Literacy: Queensland’s Literacy test - A framework for · PDF fileLiteracy . Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for describing spelling items . April 2015 ... They do this,

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Literacy Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for describing spelling items April 2015

© The State of Queensland (Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority) 2015

Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority PO Box 307 Spring Hill QLD 4004 Australia Level 7, 154 Melbourne Street, South Brisbane

Phone: +61 7 3864 0299 Fax: +61 7 3221 2553 Email: [email protected] Website: www.qcaa.qld.edu.au

mailto:[email protected]

Contents

Introduction __________________________________________ 1

Spelling framework ____________________________________ 1 Assessable dimensions of spelling ..................................................................... 1 The spelling system ............................................................................................ 2 The framework descriptions ................................................................................ 3

The emergent stage ........................................................................................................... 3 The letter-name stage ........................................................................................................ 4 The within-word stage ........................................................................................................ 5 The syllable and affix stage ................................................................................................ 5 The derivational relations stage ......................................................................................... 5 Spelling strategies .............................................................................................................. 6 Teaching and learning spelling........................................................................................... 6

Spelling framework — stages used for item development .................................. 7

Notes on proofreading ________________________________ 19

References and bibliography ___________________________ 19

Copyright notice _____________________________________ 19

Literacy Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for describing spelling items

Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority April 2015

Page 1 of 19

Introduction This framework is an elaboration of that used to construct spelling items for the 2004–2007 State literacy tests. Teachers can use it as a guide as they create their own classroom spelling assessments to provide formative/diagnostic information for future planning and teaching.

This framework outlines the system knowledge that students need in order to develop as effective and accurate spellers. It does not outline the strategic and metacognitive knowledge that is also needed.

Spelling framework Spelling is the knowledge and use of English orthography, which is the system for representing English language in written form. Spelling is defined here as an aspect of literacy that cannot be conceived separately from its role in general literacy. It is a functional component of writing. It is also a component of reading owing to its role in vocabulary acquisition and word-attack (symbol decoding) skills. Spelling is integral to literacy. It is closely related to vocabulary development. Automaticity is the basis of fluent writing. This document is an intentional warning against treating spelling as a marginal or even an optional literacy skill.

Assessable dimensions of spelling Spelling has two dimensions. (See the diagram on page 2.) The first is the expressive dimension that students engage in when they write (or type) words. There are two sub-elements to expression that teachers can tap into when they assess spelling. The first, conscious production, is what students know and can do when they are able to focus all of their cognitive resources on their spelling. They do this, for example, when they are asked to write words in a dictation test, in class discussions or in spelling games. Assessment of the spelling that students do correctly in expressive tasks and an analysis of their errors gives teachers focused information about which part of the English orthography a student is currently learning. Identifying the aspects of spelling that students sometimes get right and sometimes get wrong will help teachers to identify the ‘teachable slot’ for individuals and even for groups of students.

The other element of expressive spelling is automatic generation, what students can do when they are focused on a writing task so that words are written without close reflection on the spelling. Analysis of spelling-in-writing will give further insights into the internalised knowledge students have of the spelling system. Error analysis together with observations and interviews can give insights into both the spelling and the strategic knowledge students possess.

The second spelling dimension that teachers can assess is that of recognition. This knowledge is used when students decode and study words during reading and proofreading. Proofreading is a task with special teaching and assessing opportunities. To proofread, students need to have organised knowledge of the spelling system that they can raise to a conscious level and combine with their knowledge of strategies to identify and correct erroneous spelling. Proofreading requires students to apply their knowledge of the spelling system in ways that differ depending on whether they monitor and proofread their own spelling or the spelling of others. In proofreading their own spelling, students need to learn to identify those aspects they are likely to have wrong and then to be able to select from a restricted set of options to correct it. Proofreading the work of others requires knowledge of both the spelling system and the errors that are typically made by the general population. (See Notes on proofreading for further discussion.)



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The spelling system In learning to spell, students learn the orthographic system through which we represent language on a page. English is an alphabetic system that has developed a symbol system that codes the sound of language. It is a system that uses the letters of the alphabet to provide information about: • the sound of words — the sound layer • the morphology or function of words — the word function layer • the link between spelling and meaning — the meaning layer.

Each of these layers of information has a pattern that readers and writers draw on to organise and use their knowledge of words. In learning to spell, students need to learn three things about our spelling system: • that there are layers of pattern that create our spelling system • that the way in which these layers work can be learned • how and when to apply this knowledge.

The learning of spelling requires students to do much more than master individual words. To be independent spellers, they also need to understand why in our orthographical system words have the spelling pattern they do and then to use this knowledge to develop strategies for learning, application and monitoring that will allow them to be independent writers and readers.

For the purposes of developing assessments, including formative as well as standardised test items, it is necessary to use a framework that describes the stages that students pass through as they acquire knowledge of successive layers of the orthography. The descriptions that underpin this framework are those of Templeton and Bear (2010, 2003, 1992). These stages are described as: • emergent stage • letter-name stage • within-word stage • syllable and affix stage • derivational-constancy stage.



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In the classroom, all the spelling stages outlined in the spelling framework can be used in assessment where appropriate, while the full framework is used in marking spelling-in-writing (generation). However, in the development of production spelling items, such as those for a dictation passage, only those aspects of spelling that are part of the taught curriculum are used. The following stages are used: • letter-name stage • within-word stage • syllable and affix stage • derivational-constancy stage.

In the descriptions of these stages presented in the tables on pages 7–18, the elements are ordered to reflect the challenge that each element of the spelling system presents to students. They have been ordered this way on the basis of research and the data from previous tests.

The framework descriptions The emergent stage The emergent stage described by Templeton and Bear encompasses two major identifiable sets of understandings that describe what students do as they begin to focus on the orthographic system. In the early emergent stage, the children’s writing can be described as pre-phonemic. At this point in their development, children engage with spelling by producing a set of visual patterns that they use to represent written language. As they read and write more and begin to engage with letters as a representation of the sounds in words, children’s spelling can be described as semi-phonemic.

Understanding the emergent stage helps teachers understand the base level of spelling knowledge that some students, particularly young students, use in their writing. Understanding the two major dimensions of this stage is necessary for the evaluation and assessment of early writing and for future planning.

Pre-phonemic spelling Pre-phonemic spelling marks the emergence of students’ awareness of the spelling system. In their writing, students may use a mixture of letters and drawings. They are aware that there is a set of shapes used to represent language in print. In their writing, students may use a combination of letters and letter-like drawings to represent words. They may even include numerals in their ‘writing’.

The child knows that writing exists but not that it can represent chunks of sound (phonemes) and so the marks on the page may bear very little relationship to the intended word.

In making judgments about the spelling knowledge being demonstrated in writing, teachers might observe that a child uses letters, letter-like symbols or squiggles showing that they know that writing is:

• something people do • made up of patterns/letters. The boundaries between words may be missing or inconsistently evident.



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Semi-phonemic spelling As children are encouraged to write and draw their stories, and to engage with the print during reading, they develop a sense of the sequence of spelling, i.e. that it moves from left to right and that the letters are related to the sounds of the words they use. As they begin to understand that letters are used in some sort of systematic way, they use letters that are known to them and represent some of the dominant sounds in the words.

Children who are beginning to engage with the spelling system know that letters represent sounds and attempt to write the sounds they hear. Often they have difficulty in hearing soft consonants and some vowels. Vowel blends that should be spelled with digraphs (pairs of letters) are likely to be represented by a single letter. The boundaries of words may still be shown inconsistently, particularly in examples of phrases that are often run together in speech, such as wonsapona tim or hafta. Some short, high-frequency words can also be seen in the script. These may include words such as the, in, are, and as well as socially relevant words such as their own names, the names of family or pets.

We need to clean up or the school will look messy and no one will want to come to our school unless it is cleaned up.

The following stages are more comprehensively described in the tables which follow.

The letter-name stage In the letter-name stage, students are beginning their formal study of the spelling system. The major focus of their learning is on the sound layer. However, they also begin to engage with the other layers of spelling knowledge.

This stage is the cornerstone of students’ spelling knowledge. They learn the sound–symbol relationships through study of initial and final consonants and short vowels. Studies may first begin with those letters where there is a one-to-one relationship between sound and letter, before moving on to letters that represent a blended sound (x, q) and those that can have more than one sound (c/s; g/j) or where one sound is represented by two letters (c/k).

At the same time, students will meet and learn to spell words where the pronunciation of words is being coded. These words would include those such as name, home, tail, rain which have the common long vowel patterns. These words form the basis for the word study that will occur in the within-word stage.

Similarly, the students begin to study the word function layer of the spelling system as they engage with plurals, common multisyllable and compound words. These also form the basis of focused study later on.

As they learn to write, students will meet words which sound alike but which have quite different meanings, thus requiring them to associate meaning and spelling. This knowledge will be the beginning of students developing their understanding of the spelling–meaning connection so critical in the development of mature spelling. This is the beginning of their knowledge of the meaning layer.



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The within-word stage In the within-word stage, students are still refining their knowledge of the letter–sound relationships. They are still refining their understanding of some of this knowledge, for example of the spelling of the final k, final blends and silent letters. In this stage, the main focus in teaching about the sound layer is how letters are used to code aspects of pronunciation, in particular the vowels. Students study the patterns for long, short and complex vowel patterns. Understandings of the sequence in which letters that spell a vowel sound are likely to occur, and the position in which they occur, can be used as the basis of a spelling strategy.

At the same time, focused learning of the morphology of words begins as students engage with aspects of the syllable or word function layer of the spelling system. In this layer students learn tense and plural endings and the conventions for adding them. The importance of understanding these conventions cannot be overestimated, as the deep understanding underpins the learning of syllable patterns.

In this stage of student development, a systematic rather than incidental focus on the meaning layer begins. Studies of compound and portmanteau (patch) words show how units of meaning can be joined to form new words. This adds to the students’ vocabulary knowledge — they learn that these are two of the ways in which new words are created, and are the basis for teaching students the strategy of breaking words down into meaning units for easier spelling. Later, this strategy forms the basis of the deconstruct–reconstruct strategy used in proofreading longer, more complex, words.

The syllable and affix stage In the syllable and affix stage, the learning is focused on learning about the structure and function of longer words. To understand the structure of words, students need to learn about syllable patterns. That is, open and closed syllable patterns and the letter patterns that signal them. Understanding of syllables is dependent on knowledge developed about how vowels work in relation to consonants. The conventions for adding inflected endings, i.e. doubling and e-drop, forms the basis for showing how syllables work.

Aspects of the sound layer taught in the context of single-syllable words need to be revisited and retaught in the context of longer words. Students learn about how sounds, particularly vowel sounds, perform in stressed and unstressed syllables. Further development and refining of the sound–symbol relationships occurs with a focus on ambiguous sounds such as the spelling of the k sound in words like antic, antique or the spelling of the soft g or c. Knowledge developed in this context becomes the foundation on which understanding of the consonant and vowel alternation patterns are built. Students need to use this knowledge to spell multisyllable words with unstressed syllables.

Knowledge of the meaning layer is extended as students learn commonly occurring prefixes such as re, un, pre and suffixes -ful, -ness, -less which change the meaning and/or the function of words. Strategies for using this information to learn and to monitor spelling need to be systematically taught. Homographs such as con’vict /convict’, des’ert/des’ert’ where the stress patterns determine the word function are explored as a means of understanding stress patterns.

The derivational relations stage The teaching focus at this stage is on the meaning layer of the spelling system, in particular the etymology of words. Students learn that Latin and Greek roots, prefixes and suffixes can be used to reduce the spelling load of longer words. They use these chunks of meaning to increase their vocabulary and develop an extended repertoire of words that they are able to spell without being taught.

Other etymological influences such as words that have come to English from languages such as French, German and Spanish and a range of others are taught. For example, students often find



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it interesting to learn how at different times in our history, the French language has influenced English. When learning and studying the technical language of science, geography, mathematics or other subject areas, students will encounter many such words.

Students are still developing their knowledge of the sound layer of English spelling. They are learning unusual representations which pertain to only a few words such as the sound–letter match in words like onion, senior, junior, million. Through study of words that have been introduced from other languages, students learn the sound-to-letter patterns which they need to master as part of their knowledge of the spelling system.

Students refine and extend their knowledge of how syllables work in the longer words. They learn the consonant and vowel alternation patterns that are the basis of effective spelling. For example, they are developing their knowledge of the patterns for adding tion/sion to words or the ways in which the vowel patterns alternate — long to short (grave to gravity), long to schwa (able to ability) and short to schwa (excel to excellence). They learn the conventions for adding suffixes such as able and ible to words.

Spelling strategies In standardised tests, it is not possible to assess the strategies that students use in their spelling. However, as spelling is a strategic, cognitive behaviour, it is critically important that students develop a range of effective strategies. They need strategies for: • learning spelling • remembering spelling • monitoring spelling as they write • proofreading.

Teachers who use this framework to inform their classroom teaching and assessment of spelling should include these in their planning, teaching and assessment.

Teaching and learning spelling The English spelling system is a complex system and students need to learn how that system works. It is imperative that the students are presented with the opportunities to learn the system rather than individual words. Learning the system and how it works will allow students to become independent spellers. Showing the logic and order of the system will appeal to and improve the performance of all students. It is particularly effective with boys.



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Spelling framework — stages used for item development

Stage

Sound/layer

Syllable/word function layer Meaning layer Sound/symbol Pronunciation

Letter-name cvc pattern words and words with common rimes. These words have letter-to-sound correspondence • initial and final consonants, e.g. b, d,

f, h, j, etc. where letters represent i. one sound ii. two sounds, e.g. x iii. more than one sound, e.g. g/j or

c/s, or where one sound is made by two letters, e.g. c/k.

• initial consonant blends l-blends: bl, fl, gl, pl, sl r-blends: br, cr, dr, fr, gr, pr, tr s-blends: sc, sk, sl, sn, sp, st, sw

• initial consonant digraphs ch, sh, th, wh

• short vowel sounds i. in single consonant rimes — ab,

an, ag, am, an, ap, at, ed, eg, en, et, id, ig, im, in, ip, it, ob, og, op, ot, ub, ug, um, un, ut, up

ii. in two consonant/blend rimes ack, all, amp, and, ang, ant, ash, ast eck, ell, end, est ink, ick, iff, ill, ing, ish, ist ock, ond, ong, uck, uff, ump, unk, ush, ust

• final blends i. l&f blends, e.g. ft, lf, lk, lp, lt

s blends: sk, st ii. preconsonantal nasals:

mp, nd, nk, nt • final digraphs ch, ng, sh, th.

Common long vowel patterns Students meet these as they begin to write, e.g. − name, school, love, five, four, nine,

home, house, eight, mine − first, third, last, some.

Plural and tense endings are added with no change to the base word, e.g. bats, runs, boats, cakes. Some multi-syllabic words students meet as they begin to write, e.g. seven, second.

Common homophones students encounter in their writing. Through these words, students begin to understand the spelling–meaning relationship. Words include: to, two, too; sun, son; for, four; bye, buy, by; I, eye; there, their; be, bee; here, hear.



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Stage

Sound/layer


Within-word Patterns for complex consonant patterns • sound-alike final consonants —

understanding the sequence and probability of patterns

• final/k/ — This causes students difficulties because their introduction to the sounds with short vowels leads them to generalise the spelling as –ck. Their understanding of the spelling of this sound will need to be continually refined. i. short vowels+ck, e.g. back.

snack, lick, stuck, wreck ii. long vowel+ke, e.g. bake, snake,

woke, hike, duke iii. long vowel digraph+k, e.g. beak,

steak, croak, book iv. r-controlled vowels+k, e.g. bark,

pork, fork, shark v. vc+k, e.g. blink, bank, desk,

drink, sank, junk (contrast with vcc vowel patterns) ask, mask

• final blends i. discriminates the more common

ch, e.g. beach, reach, bunch, reach, teach from the less common tch, e.g. patch, catch

ii. discriminates the more common ge, e.g. age, large, bulge, sponge¸ urge from the less common -dge, e.g. badge, hedge, smudge, ridge, ledge.

Long vowels with • VCE pattern

i. a-c-e, e.g. age, cake, lake ii. i-c-e, e.g. bike, bite, slice iii. o-c-e, e.g. bone, broke, iv. u-c-e, e.g. duke, rule

(yōō) cute, use, cube v. e-c-e, e.g. these, eve, theme

• doublets: position, sequence and probability matter long a i. ai, e.g. aid, rail, rain, sail ii. ay, e.g. bay, day

ei (gh), e.g. eight, freight long e i. final e, e.g. be, he, she. ii. ee, e.g. beef, been, sheep iii. ea, e.g. heap, sea, teach iv. ie, e.g. brief, field chief long o i. oa, e.g. boat, road, toast ii. final o, e.g. no, go, so iii. final oe, e.g. doe, toe, hoe iv. ow, e.g. grow, blow, glow v. occ, e.g. bold, told, both long i i. final y, e.g. by, fly, cry, sly ii. igh, e.g. bright, night, high iii. i+cc, e.g. find, child, sign long u i. ew e.g. chew, new, flew ii. final ue, e.g. blue, true, glue iii. ui, e.g. bruise, suit, fruit

• The sounds of the ed inflected endings i. -d, e.g. rained, filled, sailed,

yelled ii. -ed, e.g. acted, lifted, lasted,

beaded iii. -t, e.g. asked, bumped, fished,

walked, worked • The conventions for adding

inflectional endings i. No change, e.g. cvcc words pull,

pulled, pulling talk, talked, talking fill, filled, filling cvvc words fail, failed, failing rain, rained, raining roar, roared, roaring

ii. e-drop, e.g. cvc+e bake, baked, baking race, raced, racing hope, hoped, hoping

iii. y to i in adding tense endings, e.g. flies, cries, spies

iv. Doubling, e.g. cvc bat, batted, batting step, stepped, stepping trip, tripped, tripping

Understanding the doubling principle in this context underpins understanding of syllables.

• compound words − bedroom, bedspread etc. − bathroom, bathtub etc. − seafood, seaside, seasick

• portmanteau (patch) words from pieces of other words − smog, brunch, motel, blog,

modem, hassle, emoticon • homophones that feature the studied

patterns, e.g. ate, eight; break, brake; bear, bare; tail, tale; maid, made; pale, pail; blew, blue; aren’t, aunt; saw, sore; piece, peace; whole, hole

• contractions (because this is a spelling/letter decision rather than a semantic one, so these decisions should be taught as part of spelling, not punctuation. − am, e.g. I’m − us, e.g. let’s − will, e.g. I’ll, it’ll, he’ll, she’ll they’ll,

that’ll, we’ll, you’ll − have, e.g. I’ve, they’ve, we’ve,

you’ve, could’ve, should’ve, would’ve

− not, e.g. isn’t, aren’t, don’t, didn’t, doesn’t, can’t, won’t, wouldn’t, couldn’t, shouldn’t, hasn’t, hadn’t, haven’t

− is, has, e.g. she’s, he’s, it’s, here’s, there’s, where’s, who’s, how’s, that’s

− are, e.g. we’re, you’re, they’re − had, would, e.g. I’d, he’d, she’d,

they’d, we’d, you’d, who’d



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Stage

Sound/layer


Within-word (cont’d)

Patterns for complex consonant patterns • silent consonants

i. kn-, e.g. knee, knit, knob, knife, knight, knock,

ii. wr-, e.g. wrap, write, wreck iii. –mb, e.g. climb, bomb, limb,

lamb, thumb, tomb iv. gn-, e.g. gnome, gnaw

• soft consonants g=j, e.g. gem, germ, gym c=s, e.g. bounce, ice, space, mice, ace, voice, piece, twice

Short vowels with two letters • short e, e.g. bread, deaf, breath,

death, sweat, wealth.

• r-controlled vowels i. ar, e.g car, far, hard, cart, arch,

barge, march, starve, smart, snarl ii. or, e.g. for, fork, born, force,

porch, north, sport ore, e.g. more, sore, shore, fore, tore, scorch, horse oar, e.g. board, roar, oar, boar

iii. ur, e.g. burn, burst, nurse, purse, surf, turn, hurt, lurch, church, curve ir, e.g. bird, birth, girl, firm, first, shirt, squirm er, e.g. her, herd, germ, jerk, fern, nerve, verse ear, e.g. earn, earl, earth, learn, pearl

iv. ear, e.g. beard, clear, dear, ear, tear, gear, near eer, e.g. cheer, deer, queer, steer, sneer

v. ire, e.g. fire, hire, wire, tire, spire vi. are, e.g. square, care, fare, glare,

mare, stare air, e.g. fair, pair, hair, chair, flair ere, e.g. there

vii. ure, e.g. cure, pure, lure ure (or) e.g. sure

• w-influenced vowels, e.g. war, wasp, warm, worm, woman, work

The conventions for adding plural endings • adding s without change, e.g. cats,

dogs • adding es to words ending in − sh, e.g. bushes, dishes − ch, e.g. beaches, lunches, riches − ss, e.g. bosses, classes, kisses,

crosses − x, e.g. boxes, foxes, sixes − y to i in spelling plurals, e.g. fairies,

skies, ponies, ladies, cities, armies, buries.

• homographs These are studied as the basis of understanding stress patterns later on. By studying words common to them, students learn how meaning is related to spelling and how the pronunciation of words affects the meaning or function. − read/read, live/live, lead/lead.



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Stage

Sound/layer


Within-word (cont’d)

• abstract vowels that are neither long nor short / diphthongs i. -oo = oo, e.g. book, brook, cook,

stood, good, brook -oo = ou, e.g. could, should

ii. ōō = oo, e.g. moon, spoon, noon, smooth, choose, loose, goose

iii. oy, e.g. boy, toy, joy, soy oi, e.g. boil, coil, spoil, oil, coin, joint, hoist

iv. ou, e.g. found, bound, south, mouth, shout ou = ow, e.g. brown, clown, cow, town, owl, prowl

v. au, e.g. caught, cause, fault, sauce, launch, haul aw, e.g. claw, draw, jaw, law, lawn, straw, thaw

• l-influenced, e.g. ball, small, talk, chalk, salt.



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Stage

Sound/layer


Syllable and affix

The spelling of final /k/ is revisited in words ending in

i. c, e.g. antic, atomic, civic, gigantic, cubic, exotic

ii. ck, e.g. attack, bullock, gimmick, paddock

iii. que, e.g. antique, unique, oblique,

iv. ke, e.g. earthquake, forsake, mistake, pancake

v. k, e.g. embark, berserk, landmark This knowledge underpins the development of consonant alternation patterns knowledge. Ambiguous consonants are revisited in two-syllable words. • x = ks, e.g. exit, excuse, explain,

exclaim, exam • soft c = s, e.g. city, cease, accident,

excise, notice • soft g = j, e.g. giant, judge, change,

gymnastics • t+i; c+i = sh, e.g. station, patient,

ancient, sufficient. This knowledge underpins the knowledge of consonant alternation patterns and the adding of some syllables.

Vowel patterns are revisited in two-syllable words. Patterns are examined for letter sequence, position and probability. For example: short vowel a in words with: − both syllables stressed, e.g. a/las,

a/dapt, at/tach, ex/act, ex/pand, en/chant, per/haps

− first syllable stressed, e.g. at/tic, ban/dage, can/vas, cat/tle

− second syllable stressed, e.g. unpack

Long vowel a in words with: − both syllables stressed, e.g.

a/maze, a/wake, be/have, cre/ate, cas/cade, de/bate, dis/grace, em/brace, mis/take, pa/rade, per/suade, es/cape, com/plain, a/fraid, a/wait, a/stray

− long a in first syllable, e.g. dain/ty, fai/lure, pain/ter, rai/sin, trai/tor, wait/er, sai/lor, drain/age, cray/on, lay/er, say/ing, day/dream, day/light, play/mate, cray/fish, pay/ment

− long a in last syllable, e.g. to/day, de/cay, dis/may

− open a, e.g. a/gent, A/pril.

The conventions for adding plurals and tense endings are studied in multisyllable words. These principles are extended to the adding of other affixes. Conventions for adding inflected endings is revisited and extended. Syllable structures • Closed syllables − vc/cv patterns where the syllables

are marked by doublets, e.g. rab/bit, lit/tle, man/ner, sum/mer two consonants, e.g. win/ter, bum/per, sig/nal, she/lter, num/ber, vic/tim

− v/cv pattern — short vowel, consonant is pronounced but not recorded in the spelling, e.g. ri(v)/ver, wa(g)/gon, gi/raffe, ex/act

• Open syllables − v/ce patterns, e.g. o/pen, la/zy,

lo/cal, fe/male, i/tem, hu/mid − v/v pattern, po/em, du/et, cru/el,

li/on, tri/al, gi/ant, qui/et, di/al, tri/o, cre/ate

Stress patterns in two-syllable words. (This forms the basis of word study of more complex syllable patterns in multisyllable words.) The vowel patterns are studied in relation to how and where they perform in relation to the stressed syllables.

Two-syllable homographs are explored to develop understanding of the pronunciation that matches the function. − con’vict (n) / con vict’ (v) − re’cord (n) / re cord’ (v) − pro’test (n) / pro test’ (v) − des’ert (n) / de sert’(v) − con’duct (n) / con duct’ (v) − sub’ject (n) / sub ject’ (v)

The patterns and conventions for adding common affixes that change meaning: Prefixes − re = back or again, e.g. return,

retry, refit, rerelease, relearn, recycle, recount, recall, reclaim

− un = not or the opposite of, e.g. unfit, unable, unbar, unfold, unlike, unlock, unfreeze, unleash, uncover, unnoticed (This also is represented as absorbed prefix in, im, il, ir.)

− dis = opposite of, e.g. dislike, distrust, disobey, disagree, disarm, disable, disfavour

− pre = before, e.g. preface, prepay, preheat, preview, preschool, prefix, predate

− mis = wrong, e.g. mistake, misbehave, mistrust, misrule, mismatch, misfit, misfire

− fore = before, e.g. forearm, forecast, foretold, foresight, forehand, forehead, foreground

− en = to make (to put into), e.g. enable, enjoy, enrol, enlist, enforce, enrich, entomb

− in = in or into, e.g. input, insert, intake, insight, infield



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Stage

Sound/layer


Syllable and affix (cont’d)

Other vowel patterns are explored for how they work in syllables • short e − e, e.g. beg/ger − ea, e.g. a/head, break/fast

• long e − ee, e.g. a/gree, es/teem − ea, e.g. ap/peal, con/ceal − ie, e.g. be/lieve, re/lief − open e, e.g. e/vil, fe/male − ece, e.g. com/pete, de/lete − ei, e.g. seizure, ceiling

• short i − i, e.g. pil/low, sil/ver, in/sect − y, e.g. sym/bol, sys/tem

• long i vowels − ice, e.g. a/live, re/vise, di/vide − y, e.g. cycle, Ju/ly, re/ply − open i, e.g. i/cy, ri/fle, vi/rus

• short o − o, e.g. bo/dy, hob/by, doc/tor − oce, e.g. lone/ly, pro/mote

• long o patterns − open o, e.g. lo/cal, pro/noun − occ, e.g. pos/ter, re/volt − ow, e.g. own/er, be/low, lower − oa, e.g. ap/proach, toast/er

• short u patterns − u, e.g. bub/ble, ug/ly, jun/gle

• long u patterns − uce, e.g. com/pute, a/cute − open u, e.g. hu/man, fu/ture

Vowels in unstressed syllables • syllables ending in l − le, e.g. able, little, cattle, sample,

angle, apple, circle, bundle, double, paddle, people, cycle, fable, title

− el, e.g. angel, travel, jewel, label, novel, camel, level

− il/ile, e.g. April, civil, evil, council, pencil, peril, pupil, fertile, mobile, hostile

− al (adjective forming), e.g. natural, factual, equal, final, royal, rural, oval, total, metal (noun forming), e.g. mammal, petal, metal, signal, pedal

• syllables ending in n − ain, an, e.g. certain, mountain,

villain, captain, curtain an (noun-forming), e.g. airman, human, organ, orphan

− en (noun-forming), e.g. chicken, children, kitten, women, vixen (verb forming) broken, chosen, given, deafen, darken, deafen, listen, spoken, open (adjective forming), barren, golden, open, rotten, woollen

− in (noun-forming), basin, cabin, cousin, dolphin, margin, toxin, raisin

− on (noun-forming), bacon, apron, iron, wagon, reason, dragon, ribbon, button, baron

Suffixes1 − y = having

without a change, e.g. dirty, creepy, crispy, sandy, bumpy, cloudy, chilly with e-drop, e.g. easy, noisy, injury with doubling, e.g. starry, floppy, skinny, runny

− ly = like (in a manner) without a change, e.g. badly, deadly, shyly, cruelly, finally, likely, sadly, lately, legally with y to i change, e.g. angrily, heavily, happily, easily,

− ful = full without a change, e.g. playful, wonderful, powerful, peaceful, cheerful, careful, useful, restful with y to i e.g. beautiful, plentiful

− ness = state of being (noun forming) without a change, e.g. darkness, stillness, sickness, vastness

− ment = noun forming suffix, state resulting e.g. excitement, refreshment, product fragment or means ornament with y to i change, e.g. business, laziness, happiness, loneliness,

− less = without, e.g. wordless, timeless, painless, endless, priceless with y to i change, e.g. penniless, merciless

1 The list is only indicative. Different elements may be effectively taught as vocabulary in different subject areas



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• r-controlled vowels − ar, e.g. car/go, har/bour, gar/lic,

mar/ble, par/tial − air, ere, e.g. dair/y, re/pair.

des/pair, aware, bare/ly − ar, er, e.g. car/rot, nar/row, var/y,

ber/ry, per/il, mer/ry − er, ear, e.g. per/fect, per/son, − ser/vice, ear/ly, earth/quake − ear, eer, ere, e.g. appear, drea/ry,

near/ly, car/eer, cheer/ful, ad/here, mere/ly

− ir, e.g. circle, irksome, − ire, e.g. acquire, inspire, tiresome,

perspire, desire − or, ore, oar, our, e.g normal,

tortoise, choral, coral, ashore, ignore, hoarding, sources

− ur, ure, e.g. surgery, burglar, cursor, murder, murmur, purchase, assure, manure

• abstract vowels/diphthongs − oo, ew, e.g. balloon, bassoon,

monsoon, rooster, askew, jewel − oo, e.g. mistook, footage − oy, oi, e.g. annoy, destroy, voyage,

appoint, exploit − ow, ou, e.g. allow, coward, powder

• syllables ending in t − et, e.g. basket, carpet, secret,

tablet, poet, comet, helmet, puppet, trumpet, jacket, toilet

− it, e.g. rabbit, exit, edit, digit, profit, audit, summit

• syllables ending in r − ar, (noun-forming) e.g. burglar,

collar, dollar, sugar, grammar, pillar, calendar (adjective forming), e.g. solar, lunar, circular, muscular

− er (noun forming), e.g. reader, soldier, shopper, seller, voter, speaker, officer, beginner, employer, manage, cylinder (adjective forming, comparative adjectives), e.g. quicker, fiercer, lighter

− re, e.g. fibre − or (Noun forming), e.g. actor,

author, visitor, tailor, error, editor, equator, meteor

− our, e.g. flavour, colour, humour − ture (cher), e.g. nature, pasture,

creature, feature, treasure, capture, fixture, moisture

− sure, e.g. pressure, censure, closure, measure, pleasure, treasure

− ure, e.g. failure, figure − jure, e.g. injure, conjure − zure, e.g. seizure.

− er, est = comparative & superlative (adjective forming suffixes) without a change, e.g. cold, colder, coldest; high, higher, highest with y to i change, e.g. lucky, luckier, luckiest, silly, sillier, silliest

Multisyllabic homophones studied according to meaning and stress patterns, e.g. − assent, ascent − colonel, kernel − mourning, morning − incite, insight − council/ counsel − desert, dessert − hanger, hangar − baron, barren − carrot, caret, carat, karat − medal, mettle, (metal) − pedal, peddle, (petal) − bury, berry − profit, prophet − cereal, serial − addition, edition, − stationery, stationary − principal, principle − complement, compliment − practice, practise.



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• with neutral vowel or schwa: − a, e.g. above, alarm, career − e, e.g. believe, behind, severe,

seven − i, e.g. gossip, divide, demand − o, e.g. polite, police, pollute − u, e.g. upon, focus, platypus − syllable patterns with vowel and

consonant change − age, e.g. bandage, damage, − cottage, cabbage, image, village − idge, e.g. cartridge, porridge − edge, e.g. knowledge − /is/-ice,-ace, -is,-ise, uce, e.g.

office, service, justice, place surface, preface basis, axis, crisis, tennis, promise, tortoise, porpoise, lettuce

− y, e.g. very, angry, early, bury, empty, forty, hungry, guilty

− ey, e.g. donkey, monkey, chimney, pulley, valley, honey

− ie, e.g. genie, eerie, movie, prairie, zombie.



Page 15 of 19

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Derivational relations

Consonants that are represented by vowel letters, e.g. i to y — onion, senior, junior, million

Study of syllable patterns in multisyllable words, e.g. composition, competition Consonant alternation patterns and vowel alternation patterns show the pronunciation and yet preserve the spelling of the base meaning unit. • Consonant alternation patterns

where silent letters become sounded, e.g. sign, signal, signature muscle, muscular column, columnist bomb, bombard autumn, autumnal moisten, moist soften, soft

• Consonant alternation patterns for adding: /shun/ − words ending

in-t+ion ct, e.g. inspect/inspection, subtract/subtraction, pt, e.g. adopt/ adoption, corrupt/corruption, except/exception, concept/conception st, e.g. suggest/suggestion, digest/digestion rt, e.g. insert/insertion, assert/assertion, exert/exertion nt, e.g. invent/invention, prevent/prevention

− words that add -ation, e.g. import/importation, plant/ plantation, present/presentation, inform/information

Prefixes2 such as − pro = before; forward, e.g.

proceed, progress, proclaim, profile

− post = after, e.g. postpone, postscript

− anti = against, e.g. antidote, antiseptic

− inter = between, among, e.g. interstate, international

− intra = within, e.g. intrastate − super (L) = above; beyond, e.g.

supervision, superficial, − hyper (G) = above, e.g.

hyperactive − trans = over; across, e.g. transmit,

transport − mal = bad or evil, e.g. malware,

malevolent, maladministration − auto = self, e.g. autobiography,

autoimmune, automobile, − circum = around, e.g.

circumference, circumspect, circumnavigate

− bi = two, e.g. bicycle, bisect, bivalve

− cent = hundred, e.g. century − milli = a thousand, e.g. millipede − deci = ten, e.g. decade − uni = one, e.g. universal, uniform − mono = one, alone, e.g.

monologue − tri = three, e.g. tripod, trinomial − quad = four, e.g. quadrilateral − octo = eight, e.g. octagon, octave − poly = many, e.g. polygon

2 The list is only indicative. Different elements may be effectively taught as vocabulary in different subject areas.



Page 16 of 19

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Derivational relations (cont’d)

− words ending in -te, i.e. with e-drop, e.g. educate/education, dictate/dictation, locate/location, operate/operation, celebrate/celebration

− words that end in ss+ion, e.g. possess/possession, confess/confession, express, expression, discuss/ discussion

− words ending with –se, i.e. e-drop +ion, e.g. televise/television, revise/revision, confuse/confusion

− words ending in –de, i.e. e-drop +sion, e.g. explode/explosion, divide/division

− words ending in /k/ e.g. magic/magician, electric/electrician, politic/politician, provide/provision, decide/decision

− words ending in soft c, ic+e, e.g. vice/vicious

− word families with identifiable roots, e.g. words ending in ▪ scribe, e.g. describe/description,

prescribe/prescription ▪ sume, e.g.

consume/consumption ▪ mit, e.g. admit/admission,

permit/permission, transmit/transmission

▪ cede, e.g. concede/concession ▪ ceive, e.g. receive/reception ▪ vert, e.g. invert/inversion, ▪ duce, e.g. produce/production

− multi = many, e.g. multiple − peri = around, e.g. perimeter − semi = half; partly, e.g. semicolon,

semiquaver Absorbed prefixes are those that have been assimilated into the spelling of the word. For example, in = not becomes il (illegal), im (immoral), ir (irregular); ad = motion to (adhere) becomes at (attract), ac (accept); com = with becomes col (colleague), cor (correspond) or con consider); syn = alike or together becomes sym (sympathy), syl (syllable), sys (system) Greek roots3 – because their spelling stays fairly stable and therefore recognisable, it is easiest to teach them first. − graph = to write, e.g. autograph,

bibliography, cryptographer − gram = to write, e.g. program,

diagram, grammar, monogram − aster = star, e.g. asterisk, asteroid − bi, bio = life, e.g. biology, antibiotic,

biosphere, biography − dem = people, e.g. democracy,

epidemic, endemic, demographic − logo = word or reason, e.g. logic,

catalogue, dialogue, prologue − logy = study, e.g. geology,

sociology, pathology, ecology − micro = small, e.g. microscope,

microwave, microbiology − meter = measure, e.g. perimeter,

centimetre, thermometer − ortho = straight; correct, e.g.

orthodox, orthodontist




Page 17 of 19

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• vowel alternation patterns − long to short, e.g. cave/cavity,

grave/gravity, please/pleasant, crime/criminal, nature/natural, cone/conic, introduce/ introduction

− long to schwa, e.g. able/ ability, compete/competition, compose/composition

− short to schwa, e.g. excel/excellent, ecology/ecological

The doubling conventions for adding to multisyllabic words are refined and extended. e.g. • Latin derived suffixes − able added to words, e.g.

remarkable, added to words ending in soft c/g, changeable, noticeable

− ible added to roots, e.g. audible, edible

− ant/ance/ancy/ − ent/ence/ency − ary/ery/ory

− pan = all, e.g. pandemic, panorama

− path = suffer, e.g. sympathy, empathy, pathetic, pathologist

− hydra = water, e.g. hydrant, hydrate, hydrogen

− homo = the same, e.g. homophone, homograph, homogeneous

− chron = time, e.g. chronology, chronic, chronicle, anachronism

− aer = air, e.g. aeroplane, aerial − arch = chief, e.g. monarchy − geo = earth, e.g. geology,

geometry − cosm = the world, e.g. cosmic,

microcosm, cosmopolitan − crat = rule, e.g. autocrat, plurocrat − phil = loving, e.g. philanthropist − phobia = fear, e.g. acrophobia,

zoophobia − spec = to look, e.g. spectator,

spectacle, inspect



Page 18 of 19

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Latin roots4 — the variation in the spelling of Latin roots means that students often have difficulty recognising them. One teaching strategy is to associate them with the more easily recognisable Greek roots which have the same meaning. Examples of Latin roots are: − aud = to hear, e.g. audible,

audience − bene = well, good, e.g. beneficial − dict = to say, e.g. dictation,

dictionary − fac = to make, e.g. factory, artefact − fract = to break, e.g. fracture,

fraction − rupt = to break, e.g. disrupt, erupt − flex = to bend, e.g. flexible, reflex − form = shape, e.g. formation, − ject = throw, e.g. project,

conjecture − port = to carry, e.g. transport,

export − scribe = to write, e.g. scribe,

describe − spect = to look or see, e.g. inspect,

respect, spectacle − spir = to breathe, e.g. respiration − tract = pull, e.g. abstract, contract − vert = turn, e.g. invert, anniversary − voc = voice, e.g. vocal, advocate.




Page 19 of 19

Notes on proofreading Since 2008, Queensland students sitting the NAPLAN Language conventions test have been tested by questions that present spelling as a proofreading task.

Proofreading requires students to have organised knowledge of the spelling system and the relevant strategies to be able to use that knowledge — metacognitive knowledge of both the system and their own spelling abilities. It is therefore a very sophisticated skill requiring quite different teaching strategies and assessment than those used in the expressive domain of spelling.

Students need to be able to identify which of the word elements go together and which are likely to cause a spelling problem. They need to know which errors they usually make when spelling a word. Finally, they need to have developed spelling strategies for both monitoring and correcting their errors. Students might for example use a breakdown-and-rebuild strategy for checking words. In proofreading a word like unaceptible (unacceptable), students need to be able to think as follows:

• identify the base word accept then recognise the closed syllable pattern, correct the spelling of the doublet

• identify the prefix (un), then check the spelling, know that no doubling is required • identify the suffix, then recognise that able is usually added to a base word, correct the

suffix spelling. In other contexts, students need to be taught how to apply different understandings of the spelling system such as letter sequences, frequency of letter patterns, which letter patterns are used in particular positions, syllable patterns, and etymological patterns.

These are cognitive skills dependent on a comprehensive and organised understanding of the spelling system.

References and bibliography Bear, DR, Invernizzi M, Templeton, S & Johnston F 2003, Words Their Way: Word study for vocabulary and spelling instruction, 3rd edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, USA.

Ganske, K 2014, Word Journeys: Assessment-guided phonics, spelling and vocabulary instruction, The Guilford Press, New York.

Ganske, K 2000, Mindful of Words: Spelling explorations 4–8, The Guilford Press, New York.

Templeton, S and Bear, DR 1992, Development of Orthographic Knowledge and the Foundations of Literacy: A memorial festschrift for Edmund Henderson, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale.

Templeton, S, Johnston F, Bear, DR and Johnston F 2010 Vocabulary Their Way: Word study with middle and secondary students, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, USA.

Copyright notice © The State of Queensland (Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority) 2015

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