experiment
The investigation found that brighter in-store lighting influenced shoppers to examine and handle more of the merchandise in the store
Summers and Hebert (2001)
2367 Customers Hardware storeApparel store
Field experiment
Confirmed Areni and Kims (1994) results. Increased levels of lighting will produce arousal and pleasure and increase the approach behaviours of customers.
Sum
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Atm
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95
Citation stylesCitation stylesInformation prominent citation
Example:◦ For viscoelastic fluids, the behaviour of the time-
dependent stresses in the transient shear flows is also very important (Boger et al., 1974).
Author prominent citationExamples:◦ Close (1983) developed a simplified theory using
an analogy between heat and mass transfer and the equivalent heat transfer only case.
◦ Several authors have suggested that automated testing should be more readily accepted (Balcer, 1989; Stahl, 1989; Carver & Tai, 1991).
96
Active or passive voiceActive or passive voice
You should use, where appropriate, both active and passive voice
As a general rule, use active voice unless there is good reason not to
97
A Good Literature Review is:A Good Literature Review is: Focused - The topic should be narrow. You should only
present ideas and only report on studies that are closely related to topic.
Concise - Ideas should be presented economically. Don’t take any more space than you need to present your ideas.
Logical - The flow within and among paragraphs should be a smooth, logical progression from one idea to the next
Developed - Don’t leave the story half told. Integrative - Your paper should stress how the ideas in the
studies are related. Focus on the big picture. What commonality do all the studies share? How are some studies different than others? Your paper should stress how all the studies reviewed contribute to your topic.
Current - Your review should focus on work being done on the cutting edge of your topic.
98
PitfallsPitfalls
Vagueness due to too much or inappropriate generalizations
Limited range Insufficient information Irrelevant material Omission of contrasting view Omission of recent work
99
Common errors in Common errors in reviewing literature reviewing literature
Hurrying through review to get started could mean that you will miss something that will improve your research.
Relying too heavily upon secondary sources.Concentrating on findings rather than methods.Overlooking sources other than academic
journals. Don’t forget newspaper articles, magazines, blogs, etc.
Searching too broad or too narrow of a topic.Inaccuracy in the compiling of bibliographic
information.
ActivityActivity
What do you know about good literature review?
Citing ReferencesCiting Referencesin Your Researchin Your Research
(APA Style)(APA Style)
Some Important Terms Some Important Terms Used in Research WorkUsed in Research Work
• Citation• References• Footnote
Learning CheckLearning Check
What is the sharp difference between Citation, References, bibliography and foot-note.
Citation
A reference or listing of the key pieces of information about a work that makes it possible to identify and locate it again.
What we quoted in the text consists of author name (Not inverted), title and pages of sources it could be as footnote, at the end of chapter or at the end of thesis.
ReferenceReference
In the context of academic research, a list of books or references to sources cited, for further reading, usually printed at the end of an article or in the back matter of a book includes author name (inverted), title, year, place of publication, publisher.
BibliographyBibliography
Any note used to further explain a detail outside of the main text. The term usually refers to notes at the bottom of a pageOP Cited (for reference already given in list)op. cited ref No 11, H.M DeitelIbid (for the same reference use)
Foot NoteFoot Note
Various Style ManualsVarious Style ManualsAPA – American Psychological
AssociationMLA – Modern Language Association Chicago Style – Chicago Manual of StyleTurabian Style – based on Chicago
StyleHarvard Referencing SystemASA – American Sociological
AssociationCBE - Council of Biology Editors
109
APA styleAPA styleAmerican Psychological
AssociationIn 1929, published
instructions for authors on how to prepare manuscripts for APA journals
Later used for theses, term papers, etc.
Latest edition 6th in 2009Widely used in social
sciences
110
Citing references – OutlineCiting references – Outline
Identifying and formatting citing elementsCiting in textPreparing reference list / bibliography
111
Citing ElementsCiting Elements
112
Citing ElementsCiting Elements
The elements of a citation normally include:Author or authoring bodyDate of publicationTitle of the workEditionPublisherPlace of publicationTitle of the sourceLocation information within the sourceURL or DOINon-routine information (page no, Volume no,
etc.)
113
AuthorAuthor
Surname and initials Kernis, M. H.
Hyphenated first name Sun, C.-R.
Editor’s name Robinson, D. N. (Ed.)
No author Entry under title
Delete Prof., Dr., Maj., Retd., etc.
114
Authoring body or groupAuthoring body or group
Full name National Institute of Health
Subordinate body University of the Punjab, Institute of Business Administration
Government agencies Pakistan, Ministry of Finance
115
Date of publicationDate of publicationJournal, book, AV media
1993Meeting, Monthly magazine, Newsletter
1993, June 1993, Spring
Daily, Weekly 1994, September 28
Accepted work but not yet published in press
No date available n.d.
Publication over long period 1959-1963
Republished work, a note at the end (Original work published 1923)
116
Title of the workTitle of the work
Title of bookTitle of book chapterTitle of journal articleTitle of encyclopedia articleSubtitle with colon
117
EditionEdition
Edition you usedEdition in Arabic numeral
2nd ed. Rev. ed. 4th rev. ed.
118
PublisherPublisher
Publisher name for non periodicalsIn a brief formOmit superfluous terms, such as Publishers,
Publications, Co., Inc. Sage Wiley McGraw-Hill Prentice Hall Ferozsons
Use only word “Author” when author and publisher is the same
119
Place of publicationPlace of publication
Name of cityIf city is not well known then add state/province
and/or country Jaipur, India Medford, NJ
US postal service abbreviations for states (2-digit codes) CA for California
If more cities are given, use the first or the publisher’s head office if clearly mentioned
120
Title of the sourceTitle of the source
Title of the book in case of a book chapterTitle of the journal in case of journal articleJournal title in full
Harvard Business Review Not Har. Bus. Rev. Not HBR
121
LocationLocationJournal volume and issue number in Arabic numerals
33(4)Volume of a book
Vols. 1-20 (Vol.26, pp. 501-508)
Start and end (inclusive) page numbers for journal article or book chapter 215-224 (pp. 215-224)
Discontinuous pages 5-7, 11-12
122
URL or DOIURL or DOI
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) http://www.topicsinclinicalnutrition.com
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)
10.1037/0002-9432.76.4.482
123
Non-routine informationNon-routine information
Give nonroutine but important information in square brackets
[Letter to the editor][Special issue][Brochure][Abstract]
124
Citing in textCiting in text
125
Author’s name in sentenceAuthor’s name in sentence
Schwepps (1998) states that the
solution sat dormant for several months
before any of the employees tested it (p.
743).
126
Author’s name in parenthesesAuthor’s name in parentheses
When the solution had been sitting for a
number of months, the employees tested for
bacteria (Schwepps, 1998).
127
Short quotationShort quotation
When fewer than 40 wordsPut prose quotation in running textPut quote marks around quoted materialAuthor’s last name, publication year, and
page number(s) of quote must appear in the text
128
Example – Short quotationExample – Short quotation
Caruth (1996) states that a traumatic response frequently entails a “delayed, uncontrolled repetitive appearance of hallucinations and other intrusive phenomena” (p. 11).
A traumatic response frequently entails a “delayed, uncontrolled repetitive appearance of hallucinations and other intrusive phenomena” (Caruth, 1996, p. 11).
129
Long quotationsLong quotations
When 40 words or moreIn block formIndent 5-7 spaces and omit the quotation
marks. If the quotation has internal paragraphs, indent the internal paragraphs a further 5-7 spaces
Do not use quotation marksDouble space the block quoteCite the source after the end punctuation of
the quote
130
Example – Long quotationExample – Long quotation
Meile (1993) found the following: The “placebo effect,” which had been verified in
previous studies, disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner. Furthermore, the behaviors were never exhibited again, even when real drugs were administered. Earlier studies were clearly premature in attributing the results to a placebo effect. (p. 276)
131
Secondary referenceSecondary reference
In 1947 the World Health Organization proposed the following definition of health. “Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity” (World Health Organization, as cited in Potter & Perry, 2001, p. 3).
132
Multiple authorsMultiple authors
2 authors – cite both names separated by & Example: (Kosik & Martin, 1999, p. 127)
3-5 authors – cite all authors first time; after first time, use et al. Example: (Wilson et al., 2000)
6 or more authors – cite first author’s name and et al.Example: (Perez et al., 1992)
133
Multiple citations Multiple citations
Multiple sources from same author – chronological order, separated by comma (Burke, 1998, 1999, in press)
Within same year: (Burke, 1998a, 1998b, 1999, in press)
Multiple sources – separated by semicolon, alphabetical order (Burke, 1998; Perez, 1992; Wilhite, 2001)
134
Personal communicationPersonal communication
Personal communication (email, phone, conversation, letter, etc.)
(T.K. Lutes, personal communication, September 19, 2001)
Not included in reference list
135
Handling parenthetical Handling parenthetical citationscitations
More than one author with the same last name
(H. James, 1878); (W. James, 1880)Specific part of a source
(Jones, 1995, chap. 2)
136
Handling parenthetical Handling parenthetical citationscitations
If the source has no known author, then use an abbreviated version of the title:Full Title: “California Cigarette Tax Deters Smokers”Citation: (“California,” 2009)
137
Sample parenthetical citationsSample parenthetical citationsRecently, the history of warfare has been significantly
revised by Higonnet et al (1987), Marcus (1989), and Raitt and Tate (1997) to include women’s personal and cultural responses to battle and its resultant traumatic effects. Feminist researchers now concur that “It is no longer true to claim that women's responses to the war have been ignored” (Raitt & Tate, p. 2). Though these studies focus solely on women's experiences, they err by collectively perpetuating the masculine-centered impressions originating in Fussell (1975) and Bergonzi (1996).
However, Tylee (1990) further criticizes Fussell, arguing that his study “treated memory and culture as if they belonged to a sphere beyond the existence of individuals or the control of institutions” (p. 6).
138
Reference List / Reference List / BibliographyBibliography
139
Reference listReference list
Place the list of references cited at the end of the paper
Start references on a new pageBegin each entry flush with the left marginIndent subsequent lines five to seven spaces
(hanging indent)Double space both within and between entriesItalicize the title of books, magazines, etc.
140
Reference list orderReference list orderArrange sources alphabetically beginning with
author’s last nameIf author has more than one source, arrange entries
by year, earliest firstWhen an author appears both as a sole author and,
in another citation as the first author of a group, list the one author entries first
If no author given, begin entry with the title and alphabetize without counting a, an, or the
Do not underline, italicize or use quote marks for titles used instead of an author name
141
Example – Reference list orderExample – Reference list order
◦Baheti, J. R. (2001a). Control …◦Baheti, J. R. (2001b). Roles of …◦Kumpfer, K. L. (1999). Factors …◦Kumpfer, K. L. (2002). Prevention …◦Kumpfer, K. L., Alvarado, R., Smith, P., …◦Yoshikawa, H. (1994). Preventions …
142
Group authorGroup author
American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
143
Book with one authorBook with one author
Carter, R. (1998). Mapping the mind. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
144
Book with two authorsBook with two authors
Struck, W., & White, E. B. (1979).The elements of style (3rd ed.).New York: Macmillan.
145
Book with six or more authorsBook with six or more authors
Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N.,Tein, J., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L.,et al. (2000). An experimentalevaluation of…
146
Book with no authorBook with no author
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary(10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA:Merriam-Webster.
147
Book with editorsBook with editors
Allison, M. T., & Schneider, I. E. (Eds.).(2000). Diversity and the recreationprofession: Organizationalperspectives. State College, PA:Venture.
148
Chapter in bookChapter in book
Stern, J. A., & Dunham, D. N. (1990). The ocular system. In J. T. Cacioppo & L. G. Tassinary (Eds.), Principles of psychophysiology: Physical, social, and inferential elements (pp. 513-553). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
149
Multivolume bookMultivolume book
Koch, S. (Ed.). (1959-1963). Psychology: A study of science (Vols. 1-6). New York: McGraw-Hill.
150
Journal articleJournal article
Sellard, S., & Mills, M. E. (1995). Administrative issues for use of nurse practitioners. Journal of Nursing Administration, 25(5), 64-70.
151
Article in pressArticle in press
Jones, R. (in press). The new healthcare lexicon. Journal of Health.
152
AbstractAbstract
Misumi, J., & Fumita, M. (1982). Effectsof PM organizational development insupermarket organization. JapaneseJournal of Experimental SocialPsychology, 21, 93-111. [Abstract]Psychological Abstracts, 1982, 68,Abstract No. 11474
153
MagazineMagazine
Posner, M. I. (1993, October 29). Seeing the mind. Science, 262, 673-674.
154
NewspaperNewspaper
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The Washington Post, pp. A1, A4.
155
Encyclopedia articleEncyclopedia article
Blaser, L. (1996). Relativity . In Galeencyclopedia of science (Vol. 15,pp. 82-86). New York, GaleEncyclopedia Co.
156
ThesisThesis
Ho, M. (2000). Coping strategies ofcounseling professionals(Unpublished master’s thesis,Nanyang Technological University,Singapore).
157
VideotapeVideotape
National Institute on Mental Health. (1980). Drug abuse [videotape]. Bethesda: Author.
158
Electronic sourcesElectronic sources
Velmans, M. (1999). When perception becomes conscious. British Journal of Psychology, 90, 543-566. Retrieved from the Expanded Academic ASAP database.
159
Web pageWeb page
Green, C. (2000, April 16). History & philosophy of psychology web resources. Retrieved from http://www.yorku.ca/dept.htm
160
Article with DOIArticle with DOI
Stultz, J. (2006). Integrating exposure therapy and analytic therapy in trauma treatment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(4), 482–488. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.76.4.482
161
Preprint version of articlePreprint version of article
Philippsen, C., Hahn, M., Schwabe, L., Richter, S., Drewe, J., & Schachinger, H. (2007). Cardiovascular reactivity to mental stress is not affected by alpha2-adrenoreceptor activation or inhibition. Psychopharmacology, 190(2), 181–188. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0597-7
162
Online dictionaryOnline dictionary
Heuristic. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.m-w.com/dictionary
163
Presentation slidesPresentation slides
Columbia University, Teachers College, Institute for Learning Technologies. (2000). Smart cities: New York: Electronic education for the new millennium [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/ publications/index.html
164
Press releasePress release
American Psychological Association. (2006, April 30). Internet use involves both pros and cons for children and adolescents [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/releases/ youthwww0406.html
165
Message posted to an Message posted to an electronic mailing listelectronic mailing list
Smith, S. (2006, January 5). Re: Disputed estimates of IQ [Msg 670]. Message posted to ForensicNetwork electronic mailing list, archived at http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/ForensicNetwork/message/670
166
Weblog postWeblog post
bfy. (2007, January 22). Re: The unfortunate prerequisites and consequences of partitioning your mind. Message posted to http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/
167
Sample Reference ListSample Reference List References
Calvillo, D. (1999). The theoretical development of aggression. Retrieved August21, 2002 from: http://www.csubak.edu/~1vega/dustin2.html
Flory, R. K., (1969a). Attack behavior as a function of minimum inter-foodinterval. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 12, 825-828.
Flory, R. K., (1969b). Attack behavior in a multiple fixed-ratio schedule ofreinforcement. Psychonomic Science, 16, 383-386.
Flory, R. K., & Everist, H.D. (1977). The effect of a response requirement onschedule-induced aggression. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 9,
383-386.Gentry, W. D. (1968). Fixed-ratio schedule-induced aggression. Journal of the
Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11, 813-817.
168
For More InformationFor More Information
APA Manual Website:www.apastyle.org
ActivityActivity
Arrange the bibliographic details provided to you according to APA.
170
Avoiding PlagiarismAvoiding Plagiarismin Researchin Research
171
Plagiarism – DefinitionPlagiarism – Definition
Taking and using the thoughts, writings, and inventions of another person as one's own
Using someone’s ideas without citing or quoting; thereby, receiving credit for someone else’s intellectual effort
172
How to avoid plagiarismHow to avoid plagiarism
Use quotes for
◦Information that comes directly from any source
◦Words, spoken or written, that you use directly from another person
Make sure you document the source
173
Plagiarism detection Plagiarism detection softwaresoftware
174
Penalties for teachers, Penalties for teachers, researchers and staffresearchers and staff
Dismissal from service Demotion to the next lower grade Warning Freezing of research grants Promotions/annual increments of the offender may be
stopped University may debar the offender from sponsorship of
research funding, travel grant, supervision of Ph.D. students, scholarship, fellowship or any other funded program
Offender may be “Black Listed” and may NOT be eligible for employment in any academic / research organization
Notification of “Black Listing” of the author may be published in the print media or may be publicized on different websites
175
Good luckGood luck