2008

INTRODUCTION

Welcome to my Grammar Lab. This course has been designed for

students from complete beginner to high-intermediate level, however the

teacher has to guide to the students in each topic of this book. I hope

you enjoy using these materials.

There are as many methods and approaches to grammar teaching as

there are teachers. Here are some simple guidelines that may be

instructive and useful.

Students need to be able to recognize and produce the written form of

the new target structure. Writing models of the target language aids

memorization and gives students a record of the language that they can

refer back to. It is very important to read the related topics.

Encourage students to use a new structure to produce sentences about

real events, real people, real feelings, real opinions, etc. in their own

lives.

As annex, I am attaching a grammar guide written in Spanish about the

most important topics in the English learning. You have to learn

grammar reading examples, identifying patterns, making rules and doing

practices activities.

MADRID VIVANCO, JOEL PIERRE

ENGLISH TEACHER FROM PERU

Nouns

• Gender

• Plural

• Related topics

Gender

In English nouns rarely change form, even to indicate gender. As a general rule, only nouns referring

to people and some animals reflect gender in their form. By the same token, unlike many other

languages, the adjectives modifying nouns will remain unchanged.

Example:

• My poor little dog died.

However, certain nouns -- especially those referring to people -- may have different forms to indicate

masculin or feminine usage:

• man -- woman

• gentleman -- lady

• actor -- actress

• uncle -- aunt

• father -- mother

The same can be said of certain male and female animals:

• a buck, a doe

• a ram, a ewe

• a bull, a cow

• a stallion, a mare

In other cases, the word "male" or "female" is added, if it is considered necessary to be specific:

• a female cat

• a male giraffe

Note: If the gender of the person or animal is known, one will generally use the pronoun "he" or "she"

to refer to it, as appropriate. When the gender is left unstated, the pronoun "he" is generally used when

speaking of people, or "it" when speaking of animals. Some objects are also considered to be

gendered in certain usages: some people may refer to a boat or a car as "she."

Certain nouns (especially the names of professions) are traditionally associated with men or women,

in which case one signals exceptions to the tradition by adding "woman" (or "lady") or "man" to the

term:

• They are in a group of male dancers.

• My wife prefers to see a woman doctor.

Plurals

As a general rule, the plural is formed by adding "-s" to the singular form of nouns.

• shoe --> shoes

• book --> books

• river --> rivers

Nouns ending in "s" or "s" will generally take the ending "-es" :

• bus --> buses

• kiss --> kisses

Words ending in "y" will generally take the ending "-ies" in place of the "y":

• party --> parties

• supply --> supplies

Certain words have very irregular forms in the plural:

• one man --> two men

• one woman --> two women

• one person --> two people

• one foot --> two feet

• one mouse --> two mice

• one goose --> two geese

• one tooth --> two teeth

• one wife --> two wives

• one child --> two children

• one knife --> two knives

• one thief --> two thieves

• one dwarf --> two dwarves (ou: dwarfs)

• one potato --> two potatoes

• one leaf --> two leaves

• one life --> two lives

• one loaf --> two loaves

• one half --> two halves

A small set of words do not change form in the plural:

• one moose --> two moose

• one sheep --> two sheep

• one aircraft --> two aircraft

Words of Greek or Latin origin which have retained their original endings will generally take the plural

form associated with the language they are drawn from:

• one alumnus --> two alumni

• one syllabus --> two syllabi

• one alumna --> two alumnae

• one alga --> many algae

• one criterion --> many criteria

• one forum --> many fora (or : forums)

• one thesis --> two theses

• one hypothesis --> two hypotheses

• one phenomenon --> two phenomena

• one cactus --> two cacti (or : cactuses)

• one diagnosis --> two diagnoses

• one oasis --> two oases

• one analysis --> two analyses

A few nouns are invariable or collective, always indicating a plural meaning:

• She gave me some information.

• Michelle has a lot of clothes.

Capital letters

Certain nouns are generally capitalized, including: days of the week and months; names of holidays,

cities (or states, etc.) and religions; nouns of nationality:

• Minneapolis

• Jewish

• Monday

• April

Related topics

• Adjectives

• Definite articles

• Indefinite articles

• Partitive articles

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns are used to name things we can count.

One apple, two apples, three carrots, four fingers, etc.

Uncountable nouns are used to name things we cannot count.

Bread, water, air, sand, etc.

Countable nouns have a singular as well as a plural form.

a chair two chairs some chairs

a banana the bananas many bananas

Remember! Use an in front of a word that begins with a vowel sound.

An apple an orange an hour

Uncountable nouns do not usually take the indefinite article a or an. They are often used without any

article at all, and they do not usually have a plural form.

(some) bread (some) coffee (some) fruit

Personal pronouns

• Forms

• Subject pronouns

• Predicate pronouns

• Order of pronouns

• Related topics

Here are the different forms for personal pronouns in English:

Use of the subject pronoun

Subject pronouns reflect the nouns they replace. Since English nouns rarely show gender, the

pronouns "he" and "she" are generally used only for people or animals; in the case of objects or

impersonal expressions, the pronoun "it" will be used.

Examples:

• She wants to eat.

• You look tired.

• It is hard to cook well.

Use of predicate pronouns:

Predicate pronouns will always have the same form whether they are used as direct, indirect, or

prepositional objects. The forms are: "me", "you", "it", "him", "her", "us", "them."

Whatever the form of the sentence (affirmative, negative, interrogative), direct objects -- or the

pronouns replacing them -- will follow the verb:

• Did you buy it?

• You didn't buy it.

• You bought it.

Prepositional objects will come after their preposition:

• Will you come to the store with me?

• He left without her.

Indirect objects will generally come after the proposition "to," except if the pronoun precedes the direct

object, in which cas the proposition "to" disappears:

• I have spoken to her.

• I gave this present to them.

• Mais : I gave them this present.

Order of pronouns

When a verb is followed by two or more pronouns, the following sequence is observed:

Examples :

• Don't tell that to him.

• He couldn't sell the car to them.

Exception: As noted above, one may omit the preposition "to" in front of an indirect object, in which

cas the indirect object pronoun precedes the direct object:

• He gave me it for Christmas.

• Don't tell him that.

• He couldn't sell them the car.

Related topics

• Relative pronouns

• Reflexive pronouns

• Reciprocal pronouns

• Demonstrative pronouns

• Possessive pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns

To show that two people, represented by a single grammatical subject, are acting on each other, one

uses the reciprocal pronouns: "each other" or "one another".

• They hate each other.

• They killed one another.

• We talk to each other often.

Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are used to show that the actions described by a verb act upon the subject of the

verb: the subject and the object are thus the same. The forms of reflexive pronouns correspond to the

forms of the subject pronouns:

• I --> myself

• you (singular) --> yourself

• you (plural) --> yourselves

• he --> himself

• she --> herself

• it --> itself

• we --> ourselves

• they --> themselves

To use a verb reflexively, the reflexive pronoun must follow the verb (and, in the case of an intransitive

verb, it will follow any preposition used with the verb). If there are multiple verbs in the sentence, the

reflexive pronoun follows the verb to which it applies:

• I told myself it would never happen.

• She talks to herself all the time.

• Look at yourself in that mirror!

• I would like to give myself a raise.

At the end of a sentence, one can add reflexive pronouns as a way of accentuating the subject in the

sentence. In this case, the verb does not have reflexive power:

• I would rather do that myself.

• Can you talk to him yourself?

Related topics

• Relative pronouns

• Subject pronouns

• Object pronouns

• Reciprocal pronouns

Relative pronouns

• General information

• Subject pronouns

• Object pronouns

• Possession ("whose")

• As prepositional objects

• Time

• Space

• Related topics

General information

Relative pronouns are used to join two sentences. For example, the following two sentences,

• I found an apartment. This apartment has three rooms.

may be joined using a relative pronoun:

• I found an apartment which has three rooms.

Relative pronouns have many different forms: who, whom, whose, that, which, that which, what.

The pronoun is selected based on the following criteria:

1) What is the grammatical function of the pronoun? Is it a subject, a direct object, or a prepositional

object?

2) Does the pronoun refer to a person or a thing (or a situation)?

3) Does the pronoun have an antecedent, or does it represent an unknown entity?

4) Does it represent a special case (possession, time, or space)?

According to the role it plays, the pronoun will take one of the following forms:

Subjects

The pronoun "who" expresses a grammatical subject when this subject is a person; "that" or "which"

are used (indifferently by most speakers) to represent subjects which are things, events, situations,

etc.

• There's the man who stole my wallet!

• I read a novel that entertained me a great deal.

• He made a mistake which embarrassed him.

When the antecedent is vague or totally absent, one uses "what" or (less commonly) "that which" :

• What interests me in this film is the music.

• That which eludes us intrigues us the most.

• I don't know what happened.

Objects

The pronoun "whom" (in spoken language one often hears "who") expresses a grammatical object

when this object is a person; "that" or "which" are used (indifferently by most speakers) to represent

objects which are things, events, situations, etc.

• She is a person whom I respect a great deal.

• He ordered a beverage which he didn't drink.

• She is talking about the trip that we're going to take.

Note: Use of the relative pronoun is optional (except in the case of "what" or "that which" when

referring to specific antecedents); the same sentences as above may be written correctly without the

pronoun:

• She is a person I respect a great deal.

• He ordered a beverage he didn't drink.

• She is talking about the trip we're going to take.

When the antecedent is vague or absent, on uses "what" or (less often) "that which" :

• You can do what you want.

• What they are doing seems useful.

Possession: "whose" / "of which"

The pronoun "whose" expresses possession when the subject is a person; it will often be replaced by

"of which" if it refers to an object, an event, etc.:

• The tourist whose ticket had expired filed a complaint.

• There is the man whose mother is our mayor.

• That was a good article, the point of which was to make us think.

Prepositional objects

The preposition generally precedes the appropriate pronoun:

• Here's the pattern with which I made this shirt.

• The woman for whom I work is quite strict.

• Here's the tree next to which Newton was sitting.

• They went out for dinner, after which they went home.

In spoken English, one often places the preposition at the end of the clause. Moreover, with

the pronoun "what" this structure is required, even in written English:

• Here's the pattern which I made this shirt with.

• The woman whom I work for is quite strict.

• Here's the tree which Newton was sitting next to.

• Tell me what you're thinking about.

Time

The pronoun "when" is used with nouns indicating time. However, it is rarely necessary to include this

pronoun, and it is often omitted:

• I remember the day when we met.

• I remember the day we met.

• He arrived at the moment when we were speaking of him.

• He arrived at the moment we were speaking of him.

Space

When more specific prepositions (such as "on," "under,", etc.) are not necessary, the general pronoun

"where" will suffice:

• Here's the house where my parents were born.

• She doesn't know where she's going.

Related topics:

• Subject pronouns

• Object pronouns

• Reflexive pronouns

• Reciprocal pronouns

• Demonstrative pronouns

• Possessive pronouns

There is / there are

We use there is and there are to talk about things that exist.

There is is used before singular subjects.

There is a man standing outside.

Can you see if there’s an apple in the bowl?

There are is used before plural subjects.

There are twenty-four students in the class.

Carl says there are lots of new shops in the town center.

Definite articles

• General principles

• Omission of the article

• Use in negatives and interrogatives

• Related topics

General principles

The definite article "the" (invariable in form) designates a person, place, or event which has been

specified or defined by the speaker:

• Here's the book I bought.

• The cat is on the roof.

• He said he would bring the money.

Omission of the definite article

The definite article does not always precede nouns: sometimes indefinite articles or partitive articles

will be used. Often, though, no article at all is necessary, as in the following cases:

1. As a general rule, the definite article is omitted before abstract nouns or nouns representing general

categories. It is often omitted after verbs expressing opinions or preferences:

• Truth is the highest good.

• I don't like animals.

• Cats are nicer than dogs.

• Time flies.

• She likes coffee, but she hates tea.

2. Generally, the article is omitted before days of the week and dates:

• On Tuesdays the museums are closed.

• On Saturdays I sleep in.

• Friday night we are going dancing.

• I was born on June 16, 1980.

3. Generally, the article is omitted before names of countries, states, cities, and regions:

• France is seventeen times smaller than the United States.

• California is larger than Brittany.

Exception: Some names actually include the definite article, such as The Hague.

4. Generally, the article is omitted before titles or nouns indicating professions:

• President Mitterrand completed two terms.

• We saw Professor Miller at the restaurant.

• She met with Doctor Schmidt.

The use of the definite article does not change in interrogatives and negatives.

Related topics

• Indefinite articles

• Partitive articles

Indefinite articles

The indefinite article has two forms: before singular nouns one uses "a" (or "an" before most vowels);

before plural nouns one uses "some":

• a cat

• an accident

• some dogs

But: before vowels producing a "y" sound (as in "you"), "a" is used, rather than "an":

• a unit

• not a one

• a unicorn

As a general rule, the indefinite article signals a person, thing or event that has not been clearly

defined by the speaker. It does not indicate a specific objection (which is the role of the definite article);

rather, it indicates any one object out of many possible ones (in the singular), or any assortment or

quantity from many possible assortments or quantities (in the plural). It is often used after verbs of

possession or consumption:

• Give me a coffee, please.

• I have a book you might like.

• She has some cherries for sale.

In the negative, the plural indefinite article changes: "some" is generally replaced by "any" (this

change also occurs in negative questions) :

• Don't you have any cookies ?

• They don't have any books for sale.

• I have never had an accident.

Related topics

• Definite articles

• Partitive articles

Partitive article:"some"

When the article "some" appears before a plural noun it functions like an indefinite article:

• He has some tickets for the game.

• Some students decided not to attend the class.

However, when "some" appears before a singular noun, it is being used as a partitive. This is to say

that a part of something is indicated, or a partial (or indeterminate) quantity is referred to. It is often

used after verbs of possession or consumption:

• Do you have some time?

• We're going to buy some milk.

• I heard some bad news.

• She has some money to spend.

• Would you like some help ?

Note: After expressions of quantity, the partitive article is not used:

• Students buy a lot of pastries.

• Today people have more activities than before.

In negative expressions, the partitive article "some" generally becomes "any" (this change will also

occur in negative interrogatives):

• She doesn't have any money.

• They didn't have any milk.

• Don't you have any money?

The word "any" is not strictly necessary in the negative,and it may often be omitted:

• I never have accidents.

• They didn't have milk.

Related topics

• Definite articles

• Indefinite articles

Quantifiers

Using Some, Any, and No

We use both some and any with plural countable nouns and with uncountable nouns.

They tasted some delicious wines in Italy.

Do you have any Seville oranges?

I don’t have any tea, but I have some coffee.

Did you get any brown bread?

We use some in affirmative sentences and in questions when we think the answer will be “yes.”

I bought some bread and some eggs today.

Would you like some more wine?

We use any in most general questions and in negative sentences, .

Are there any dragons on Lombok?

There aren’t any snakes in Ireland.

Much, Many and a Lot of

We use many and a lot of with countable nouns in the plural.

They saw many stars in the sky.

They grow a lot of bananas in Ecuador.

We use much and a lot of with uncountable nouns.

They eat a lot of rice in Malaysia.

My family doesn’t eat much red meat.

We prefer to use a lot of and lots of in affirmative sentences and much and many in negative

sentences and questions.

A Little and a Few

A few means the same as “some, but not many.” A little means the same as “some, but not much.”

I eat a few apples each week. There’s a little cheese left.

Much, many, a lot, a little, and a bit

Much or a lot can be used before the comparative form to show that there is a big difference between

two people or things.

A little or a bit can be used to show a small difference.

We can use these words with adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.

With adjectives:

Austrians are much more formal than Swedes, and they are much less direct. Austrian food is a lot

heavier than Swedish food.

Austria is a bit cheaper than Sweden.

Biology is a little easier than Chemistry.

Remember that we cannot use a double comparative.

(right) Austrian food is much heavier.

(wrong) Austrian food is much more heavier.

With adverbs:

She speaks a little more quietly than I do.

She speaks a bit more quietly than I do.

He drives a lot more slowly than you do.

With nouns:

If the noun is uncountable, we use much or a lot (for a big difference), and a little or a bit (for a small

difference).

In Sweden they eat a lot of fish.

They don’t have much sunshine in winter.

If the noun is countable, we use many or a lot (for a big difference), and a few for a small difference,

except when using fewer.

Many Saabs are driven in Sweden.

There are a lot of university students in Boston.

There are fewer hours of daylight in an Alaskan winter than in a Mexican winter.

You’ve gained a few pounds.

Most/Some

Look at these sentences. They all contain the words most and some. Not all the sentences contain of.

When you are talking more generally, don’t use of.

Most people would rather be young than old.

If we are referring to a specific time period or area, or if we are talking about part of a larger whole, we

would use of (the).

During the flood of 1994, most of the rain fell within a two-day period.

Some of my friends don’t eat pizza.

A few and few

A little and little

Little and few (without a) mean “not a lot.” They often have a negative meaning.

We have little time before our guests arrive for dinner. We must hurry to finish the cooking.

There are few vegetables that he likes. He almost never eats them.

Note: Use little with non-countable nouns like bread, rice, fruit, patience.

Use few with countable plural nouns like bananas, pieces, and meals.

You can use very with few as well as with little.

He has very little patience with people who drink too much alcohol.

Very few bananas grow in Scotland.

A little and a few mean “some” or “a small amount.” They have a more positive meaning than little and

few.

We have a little time for coffee before our flight. Let’s stop in at that cafe.

He makes a few dishes that everyone likes. For example, everyone loves his spaghetti.

If you use only with a few or a little, the meaning can become more negative.

She ate almost all the chocolates her boyfriend gave her. There are only a few left.

Only a few meals at the university cafeteria were strictly vegetarian. Most of the time, meat was

served.

Adjectives

• Forms

• Usage

• Related topics

Forms

Adjectives are generally invariable in English and do not agree with nouns in number and gender; nor

do they take case endings:

• a blue car

• the great outdoors

• a group of young women

However, a few adjectives have a connotation which is slightly masculine or feminine. Thus, one says

that a woman is beautiful while a man would be called handsome.

Adjectives indicating religion or nationality (or a region, state or province) generally begin with a capital

letter, whether they refer to people or objects:

• She is an American student.

• They go to a Catholic school.

• They enjoy Breton music.

Usage:

In a noun cluster an adjective will be placed, with very few exceptions, in front of the noun it modifies.

When two adjectives precede a noun, they can be connected by a comma (,) or by the

conjunction"and." In a series of three or more adjectives, one usually uses "and" before the last

adjective in the list.

Examples:

• I like short novels.

• That fellow will be a competent worker.

• She writes long and flowery letters.

• He works long, hard hours.

• She had a mean, old and overbearing step-mother.

An adjective may follow the noun when it is in a predicate (after the verb) or in a relative clause. (In

relative clauses the relative pronoun may be implicit.)

Examples:

• He was a man (who was) always happy to help others.

• She is a woman (who is) true to herself.

• They were entirely satisfied.

Related topics

• Possessive adjectives

• Demonstrative adjectives

• Comparisons

• Superlatives

Adjective Order

When two or more adjectives are used to describe something they are put in a certain order. For

example, opinions come before facts.

• Beautiful long black hair

• A handsome young man

• A nice new shirt

Nice, beautiful and handsome are opinions. Young, new, long and black are facts. Opinions come first.

Size comes before age. Age comes before color. The following chart show the basic order of

adjectives, but you should know that sometimes this order is not followed.

[NOTE IN THE ABOVE CHART “shape” (round, square) should be put between “age” and “color”, and

the “noun” column should be separated from the other columns, with a + inserted.]

Example:

We rented a nice little brown log cabin by a lake.

Note: We usually limit the number of adjectives preceding a noun to three.

Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns

Demonstrative adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives have two singular forms (this, that) and two plural forms (these, those).

These adjectives are used to designate proximity to an object, or to distinguish between an object that

is close (in time or space) and one that is more remote. Usually "this" and "these" signal proximity,

while "that" and "those" suggest distance:

• These books are too expensive.

• This car is responsive.

• That man irritates me!

• This hotel is more expensive than that one.

Demonstrative pronouns: Demonstrative pronouns have the same form as the demonstrative

adjectives, but are used without the nouns to which they refer. In the singular, when designating a

specific object, the pronoun "one" is often added:

• These tomatoes are fresher than those.

• These are better than those.

• Would you like a little of this?

• That strikes me as really weird!

• The book is more interesting than that one.

In front of a relative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun becomes "the one" or "the

ones" (when speaking of things), or "he / she who", "they who" (when speaking of people):

• This film is the one that you hated so much.

• He who eats well works well.

• This pen is the one with which the President signed the new law.

Related topics

• Relative pronouns

• Subject pronouns

• Reflexive pronouns

• Object pronouns

• Reciprocal pronouns

• Possessive pronouns

Possession

• Possessive adjectives

• Possessive pronouns

• "To belong"

• The "s" of possession

• "Whose"

In English possession may be expressed in five different ways:

Possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives agree with the person to whom they refer:

• I --> my

• you --> your

• he, her, it --> his (masculine), her (feminine), its (impersonal)

• we --> our

• they --> their

So,

• I have lost my keys.

• They are coming in their car.

• I met your grandparents.

• This car has lost its power.

Note: In English the possessive adjective is used to refer to parts of the body:

• She brushes her teeth twice a day.

• He broke his arm playing soccer.

• His stomach aches.

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns, like the adjectives, agree with the person to whom they refer. Singular and

plural share the same form:

• I --> mine

• your --> yours

• he, she, it --> his (masculine), hers (feminine), its (impersonal)

• we --> ours

• they --> theirs

So,

• I have my likes, and she has hers.

• If you give me one of yours, I'll give you one of mine.

• I like our house, but frankly, I am jealous of theirs!

• That's mine!

The verb "to belong to"

The verb "to belong to" indicates ownership or possession:

• That poodle belongs to Louise.

• The world belongs to you.

The "s" of possession

One may add "--'s" to any noun in order to indicate possession:

• I just read Gustave's book.

• The front door's lock is broken.

• Many of the world's countries are poor.

Note: Do not confuse the "s" of possession with the contraction of the verb "is":

• Fred's going to fetch it. (= Fred is going to fetch it.)

• The train's late again. (=The train is late again.)

"Whose" for indicating possession

"Whose" will be placed before the possession (the object possessed), and will refer ownership to the

preceding noun:

• The man whose dog bit me said he was sorry. (The dog belongs to the man.)

• Here is the woman whose daughter I intend to marry.(The woman is the mother of the

daughter.)

Comparatives

• General principles

• Adjectives

• Adverbs

• Nouns

• Verbs

• Related topics

General principles

Comparatives are used to compare two things and to highlight the superiority, inferiority, or equality

of one term compared to another. The comparative can apply to adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or even

verbs. Whatever the part of speech concerned, the structure of the comparison remains the same:

Examples for adjectives, adverbs, nouns, and verbs follow:

Adjectives

Adjectival comparisons follow these models:

• Jean is taller than Catherine.

• Philippe is less tall than Jean.

• Leïla is as tall as Jean.

Note: Monosyllabic adjectives, and several common two-syllable adjectives, take the ending "--er"

and do not include the adverb "more":

• young --> younger

• tall --> taller

• old --> older

If the adjective ends in "--y" the "y" becomes "i" :

• heavy --> heavier

• early --> earlier

• busy --> busier

• healthy --> healthier

• chilly --> chillier

If the adjective ends in "--e" only an "r" is needed:

• wise --> wiser

• large --> larger

• simple --> simpler

• late --> later

If the adjective ends with "single vowel + consonant" the consonant is doubled and one

adds "--er" :

• red --> redder

• big --> bigger

• thin --> thinner

• hot --> hotter

Some very common adjectives have irregular comparatives:

• good --> better

• bad --> worse

• far --> farther

Adverbs

Adverbial comparisons follow these models:

• The students are working more diligently than the professor.

• This fellow speaks less eloquently than a schoolboy.

• They are all working as hard as possible!

Note: In comparisons indicating superiority, adverbs ending in "--ly" do not take the adverb "more,"

but only the ending "--er". (However, these adverbs will function normally in comparisons using "less"

or "as.")

• fast --> faster

• hard --> harder

And some adverbs have irregular comparative forms :

• well --> better

• badly --> worse

• far --> farther

Nouns

Noun comparisons follow these patterns:

• I have more work than you.

• He has less homework than the rest of us.

• If only I had as much talent as she!

The comparative can signal quantities of nouns:

• I have less than five francs in my pocket.

• She has more than five hours worth of work to do.

However, in comparisons of inferiority, and when the quantity represents a "countable" noun,

one should use the term "fewer" rather than "less" :

• He works fewer than ten hours per week.

• Sam has fewer students than I do.

Verbs

"More," "less," and "as" can be used as adverbs to modify verbs:

• He eats more than he used to.

• That boy reads less than his friends.

• You ought to listen as much as you talk.

Related topics

• Superlatives

Superlatives

• General principles

• Irregular forms

o Adjectives

o Adverbs

• Related topics

General principles

When comparing two things one uses the comparative; however, for comparisons in larger groups, it

is the superlative which must be used. The superlative designates extremes: the best, the first, the

worst, the last, etc.

The superlative operates like the comparative, with these exceptions:

A. While the word "more" or the ending "--er" signals the comparative, it is the word "most" or the

ending "--est" that designates the superlative. (See irregular forms, below):

• He is the most efficient worker we have.

• That is the poorest family in the neighborhood.

B. The compared term (adjective or adverb) will be preceded by the definite article:

• He works the fastest of any student I know.

• She is the tallest woman in town.

B. Unlike the comparative, the superlative is not followed by "than": instead, one uses "of," followed

by the context of the comparison (although this context is sometimes implicit):

• It's the best day of my life!

• She works the best of the whole class.

Irregular forms

Adjectives

Monosyllabic adjectives (and several common two-syllable adjectives) take the ending "--est" in

superlatives of superiority, and thus will not use the adverb "most." However, these same adjectives

will use "less," like other adjectives, in superlatives of inferiority:

• young --> youngest

• tall --> tallest

• old --> oldest

If the adjective ends in "--y" the "y" becomes "i":

• heavy --> heaviest

• early --> earliest

• busy --> busiest

• healthy --> healthiest

• chilly --> chilliest

If the adjective ends in "--e" one adds only "--st" :

• wise --> wisest

• large --> largest

• simple --> simplest

• late --> latest

If the adjective ends in "single vowel + consonant," the consonant is doubled and

one adds "--est":

• red --> reddest

• big --> biggest

• thin --> thinnest

• hot --> hottest

Some very common superlatives have irregular forms:

• good --> best

• bad --> worst

• far --> farthest

Some adjectives exist only in superlative form:

• first

• last

Adverbs

Adverbs not ending in "--ly" do not use the adverb "--most" in the formation of superlatives of

superiority, but use instead the ending "--est." However, these same adverbs will use "less," like other

adverbs, in superlatives of inferiority:

• fast --> fastest

• hard --> hardest

And some adverbs have irregular forms:

• well --> best

• badly --> worst

• far --> farthest

Related topics

• Comparatives

Adverbs

• Formation

• Position

• Related topics

Formation

1. Most adverbs are formed from the adjective. One adds the ending "--ly" to the adjectival form:

• intelligent --> intelligently

• slow --> slowly

• precise --> precisely

Some adverbs are irregular:

A. If the adjective ends with "--le," simply replace the "e" with "y":

• simple --> simply

• subtle --> subtly

B. The adverb corresponding to the adjective "good" is irregular:

• good --> well

C. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective:

• high

• low

• hard

• better

• fast

D. In general, adverbs of time and space have no corresponding adjective; the same can be said of

adverbs of quantity:

• yesterday

• today

• tomorrow

• early

• soon

• late

• here

• there

• less

• more

• as

• very

• much

• a lot of

• little of

Position

When an adverb modifies a verb, it generally comes at the end of the clause (but before any

prepositional phrases or subordinated clauses):

• He writes poorly.

• She pronounced that word well..

• Joseph worked diligently.

• They worked hard before coming home.

Exceptions: certain adverbs signaling the speaker's opinion, such as "probably,"

"undoubtedly," "surely," "certainly," etc., come at the beginning of the sentence, or else

between the modal verb (or auxiliary) and the principal verb:

o We are probably going to spend the summer in Corsica.

o Certainly we would never do that!

o We will undoubtedly see a dirty political campaign this year.

Adverbs of time and space generally come at the end of the sentence; however, they may be placed

at the beginning of the sentence if the predicate clause is long and complicated:

• I saw her yesterday.

• We're going to the beach today.

• She went to bed very early.

• Tomorrow we will try to get up early to prepare for our trip.

Adverbs modifying adjectives or an other adverb are placed before the adjective or adverb they

modify:

• She was really very happy to see you.

• It was a brilliantly staged performance.

Related topics

• Comparatives

• Superlatives

Prepositions

• Space

• Geography

• Means of transportation

• Time

• "To" with indirect objects

• Related topics

Space

In their simplest form, prepositions are used to indicate position (in time or space) of one thing with

respect to another:

• I put the book on the table.

• She arrived before the others.

• He came toward me.

There are many prepositions. Here is a partial list, with examples:

• to -- He gave the book to his friend.

• at -- They arrived at his house at 5 o'clock.

• of -- It was the third day of the month.

• from -- That young women comes from Thailand.

• on -- She put the plate on the table.

• under -- The cat crawled under the bed.

• over -- The boy threw the rock over the tree.

• underneath -- The rabbit escaped underneath the fence.

• before -- (time) She arrived before the movie started.

• after -- He called his mother after he finished shopping.

• in front of -- His mother parked her car in front of his apartment.

• behind -- The dog ran behind the house.

• for -- He went to the store for more milk.

• toward -- The criminal walked toward him with a gun.

• against -- Everyone was against that idea.

• around -- The athletes ran around the track six times.

• close to -- He placed the food close to the squirrel.

• far from -- He placed the food far from the lion.

• next to -- He was hot, so he sat down next to the air conditioning.

• facing -- She sat down on the other side of the table, facing him.

• in the midst of -- I don't know where to find any free time in the midst of these emergencies.

Usage of prepositions

The use of prepositions is one of the most complex aspects of English, and it is impossible to cover all

cases. Some general guidelines, however, may be helpful.

Geography

Movement toward a town, country, state, or continent is generally expressed by the preposition "to";

presence in a city, state, etc. is expressed by "in"; movement away from a city, state, etc., is

expressed by "from" (if the verb requires a pronoun):

• When are you going to Canada.

• He went to Asia last year.

• I spent three years in London.

• She was born in Normandy.

• He comes from Mexico.

Transportation

As a general rule, the preposition "by" is used to describe how one has traveled. The prepositions "in"

and "on" describe one's presence inside a vehicle. In the case of small vehicles (a car, a helicopter...),

the preposition "in" is required:

• I came by bike.

• Traveling by plane is my favorite.

• I was already on (in) the train when he arrived.

• She is waiting for me in the car.

Time

To designate an hour the preposition "at" is used:

• Let's meet at six o'clock.

• They arrived at 4:45.

For dates and days of the week, one uses "on":

• His birthday is on Monday.

• It happened on March 3, 1997.

For months one uses "in":

• My birthday is in September.

• We will begin work in August.

To express duration, the preposition "for" is used; "in" can be used to express the time it will take to

complete a task:

• I am going away for a few days.

• He worked with them for three years.

• I can read that book in a day.

Indirect objects

The preposition "to", which generally precedes an indirect object, will disappear before a noun (or

pronoun) when the indirect object precedes a direct object. ("To" will be retained when the indirect

object follows a direct object.)

Examples :

• She gave John the ticket.

• Mais : She gave the ticket to John.

or:

• He sent her a letter.

• Mais : He sent a letter to her.

• Ou : He sent it to her.

This can also be seen in certain phrases in which the direct object is implicit.

• I already told it to him.

• Mais : I already told him (the news).

Related topics

• Verbs with prepositions

• Prepositional verbs

Verbs with prepositions

Certain verbs and verbal expressions are generally followed by a preposition before their object (and

this preposition will generally be shown in the dictionary).

However, the meaning of these verbs is not dramatically changed by the addition of the preposition.

The same cannot be said of the prepositional verbs, dealt with in another section.

Examples:

• to wait for

• to look for

• to look at

• to listen to

• to pay for

• to ask for

• to be happy with something

• to be mad at (or: with) someone

• to depend on

• to be interested in

• to thank fort

• to be busy with

Sample sentences:

• She's the one who paid for our dinner!

• I'm not asking for anything!

• I'm busy with my own stuff.

• That depends on you.

See also

• Prepositions

• Prepositional verbs

Time Clauses / Conjunctions

Conjunctions of Time

We can join two sentences using a conjunction. A conjunction of time gives us information about when

two events happen, relative to each other.

Common conjunctions of time are when, while, as soon as, until, after and before.

When can be used to show that one event is before, or at the same time as, another. When can be

used to convey a past or a future meaning.

I studied abroad for a year when I was at university.

When she finishes this course, she’ll go abroad for a year.

As soon as means that the second event happened, or will happen, immediately after the first.

As soon as I finished lunch, I went out for a walk. I’ll go out for a walk as soon as I finish lunch.

Notice that in the second example the verb in the present simple has a future meaning.

Not … until means the same as not … before.

I didn’t leave home until I got married.

After and before can be followed by a subject-verb clause or by a gerund.

After I had eaten five ice cream cones, I felt a little sick.

Before coming back to Britain, I travelled all over Eastern Europe.

While can be used to show two events happening at the same time.

While you’re getting lunch ready, I’ll wash the car.

I studied judo while I was in Japan.

While and During

While and during are both used to show that two things happen at the same time. While is a

conjunction and is used before a subject-verb clause. During is a preposition and is used before a

noun phrase.

What should you do during an earthquake?

Don’t run downstairs while the building is shaking.

He arrived while I was eating breakfast.

He arrived during breakfast.

Too, Very and Enough

We use too and very to modify the meaning of adjectives and adverbs. Too and very come before the

adjective and adverb. Enough usually comes after the adjective.

Too means “more than necessary” or “more than you want.” Very intensifies an adjective or adverb

and means “to a large extent.” Enough means “what is adequate or necessary.”

Mt. Everest is very high. It’s more than 8,000 meters high.

Mt. Everest is too high to climb in one day.

Magda is only two years old. She’s not old enough to climb Mt. Everest.

Transition

A transition is a word or phrase that allows for fluid movement between ideas, sentences, or

paragraphs. A transition expression helps the speaker or writer to construct coherent sentences. In

writing, a transition expression is typically set off with punctuation. Transitions include but are not

limited to the following kinds: comparison, contrast, summary, and order of importance. Many common

transitions are listed in the chart below.

Examples:

• We’re too tired to go jogging tonight. Besides, it’s very cold outside.

• Brittany doesn’t dance very well. On the other hand, she sings beautifully.

• Sally just got a job in San Francisco. Therefore, she won’t be moving to London.

So and neither with be and do

We use so and neither (or not…either) when we want to agree that something that is true for some

person is true for us, too.

We use so (or …too) with positive sentences and neither (or not…either) with negative sentences.

If the main verb is be, use be in the response. If the main verb is other than be, use do in the response.

Response form:

So + verb + subject (agreement with positive sentence)

Neither + verb + subject (agreement with negative sentence)

Examples, if the same is true for the respondent :

• I’m very sociable. So am I. (Or: I am, too.)

• I’m not very tall. Neither am I. (Or: I’m not, either.)

• We like parties. So do we. (Or: We do, too.)

• She doesn’t like snakes. Neither does he. (Or: He doesn’t, either.)

We use the verb be or the auxiliary verb do without so or neither when we want to say that what is true

for some person is not true for us. Examples, if the same is not true for the respondent:

• They’re tired. We’re not.

• I’m not sleepy. I am.

• He likes mushrooms. She doesn’t.

• We don’t like art. We do.

Split adverbials

hardly... when, barely...when, no sooner...than, not only...but also, so...that, such...that

Form:

Adverbial + auxiliary or modal verb + subject + main verb

Or

Adverbial + be + subject

Examples:

• Never have I seen so many cats in one place!

• Seldom do we feel sad while we are swimming in the ocean.

• Rarely can one hear such beautiful music.

• At no time was I late for class.

• No sooner had I wished to see my lost dog than she appeared before me.

Note that, in this last example, the second part (than) of the two-part adverbial is positioned at the start

of a new subject-verb clause.

Verbs

Verb conjugations reflect three elements: the subject, the tense, and the mood. The subject may be

singular or plural and may be in the first person ("I" or "we"), in the second person ("you"), or in the

third person "he," she," "it," or "they"). Verb tenses include different forms of the past, present and

future. The term "mood" refers, generally, to the attitude of the speaker toward his subject. The

different moods include the indicative, the subjunctive (rare in English), the conditional, and the

imperative.

• Auxiliaries ("to be", "to have")

• Past conditional ("I would have worked...")

• Present conditional ("I would work...")

• Future perfect ("We will have finished...")

• Near future ("We are going to finish...")

• Future progressive ("I will be calling you...")

• Simple future ("We will leave....")

• Imperative ("Let's go!")

• Irregular participles

• Past progressive ("I was working...")

• Habitual past ("I used to work...")

• Pluperfect ("I had worked...")

• Present perfect ("I have finished...")

• Present perfect progressive ("I have been finishing...")

• Present progressive (: "I am finishing...")

• Simple present (: "I finish...")

• Preterit ("I worked...")

• Subjunctive ("If I were you...")

• Modal verbs ("would", "should", etc.)

• Prepositional verbs ("to put down, to put up with..." etc.)

Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds as Subjects

The gerund is the –ing form of the verb when it is used as a noun. We can use a gerund as a subject

or as an object.

Walking is good for your health.

Too much dieting can be dangerous.

Terry quit smoking.

We go dancing every Saturday night.

He’s very good at listening to other people’s problems.

I am tired of worrying about money.

Verbs followed by gerunds

Here are some verbs that can be followed by a gerund but not an infinitve.

stop

keep

postpone

dislike

recommend

avoiddetest

feel like

give up

put off

practice

finish

What would you recommend trying?

I dislike watching violence on television.

Here are some verbs that can be followed directly by an infinitive but not a gerund.

hope

expect

intend

agree

refuse

appear

manage

promise

afford

decide

choose

fail

wait

volunteer

Susan refuses to try new food.

We intend to ask for a raise.

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive. Be careful! In some cases the meaning

changes.

try

remember

like

forget

love

prefer

start

begin

continue

can’t stand

I like eating in fancy restaurants.

Annie likes to eat fast food.

The imperative

Imperatives are used to issue commands. They use the infinitive of verbs (dropping the word "to"); in

the first person plural ("we"), the infinitive is preceded by "let's" (or: "let us"):

• Speak!

• Finish your homework!

• Let's eat!

• Close the door!

The negative imperative is formed by placing "don't" (or "do not") before the imperative form; in the

first person plural one uses "let's not" (or "let us not") :

• Let's not forget who helped us.

• Don't leave me!

• Don't walk on the grass!

• Please don't eat the daisies!

The imperative has no effect on the word order of the rest of the sentence.

The subjunctive

The subjunctive is used only in select phrases or situations in English. One finds vestiges of it in

certain hypothetical expressions (using "if + to be") and in certain set phrases. (In many cases the

subjunctive -- considered archaic or literary -- is replaced by the modal "would," used to express the

conditional.) Other meanings often communicated by the subjunctive in other languages will be

expressed by modal verbs in English.

In constructions using "if + to be" the subjunctive will amount to using the form "were" (instead of

"was") with the first and third persons singular ("I" and "he," "she," or "it"). (In spoken English, and in

much informal writing, "was" will still be used.)

• If I were Muriel, I'd never go back there.

• If she were alone, I'd stop by to see her.

• He acts as if he were crazy.

Set phrases and proverbs:

• God help us!

• Long live the king!

• Would that I were free!

Present participles

Formation

The present participle is formed by adding the ending"--ing" to the infinitive (dropping any silent "e"at

the end of the infinitive):

• to sing --> singing

• to talk --> taking

• to bake --> baking

• to be --> being

• to have --> having

Use

A. The present participle may often function as an adjective:

• That's an interesting book.

• That tree is a weeping willow.

B. The present participle can be used as a noun denoting an activity (this form is also called a gerund):

• Swimming is good exercise.

• Traveling is fun.

C. The present participle can indicate an action that is taking place, although it cannot stand by itself

as a verb. In these cases it generally modifies a noun (or pronoun), an adverb, or a past participle:

• Thinking myself lost, I gave up all hope.

• Washing clothes is not my idea of a job.

• Looking ahead is important.

D. The present participle is used in progressive verb tenses, which indicate continuing actions or

actions in progress (the present progressive, the future progressive, the present perfect progressive) :

• I am eating my dinner.

• He was walking across the park.

• We will be calling you tomorrow.

E. The present participle may be used with "while"or "by" to express an idea of simultaneity ("while")

or causality ("by") :

• He finished dinner while watching television.

• By using a dictionary he could find all the words.

• While speaking on the phone, she doodled.

• By calling the police you saved my life!

F. The present participle of the auxiliary "have"may be used with the past participle to describe a past

condition resulting in another action:

• Having spent all his money, he returned home.

• Having told herself that she would be too late, she accelerated.

Inversion

Inversion occurs when we change the order of the subject and the verb in a declarative sentence after

an adverbial in initial position. It is used for emphasis, in more formal or poetic discourse, and in some

day-to-day fixed expressions. Inversion only occurs if the sentence contains an auxiliary verb, modal

verb, or the verb be.

The following are some common adverbials that can be used with inversion.

at no time, little, never, not until, nowhere, only after, only then, only later, rarely, seldom, scarcely,

under no circumstances

Irregular preterits and past participles

This alphabetical list shows the irregular forms of the most common verbs. Each entry includes the

infinitive, the preterit, and the past participle. In cases where variant forms exist, they will be shown at

the end of the entry. Literary or archaic forms are flagged by a cross: Ý. The past participle is used in

many conjugations, including the present perfect, the pluperfect,the past conditional, and the future

perfect.

can = could [pret.], been able [p.p.]

may = might [pret.]

to abide = abode [pret., p.p.]

to arise = arose [pret.], arisen [p.p.]

to awake = awoke [pret.], awakened [p.p.]

to be = was, were [pret.], been [p.p.]

to bear = bore [pret.], borne [p.p.]

to beat = beat [pret.], beaten [p.p.]

to become = became [pret.], become [p.p.]

to befall = befell [pret.], befallen [p.p.]

to begin = began [pret.], begun [p.p.]

to bend = bent [pret., p.p.]

to beseech = besought [pret., p.p.]

to bet = bet [pret., p.p.]

to bid = bid [pret., p.p.]; bade [pret.]Ý

to bind = bound [pret., p.p.]

to bite = bit [pret.], bitten [p.p.]

to bleed = bled [pret., p.p.]

to blow = blew [pret.], blown [p.p.]

to break = broke [pret.], broken [p.p.]

to breed = bred [pret., p.p.]

to bring = brought [pret., p.p.]

to build = built [pret., p.p.]

to burn = burned [pret., p.p.]; burnt [pret., p.p.]Ý

to burst = burst [pret., p.p.]

to buy = bought [pret., p.p.]

to cast = cast [pret., p.p.]

to catch = caught [pret., p.p.]

to choose = chose [pret.], chosen [p.p.]

to cleave = cleaved [pret., p.p.]; cleft [pret., p.p.]Ý

to cling = clung [pret., p.p.]

to come = came [pret.], come [p.p.]

to cost = cost [pret., p.p.]

to creep = crept [pret., p.p.]; creeped [pret.]

to cut = cut [pret., p.p.]

to deal = dealt [pret., p.p.]

to dig = dug [pret., p.p.]

to do = did [pret.], done [p.p.]

to draw = drew [pret.], drawn [p.p.]

to dream = dreamed [pret., p.p.]; dreamt [pret., p.p.]Ý

to drink = drank [pret.], drunk [p.p.]

to drive = drove [pret.], driven [p.p.]

to dwell = dwelled [pret., p.p.]; dwelt [pret., p.p.]Ý

to eat = ate [pret.]; eaten [p.p.]

to fall = fell [pret.], fallen [p.p.]

to feed = fed [pret., p.p.]

to fight = fought [pret., p.p.]

to find = found [pret., p.p.]

to flee = fled [pret., p.p.]

to fling = flung [pret., p.p.]

to fly = flew [pret.]; flown [p.p.]

to forbid = forbad [pret.]; forbidden [p.p.]

to forget = forgot [pret.]; forgotten [p.p.]

to forsake = forsook [pret.]; forsaken [p.p.]

to freeze = froze [pret.]; frozen [p.p.]

to get = got [pret., p.p.]; gotten [p.p.]

to gild = gild [p.p.]

to give = gave [pret.], given [p.p.]

to go = went [pret.], gone [p.p.]

to grind = ground [pret., p.p.]

to grow = grew [pret.], grown [p.p.]

to hang = hung [pret., p.p.]; hanged (•éxécution•) [pret., p.p.]

to have = had [pret., p.p.]

to hear = heard [pret., p.p.]

to hew = hewn [p.p.]

to hide = hid [pret.]; hidden [p.p.]

to hit = hit [pret., p.p.]

to hold = held [pret., p.p.]

to hurt = hurt [pret., p.p.]

to keep = kept [pret., p.p.]

to kneel = kneeled [pret., p.p.]

to kneel = knelt [pret., p.p.]

to know = knew [pret.], known [p.p.]

to lay = laid [pret., p.p.]

to lead = led [pret., p.p.]

to lean = leaned [pret., p.p.]

to lean = leant [pret., p.p.]

to leap = leaped [pret., p.p.]

to leap = leapt [pret., p.p.]

to learn = learned [pret., p.p.]

to learn = learnt [pret., p.p.]

to leave = left [pret., p.p.]

to lend = lent [pret., p.p.]

to let = let [pret., p.p.]

to lie = lay [pret.], lain [p.p.]

to light = lit [pret., p.p.]

to lose = lost [pret., p.p.]

to make = made [pret., p.p.]

to mean = meant [pret., p.p.]

to meet = met [pret., p.p.]

to mow = mowed [pret.], mown [p.p.]

to pay = paid [pret., p.p.]

to put = put [pret., p.p.]

to quit = quit [pret., p.p.]

to read = read [pret., p.p.]

to rebuild = rebuilt [pret., p.p.]

to recut = recut [pret., p.p.]

to redeal = redealt [pret., p.p.]

to redo = redid [pret.], redone [p.p.]

to relay = relaid [pret., p.p.]

to remake = remade [pret., p.p.]

to rend = rent [pret., p.p.]

to repay = repaid [pret., p.p.]

to reread = reread [pret., p.p.]

to rerun = reran [pret.], rerun [p.p.]

to resend = resent [pret., p.p.]

to reset = reset [pret., p.p.]

to retake = retook [pret.], retaken [p.p.]

to reteach = retaught [pret., p.p.]

to retell = retold [pret., p.p.]

to rethink = rethought [pret., p.p.]

to rewrite = rewrote [pret.], rewritten [p.p.]

to rid = rid [pret., p.p.]

to ride = rode [pret.], ridden [p.p.]

to ring = rang [pret.], rung [p.p.]

to rise = rose [pret.], risen [p.p.]

to run = ran [pret.], run [p.p.]

to saw = sawed [pret., p.p.]; sawn [p.p.]Ý

to say = said [pret., p.p.]

to see = saw [pret.], seen [p.p.]

to seek = sought [pret., p.p.]

to sell = sold [pret., p.p.]

to send = sent [pret., p.p.]

to set = set [pret., p.p.]

to sew = sewed [pret., p.p.]; sewn [p.p.]

to shake = shook [pret.], shaken [p.p.]

to shave = shaved [pret., p.p.]; shaven [p.p.]

to shear = sheared [pret., p.p.]; shorn [p.p.]

to shed = shed [pret., p.p.]

to shine = shone [pret., p.p.]; shined [pret.]

to shoe = shod [pret., p.p.]

to shoot = shot [pret., p.p.]

to show = showed [pret., p.p.]; shown [p.p.]

to shrink = shrank [pret.], shrunk [p.p.]

to shut = shut [pret., p.p.]

to sing = sang [pret.], sung [p.p.]

to sink = sank [pret.], sunk [p.p.]

to sit = sat [pret., p.p.]

to slay = slew [pret.], slain [p.p.]

to sleep = slept [pret., p.p.]

to slide = slid [pret., p.p.]

to sling = slung [pret., p.p.]

to slink = slunk [pret., p.p.]

to slit = slit [pret., p.p.]

to smell = smelled [pret., p.p.]

to smell = smelt [pret., p.p.]

to smite = smote [pret.], smitten [p.p.]

to sow = sowed [pret., p.p.]; sown [p.p.]

to speak = spoke [pret.], spoken [p.p.]

to speed = sped [pret., p.p.]

to spell = spelled [pret., p.p.]

to spell = spelt [pret., p.p.]

to spend = spent [pret., p.p.]

to spill = spilled [pret., p.p.]

to spill = spilt [pret., p.p.]

to spin = spun [pret., p.p.]

to spit = spat [pret., p.p.]

to split = split [pret., p.p.]

to spoil = spoiled [pret., p.p.]; spoilt [pret., p.p.]

to spread = spread [pret., p.p.]

to spring = sprang [pret.]; sprung [p.p.]

to stand = stood [pret., p.p.]

to steal = stole [pret.], stolen [p.p.]

to stick = stuck [pret., p.p.]

to sting = stung [pret., p.p.]

to stink = stank [pret.], stunk [p.p.]

to stride = strode [pret.], stridden [p.p.]

to strike = struck [pret., p.p.]; stricken [p.p.]

to string = strung [pret., p.p.]

to strive = strove [pret.], striven [p.p.]

to swear = swore [pret.], sworn [p.p.]

to sweep = swept [pret., p.p.]

to swell = swelled [pret.], swollen [p.p.]

to swim = swam [pret.], swum [p.p.]

to swing = swung [pret., p.p.]

to take = took [pret.], taken [p.p.]

to teach = taught [pret., p.p.]

to tear = tore [pret.], torn [p.p.]

to tell = told [pret., p.p.]

to think = thought [pret., p.p.]

to thrive = thrived [pret., p.p.]

to throw = threw [pret.], thrown [p.p.]

to thrust = thrust [pret., p.p.]

to tread = trod [pret.], trodden [p.p.]

to undo = undid [pret.], undone [p.p.]

to unlearn = unlearned [pret., p.p.]; unlearnt [pret., p.p.]Ý

to unwind = unwound [pret., p.p.]

to wake = woke [pret.], woken [p.p.]

to wear = wore [pret.], worn [p.p.]

to weave = wove [pret.], woven [p.p.]; weaved [pret.]

to weep = wept [pret., p.p.]

to win = won [pret., p.p.]

to wind = wound [pret., p.p.]

to withdraw = withdrew [pret.], withdrawn [p.p.]

to wring = wrung [pret., p.p.]

to write = wrote [pret.], written [p.p.]

Auxiliary verbs

An auxiliary verb ("helping" verb) is combined with the principal verb to form certain tenses or moods.

(See also the modal verbs, which nuance the meaning of the verbs they accompany.) The only true

auxiliary verbs in English are "to be," "to have," and "to do."

"To be" is an auxiliary verb for the progressive teneses (See the present progressive, the past

progressive, the future progressive):

• I am going home.

• She was fishing with her father.

• We will be calling on you later.

"To have" is an auxiliary verb for the perfect tenses, including the present perfect, the present perfect

progressive, the pluperfect, the future perfect, the past conditional:

• We have finished.

• They hadn't waited for us.

"To do" is an auxiliary verb for making questions and negations in both the present simple and the

preterit :

• Do you have any money?

• Did you hear me?

• He doesn't want to help us.

Causative constructions

When one does not carry out an action oneself but rather has the action done by someone else, this is

expressed by a causative construction. In English it is the verb "to have" that introduces the causative.

The model will generally be: "to have" (conjugated) + direct object (noun or pronoun) + principal

verb (in its past participle form):

• We'll have a monument erected on this site.

• I had my hair cut.

When one wishes to designate the agent of the action (the person who has carried out the described

action), there are two possibilities:

1. -- "to have" (conjugated) + direct object (noun or pronoun) + principal verb (in its past participle

form) + "by" + agent (usually not as a pronoun):

• The professor had the work done by his lab assistants.

• I had it done by my employees.

2. -- "to have" (conjugated) + agent (as a direct object noun or pronoun) + principal verb (in its

infinitive form) + the object (also in the form of a direct object noun or pronoun)

• The professor had his students write an essay.

• I had him do it.

Note: Especially in spoken English, the verb "to get" often replaces "to have," in which case "to" is

added to the infinitive (but not before past participles). This construction also suggests that it may be

(or have been) difficult to produce a certain reaction on the part of the agent:

• We'll get a monument erected on this site.

• The professor got his students to write an essay.

When one wishes to express a change in temperament or in general conditions, it is the construction

"to make + adjective" which is used:

• That letter made her sad.

• He makes me furious!

• That new problem made negotiations really hard!

Do and Make

We often use do followed by words for work or indefinite activities.

Do your homework.

Can you do the dishes tonight?

Stan did the grocery shopping every Saturday morning.

You must do something about the mice in the basement!

We often use make with the meaning of .

Let’s make some travel plans.

Mom made a cake for Zachary’s birthday.

Do you want me to make breakfast for you?

There are also many idiomatic expressions that use the verbs do or make.

To do one’s best, to make progress, to do one’s duty, to make a fortune

Present progressive

• General principles

• Near future

• In negative constructions

• Related topics

General principles: The present progressive is a version of the present which emphasizes the fact

that an action is still unfolding (or is continuing) at the time one speaks. It is formed by using the

auxilary "to be" with the present participle:

• I am working.

• He is eating his dinner.

• The cat is meowing.

Usually, the present progressive indicates that one is "in the process of" or "in the midst of" doing

something. If this is the idea one wishes to communicate, the present progressive will be preferable to

the simple present. If you cannot replace the verb by a form of "to be in the process of," the present

progressive should probably not be used. Indications of emotion, belief, and possession are rarely

conjugated in the present progressive:

• I think that is right. ["I am in the process of thinking" would be awkward.]

• Cheryl owns her own house. ["Cheryl is in the process of owning" would be awkward.]

In certain situations the present progressive can indicate an action which will take place in the

immediate future:

• I am going to the movies this evening.

• They are leaving tomorrow.

Near future: To emphasize the idea of future action while using the present tense, one may use the

verb "to go"; it indicates what one is going to do. In this case the principle verb remains in the infinitive:

• I know he is going to yell at me!

• They are going to regret that decision.

Note: The near future can also be used in past constructions, in which case the verb "to go"

is conjugated in the past progressive:

o She was going to leave, but the telephone rang.

Present progressive in the negative

The word "not" comes after the auxiliary "to be":

• He is not working very hard.

• You are not driving fast enough.

Simple present (indicative)

The simple present is used to express actions which take place in the present or which occur regularly.

It also serves to express general or absolute statements not anchored in a particular time frame.

• I work at home.

• Politics are a dirty business.

• Jill speaks four languages fluently.

• On Sundays, we like to fish.

In the interrogative, the present is generally introduced by a form of the verb "to do" ("do / does"):

• Does your father like to cook?

• Do you have time to stop by my place?

The appropriate form of the verb "to do" will also be used for the negative:

• I do not (don't) work at home.

• No, he does not (doesn't) like to cook.

After the conjunctions "when," "as soon as," etc., the present is used, even though actions expressed

may refer to the future:

• She'll come when she can.

• He'll pay us as soon as we finish.

Forming the simple present: The present is extremely regular in its conjugation. As a general rule,

one uses the base form of the infinitive (minus the preposition "to"). For the third person singular ("he,"

"she," "it"), an "-s" is added if the verb ends in a consonant, or "-es" if the verb ends with a vowel:

To work

• I work

• you work

• he / she / it works

• we work

• they work

To go

• I go

• you go

• he / she / it goes

• we go

• they go

However: verbs ending with "consonant + y" (for example, "to try," "to cry," "to bury," etc.) will end in

"-ies" in the third person singular:

To bury

• I bury

• you bury

• he / she buries

• we bury

• they bury

"To have", "to be"

The only irregular verbs in the present are "to have," "to be," and the modal verbs.

To have

• I have

• you have

• he / she has

• we have

• they have

To be

• I am

• you are

• he / she is

• we are

• they are

•

Related topics

• Negatives

• Questions

• Near future

• Prepositional verbs

The simple future

The simple future uses the modal "will" followed by the infinitive (dropping the presposition "to"). It

serves to express actions which will take place at a specified time, or to signal the beginning of an

action. (If, on the other hand, one wishes to describe an action which is in the process of occurring, it is

the future progressive which will be used to express it.)

• I will meet you at five o'clock.

• She will go to the library this evening.

• We will dance all night long.

One sometimes find the modal "shall" in place of "will." This usage, generally reserved for the first

person, is considered archaic: What shall I do ?

Note: this usage of "shall" to indicate the future is different from the commonplace usage of "shall" to

indicate desire or wishes. See modal verbs.

Near future

Especially in spoken English one finds the near future used as a way of describing imminent events.

Strictly speaking, the near future is not a future tense, for it is formed by combining the present tense

of the verb "to go," conjugated in the present progressive, with the infinitive of the principal verb.

• We are going to leave soon.

• I'm going to give her a call.

Also used to express imminent actions is the construction "to be about to do something," also

conjugated in the present.

• I am about to lose my temper!

• The detective is about to stop the criminal.

One can also conjugate these forms in the past progressive in order to express a "future within the

past":

• He said he was going to do it.

• She was going to buy a new car, but she never did.

• When I saw them, they were about to make a decision.

Questions

• Simple questions

o "Do"

o Inversion

o Modal verbs ("will", "would", etc.)

• Interrogative adverbs ("how?", "when", "why?", etc.)

• Interrogative pronouns ("who", "whom", "what", etc.)

• "Which", "which one"

Simple questions

Simple questions (that is, questions to which one can respond by a simple "yes" or "no") may be

formed in three different ways:

1. "Do": one precedes an assertion with "do" or "does" (or "don't" or "doesn't" for a negative

expression, or "did", "didn't" for the past):

• Do you want to go to the movies?

• Does she work at IBM?

• Don't you travel quite a bit?

• Do they answer questions quickly?

• Didn't they want to eat?

But: One never places "do" or "does" before the verb "to be" or before modal verbs in

questions; in this case it is preferable to invert the subject and verb:

o Are you coming to the reception?

o Was the meeting boring?

o Weren't you hungry?

2. Inversion: with certain verbs (especially the verbs "to be", "to do", "to have", and modal verbs)

questions are formed by inverting the subject and object. (In the case of the verb "to have," which is

usually combined with "do" in interrogatives, inversion signals a literary style.)

• Is Jack home?

• Have you nothing to declare?

• Would you like to go to the movies?

• Will they ever come to visit?

• Can the employees talk to the boss?

• Won't you sit down?

3. Modal phrases: If a modal verb is used in a sentence, or if it is strongly implied, a modal phrase

can be used to make an interrogative form. The modal phrase is typically an inversion of the subject

and verb, in the negative, repeated at the end of the sentence:

• It's time to go, isn't it?

• He'd like to come with us, wouldn't he?

• You would like to go with us, wouldn't you?

• You can understand that, can't you?

In the case of a negative question, the modal phrase would be in the affirmative:

• You wouldn't want to try it, would you?

• She won't be back, will she?

(See also: negations)

Interrogative adverbs

Simple questions solicit a "yes" or "no" answer. More precise questions may be formed by using the

interrogative adverbs: when, why, how, how much, where. Generally, the interrogative adverb

precedes the rest of the question; then the order of the sentence follows the rules indicated for

inversion or for questions formed with "do / does".

• Where are you going?

• Why do you want to take this class?

• How much do you earn a month?

• How do these machines work? (Où vont ces étudiants ?)

• When do you expect to get home? (A quelle heure penses-tu rentrer ?)

See also: Questions, Interrogative pronouns.

Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask who has done what, to whom, why, with what, etc. Normally

these pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence; hen the order of the sentence follows the

rules indicated for inversion or for questions formed with "do / does".

One chooses the pronoun based on its function, according to the following table:

subject (person) : who + question

• Who did this painting?

• Who wants to get an ice cream?

subject (thing) : what + question

• What interests you?

• What is good in this restaurant?

direct object (person) : whom + question

• Whom did you see in France?

• Whom are you going to meet at this reception?

direct objet (thing) : what + question

• What do you want to do this evening?

• What are you preparing?

object of a preposition (person) : preposition + whom + question

• About whom are you thinking?

• With whom did you go out?

Note: In spoken English, one often places the preposition at the end of the sentence, in

which case one uses "who" instead of "whom"

o Who are you thinking about?

o Who did you go out with?

object of a preposition (thing) : preposition + what + question

• With what did you open it?

• In what way does that concern you?

Note: In spoken English, the preposition is often put at the end of the sentence:

• What did you open it with?

• What did did they base their opinion on?

Which, which one, which ones.

The adjective "which" and its pronominal forms ("which", "which one", "which ones") ask that a

person make a choice. Usually these pronouns will be placed at the beginning of the sentence;

Normalement, ces pronoms se trouveront au début de la phrase ; then the order of the sentence

follows the rules indicated for inversion or for questions formed with "do / does".

• Which film do you want to see?

• Which date did you choose?

• Here are two pizzas. Which one do you prefer?

• There are many different Burgundy wines. Which ones do you like?

Question tag phrases ("isn't it," "wasn't it," etc.)

Modals can be used in a negative interrogative form after an affirmative expression. The function of

such an expression is to prompt the listener to reassert or reaffirm what has been stated:

• You would like to go with us, wouldn't you?

• You can understand that, can't you?

The modal verb used in the interrogative tag is generally the same as the modal found in the main

clause; the subject pronoun is also repeated.

After a negative sentence, the modal tag phrase is in the affirmative:

• You wouldn't want to try it, would you? (Je suppose que tu ne voudrais pas l'essayer.)

• She won't be back, will she?

Tag questions

We often use tag questions in spoken English to check information and to ask for confirmation. We

form tag questions with auxiliary or modal verbs or the main verb be, followed by a pronoun.

You’re Tom Cruise, aren’t you? She speaks Russian, doesn’t she? That’s not Julia Roberts, is it? This

doesn’t cost much, does it?

A falling intonation on a tag question means you feel certain about what you are saying. A rising

intonation means you are not sure and need confirmation.

If the first part of the sentence is affirmative, the tag question is generally negative. If the first part of

the sentence is negative, the tag question is generally affirmative.

You are French, aren’t you? You aren’t French, are you? Carly can swim, can’t she? Carly can’t swim,

can she?

Tag questions with do

When there is no verb be or modal verb other than do in the statement, we use do in the tag question.

You like your work, don’t you?

He did his homework, didn’t he?

We did lock the door, didn’t we?

You don’t eat much, do you?

Negation

• "Not"

• Negative questions

• Negative constructions ("never", "no one", "nothing", etc.)

"Not"

The most common way to put a phrase in the negative is by using "not." Generally, "not" must follow

an auxiliary verb ("to be", "to do") or a modal ("shall", "must", "might", "will", etc.), even if this verb

adds no meaning to the sentence. When no other modal is present or appropriate, the verb "to do" is

used.

Here are some sample phrases in both affirmative and negative form:

• I want to play the piano.

--> I do not want to play the piano.

• He will arrive on time.

--> He will not arrive on time.

• They should go out together.

--> They should not go out together.

Note: Most often, the adverb "not" will be contracted to "--n't" after an auxiliary or

modal verb:

o is not --> isn't

o should not --> shouldn't

o does not --> doesn't

o must not --> mustn't

o has not --> hasn't

o will not --> won't

Questions

The same structure (placing "not" after the verb) will hold for questions:

• Isn't it time to leave?

• Wouldn't you care for a drink?

Note: If one chooses not contract "not" to "--n't", the adverb "not" will be placed after the

subject in the question. This style is considered literary:

o Is it not time to leave.

o Would you not care for a drink?

Using "not" instead of the contraction can produce certain stylistic effects:

To stress the negative meaning of the sentence:

• "He will not come to your house" is stronger than "He won't come to your house"

To affect a literary style, especially in the formation of a questions:

• Will you not come by and see us?

Negative constructions

Other negative constructions are possible. Because English does not allow double or triple negatives,

it is important to avoid using "not" with other negative constructions. When "not" is included, use the

affirmative forms of other adverbs:

No more / not... any more

• I want no more of your money

• I don't want any more of your money.

No one / not... anyone

• No one called tonight.

• I don't want to see anyone tonight.

Never / not... ever

• She never wants to see him again.

• She doesn't ever want to see him again.

Nothing / not... anything

• He does nothing at all.

• Can't you do anything right?

Nowhere / not... anywhere

• Where are you going? -- Nowhere.

• I don't want to go anywhere.

Not a single / not... a single

• Not a single letter arrived today.

• He doesn't have a single idea what we're doing.

Neither... nor...

• We neither ate nor drank during the ceremony.

• I like neither tomatoes nor zucchini.

Only (always placed before the element one whichs to limit):

• She only has seven dollars.

• We were only playing.

• They were the only ones to come.

The preterit

As a general rule, the preterit is formed by adding the ending "--ed" to the infinitive (dropping any

unpronounced "e" in final position, and changing any final "y" to "i"):

• to walk --> walked

• to answer --> answered

• to want --> wanted

• to smile --> smiled

• to cry --> cried

The preterit forms of many common verbs are irregular:

• to be --> was (singular), were (plural)

• to have --> had

• to do --> did

• to make --> made

• to eat --> ate

• to go --> went

• to drink --> drank

• to think --> thought

• to bring --> brought

• to drive --> drove

• to write --> wrote

• to sing --> sang

• to build --> built

(For a complete list of this irregular forms, see Irregular preterits and past participles).

Usage

The preterit expresses actions which were completed in the past. Unlike those described by the

present perfect, these actions do not continue in the present. Unlike the past progressive, the preterit

does not describe the process or duration of actions: it states them only as completed actions:

• She went to the store this afternoon.

• They called the police.

• He came, he saw, he conquered.

The duration of the action is of no importance: the preterit may describe an action lasting an instant or

many years. Thus verbs indicating belief, emotion, possession, location, etc. will often be expressed in

the preterit:

• I lived in London for three years.

• She owned three dogs throughout her childhood.

• I never trusted what they told me.

In the negative and interrogative, the auxiliary verb "to do" -- conjugated in the preterit -- will be used

with the infinitive to express the past:

• Did you arrive in time?

• Didn't you eat yet?

• We didn't go to the movies after all.

Related topics

• The past progressive

• Habitual actions in the past

Habitual actions in the past

To describe habitual, repeated actions in the past, one generally uses the construction "used to +

verb." Thus:

• When I was little, we used to go camping a lot.

• When my father was in school, they used to slap children who didn't behave.

• I used to work days, but now I work the night shift.

In spoken English, one often uses the common construction with the modal "would," followed by the

main verb:

• When we were kids, we would haze each other quite a bit.

• When I was little, we would go camping a lot.

• When my father was in school, they would slap children who didn't behave.

See also:

• The preterit

• The past progressive

Past progressive

The past progressive is a past tense which emphasizes the ongoing nature of the action described. It

is formed by using the auxiliary "to be" with the present participle:

• I was working.

• He was eating his dinner when the phone rang.

• The cat was meowing last night while we tried to sleep.

Normally, if an idea could be expressed with the expression "was in the process of doing" or with "was

in the midst of doing," the past progressive will be more appropriate than the simple past.

Consequently, verbs indicating belief, emotion, possession, etc., are rarely conjugated in the past

progressive:

• I thought that was right. ["I was in the process of thinking..." would be awkward.]

• Cheryl owned her own house. ["Cheryl was in the midst of owning..." would be awkward.]

Note: Do not use the past progressive in order to describe habitual actions in the past.

Present perfect

• General principles

• Recent past

General principles

The present perfect describes an action or emotion which began in the past and which continues in

the present. It is formed by using the auxilary "to have" with the past participle:

• I have always wanted to visit Israel.

• Money has always been the problem and not the solution.

• I have discovered the answer.

After such expressions as "since," "for," "how long," etc., one generally uses the present perfect or

even the present perfect progressive:

• I have been in Paris for three weeks

• He has been telling that story for years!

• How long have you lived in Quebec?

In the negative, the present perfect expresses and action which has not yet occurred:

• I haven't finished yet.

• She said she would call, but she hasn't called.

Recent past

In conjunction with the word "just", the present perfect or the preterit can be used to express the

recent past:

• I (have) just arrived.

• The film has just come out [or: The film just came out].

Note: do not confuse this use of "just" (which indicates the recent past) with "just about," which

indicates, to the contrary, something which will happen in the near future:

• I have just about finished. (= I have almost finished; I will finish soon.)

Pluperfect

The pluperfect is formed with the preterit of the auxiliary "to have," followed by the past participle of

the principle verb:

• He had always wanted to travel in Africa.

• She had already left when Philippe arrived.

• I bought the book that Corinne had recommended to me.

Usage

The pluperfect expresses the precedence of one action compared to another. The earlier action will be

described by the pluperfect; the later will generally be described by the preterit. When one action

precedes another, the pluperfect is not absolutely necessary. Witness this sentence, which provides a

list of actions in chronological order (all expressed by the preterit):

• The alarm rang, I got up, and I ate breakfast.

It is usually only when one seeks to emphasize the precedence of one action that the pluperfect will be

used. Often one finds such adverbs as "already," which reinforces the impression of precedence.

• She learned to love the dog that had bitten her the week before.

• When I got home, I had already heard the bad news.

• The children ate all the cookies that their father had bought.

In certain phrases one action may be left implicit:

• She had already thought of that.

The pluperfect is often used in in hypothetical expressions with "if," in conjunction with the past

conditional:

• I would not have come if I had known he was ill.

Withe the adverb "just" the pluperfect indicates the immediate past in a past context:

• He had just eaten lunch when I arrived.

Present perfect progressive

A close relative of the present perfect, the present perfect progressive, emphasizes the continuation of

a single action: it indicates that the action is ongoing or continuing at the moment one is speaking. The

form -- relatively complicated -- consists of the past auxiliary "to have" + "been" (the past participle of

"to be") + the present participle of the principal verb. For example:

• I have been trying to reach you all afternoon.

• They have been working hard to finish their project.

Future perfect

Relatively rare in English, the future perfect serves to express one future action which precedes a

future moment or another future action. Moreover, it asserts that these actions will be completed

before the principal action. It is formed by adding the modal "will" to the auxiliary "have," preceding

the past participle:

• She will have finished before eight o'clock.

• Tomorrow morning they will all have left.

• They will already have finished eating by the time we get there.

One can often use the simple future instead of the future perfect, but a nuance is lost: the simple future

does not emphasize the completion of the first action:

• Tomorrow morning they will all leave. (The future perfect would emphasize that they will

already have departed before tomorrow morning.)

• They will finish eating by the time we get there. (They may finish just as we arrive; the future

perfect would emphasize that they will have finished before we arrive.)

Future progressive

The future progressive serves to express an action which will be in the process of occurring. It is

formed by putting the present progressive into the future: will be + present participle.

• I will be waiting for you at six o'clock.

• He will be eating by the time you arrive.

Hint for usage: How to choose between the future progressive and the simple future? If it is possible

to use the expression "will be in the process of," it is the future progressive that best expresses the

action. The future progressive indicates that an action will be continuing at a given moment; the simple

future suggests that the action will be complete. Thus the verb tense can nuance meaning. Consider

these sentences, both of which are grammatically correct:

• I will be finishing my homework at 10:00. (This suggests that I may finish my homework at

10:05 or 10:15; I will be nearing completion, in the process of completion.)

• I will finish my homework at 10:00. (This suggests that I will finish at 10:00 sharp.)

Passive voice

Events may be related in the active or the passive voice. In the passive, the person or thing receiving

the action becomes the grammatical subject.

For example (the entity receiving the action is in boldface):

• active voice: Eric Rohmer made this film.

• passive voice: This film was made by Eric Rohmer.

One forms the passive by conjugating the verb "to be" before the past participle of the principal verb.

the tense of the verb "to be" will determine the tense of action. When an agent of the action (that is,

the person or entity performing the action) must be described, one does so by using the preposition

"by":

• This industry will soon be developed in the third world.

• Sorry, but this car has been purchased by another customer.

English uses the passive voice frequently, although it is best to avoid it when possible. An option is to

use an impersonal subject, such as "one" or "someone"

• (passive voice): This job needs to be done.

• (active voice): Someone needs to do this job.

Modal verbs

• General principles

• Contractions

• Question tag phrases: "isn't it," "wasn't it," etc.

• Related topics

General principles

The auxiliary modals "would," may," "might," "should," "must," "ought to," "can," "could," "will,"

"shall" are invariable. They exist only in the present, and unlike most verbs in the simple present, their

form does not change in the third person singular.

Modal verbs are auxiliaries, or "helping" verbs: they are used in conjunction with another verb (in

infinitive form) as a way to modify its meaning. Modals can nuance the meaning of the principal verb in

a number of ways:

-- Possibility or ability, by "can" or "could"

• I can do this job.

• Could you please do the dishes?

-- Possibility or permission by "may" or "might" (often translated in other languages by a different

mood, such as the subjonctif).

• I may finish my paper tonight.

• You may come with us, if you wish.

• It might be helpful to have a map.

-- Obligation, or moral obligation, by "must," "ought to," or "should":

• Students must hand in their work on time.

• You ought to see a doctor.

• You should never play with fire.

Note that "must" can also indicate probability:

• You must be exhausted!

• He must play tennis pretty well.

The modal verb "would" is used to express the conditional:

• If he had time, he would pick up some groceries.

The modal verb "will" expresses the future:

• The train will arrive in an hour.

Contractions

After a pronoun subject, "would" is often contracted into "--'d" ("I'd", "we'd", "she'd", etc.), while "will"

is contracted into "--'ll" ("I'll", "you'll", "they'll", etc.). After all modal verbs, the word"not" of the

negative can be contracted into "--n't" ("wouldn't", "shouldn't", etc.).

Exceptions : "will not" becomes "won't". "Can not" can also be written "cannot"; in its contracted

form, the "n" is not doubled: "can't".

Note: The contraction of the modal verbs "shall," "ought," and "may," is considered slightly archaic or

literary.

examples of contractions:

• I wouldn't (would not) do that, if I were you!

• They'll (they will) never believe it!

• She won't (will not) bother you anymore.

Conditional

The conditional is formed using the modal "would" in front of an infinitive (dropping the word "to"). The

conditional is used especially in three contexts:

1) Politeness

• I would like the menu, please.

• Would you have a couple of minutes for me?

2) To indicate the "future within the past":

• She said she would come to the party.

• I thought he would arrive before me.

3) In hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the preterit or the subjunctive, the

conditional is expected in the second clause:

• If I had the time, I would do my homework.

• If you told me the truth, I would believe you.

The "if" of hypothetical expressions can be implicit:

• In your position (= if I were you), I wouldn't have stayed.

See related topics:

• Past conditional

• Modal verbs

Past conditional

The past conditional is expressed using the modal "would" before a past infinitive (= "have" + past

participle). This construction serves to express missed opportunities and past hypotheses:

• She told me that she would have liked to come and see us.

• In your position, I would have done the same thing.

One finds it often in hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the pluperfect, the

conditional past is expected in the second clause:

• If I had had the time, I would have done my homework.

• If you had told me the truth, I would have believed you.

• If he had worked harder, he'd have received a better grade.

Note: In certain regions (principally in the United States) one hears the conditional past in both

clauses of hypothetical expressions:

• If you would have told me he was going to win, I wouldn't have believed you.

See related topics:

• Conditional

• Modal verbs

Conditionals

There are four common conditional forms. The zero and first conditionals are also called ‘real’

conditionals. The second and third conditionals are also called ‘unreal’ conditionals.

Zero Conditional

The zero conditional is an if/then statement that is used to express a scientific fact or something that is

generally true.

Form: If + subject +present simple verb, subject + present simple verb.

Or

Subject + present simple verb + if + subject + present simple verb.

Examples:

If you put sugar in your tea, it becomes sweet.

The trip takes 35 minutes if you take the express train.

First Conditional

The first conditional is an if/then statement that expresses the consequence of a probable or possible

situation in the future.

Form: If + subject + present simple verb, subject + will + verb

Or

Subject + will + verb + if + subject + present simple verb

Examples:

If you call before 11 p.m., I will pick you up from the station.

I’ll burst if I eat any more food!

Second Conditional

The second conditional is an if/then statement that expresses the consequence of a hypothetical,

imaginary, impossible, or improbable situation in the future.

Form: If + subject + simple past verb, subject + would + verb

Or

Subject + would+ verb + if + subject + simple past verb

Examples:

If I had a million dollars, I would buy a mansion in Florida.

I would wear a coat if I were you. (It’s really cold outside.)

Third Conditional

The third conditional is an if/then statement that expresses what would have happened if events in the

past were different. It is often used to express regret about actions in the past the speaker would like

to change.

Form: If + subject + past perfect, subject + would + have + past participle

Or

Subject + would + have + past participle + if + subject +past perfect

Examples:

If I had known about the divorce, I wouldn’t have asked him about his wife.

(I didn’t know about the divorce and I asked him about this wife. I regret that I asked him and would

change the past if possible.)

Sally would have bought a new car if she had received a raise at her job. (Sally didn’t buy the new car

but would have under different circumstances in the past.)

Objects

Direct Object: A direct object will most often be a noun (thing or idea) that receives the action of the

transitive (action) verb. I threw the ball.

Indirect Object: An indirect object will most often be the person or persons expressed as the recipient

of the direct object and will be found immediately after the transitive verb and before the direct object. I

threw him the ball.

Phrase: A phrase adds to the meaning of a sentence but does not contain a subject or a verb.

The yellow house is at the bottom of the driveway.

Clause: A clause will contain a subject and a verb and function as either a dependent or an

independent clause.

See Dependent Clause

Adjective Clause: An adjective clause will begin with a relative pronoun and give us more information

about a noun or pronoun within a sentence. See Dependent Clause.

Adverb Clause: An adverb clause will begin with a subordinating conjunction and offer readers more

information about the verb (usually giving us information about time, place, or why something

happened). See Dependent Clause.

Noun Clause: A noun clause also begins with a relative pronoun but functions differently from an

adjective clause. The noun clause operates in the subject position of a sentence, in the object position

of a sentence, or in the subject complement position of a sentence.

That I studied the assignment was evident to the teacher. (Noun Clause as Subject)

I forgot that I needed my passport. (Noun Clause as Direct Object)

Pedro was looking for whatever he needed for the baseball game. (Noun Clause as Object of the

Preposition)

Prepositional Phrase: A prepositional phrase always begins with a preposition and ends with a noun

(the object of the preposition). In some cases, the object of the preposition will be a noun clause. The

prepositional phrase functions either as an adjective, telling us more about a noun or pronoun, or an

adverb, providing us more information about the verb. (May be as short as two words or as many as

several words)

The student in the purple dress walked down the hallway. (Adjective and Adverb Prepositional

Phrases, respectively)

Participial Phrase: A participial phrase joins together a participle and its corresponding words,

functioning, always, as an adjective. The participle may be present (ending in -ing) or past (ending in

-ed or its irregular form).

The school, aged and bent from years of harsh weather, fell from its state of grace. (Past Participial

Phrase)

Swimming in a sea of grammar, the students splashed each other with verbs and nouns. (Present

Participial Phrase)

The singing bird trilled high notes in the early morning. (Participle)

Prepositional Verbs

• Single preposition verbs

o Sentence structure

• Mulitple preposition verbs

o Sentence structure

• Related topics

Single preposition verbs

A great number of verbs in English can be modified by the addition of a preposition. Often the

preposition will nuance, or even dramatically change, the meaning of the base verb. The meanings are

often idiomatic, and the meaning expressed by any given preposition may be very different from one

verb to another.

It would be impossible to list all such verbs here (but you will find them in the dictionary itself). These

examples will suffice to provide an illustration of the principle:

• to speak -- to say words

• to speak up -- to speak loudly

• to speak down (to someone) -- to be condescending toward someone

• to speak for (someone) -- to speak in someone's place

• to put -- to set down

• to put up -- to place up high

• to put up -- to put in jars or cans

• to put away -- to put something back where it belongs

• to put down -- to release one's grasp of something

• to put out -- to place outside, or to take outside

• to put on -- to wear

• to turn -- to twist

• to turn on -- to make something function (a light, a motor)

• to turn off -- to remove the power to (a light, a motor)

• to turn around -- to turn to face the opposite direction

• to turn up -- to augment the sound, the light

• to turn down -- to diminish the sound, the light

• to turn out -- to become

• to turn red, white, etc. -- to change colors

Sentence structure

When the sentence includes a noun object, the object will follow the preposition; if the object is

replaced by a pronoun, the pronoun precedes the preposition:

• He turned on the television.

• He turned it on.

• She put away her books.

• She put them away.

Multiple preposition verbs

There are many prepositional verbs that take two prepositions:

• to put up with (something, someone) -- to tolerate someone

• to go out with -- to accompany someone

• to go off on (a digression, an adventure) -- to begin, to start

• to run away from -- to flee

Sentence structure

When the verb is followed by two prepositions, the object follows the two prepositions, whether the

object is a noun or a pronoun:

• How can you put up with him?

• Bill should not go out with Monica.

Related topics

• Prepositions

• Verbs with prepositions

Sentence Types

Simple Sentence: A sentence that contains one and only one independent clauses and no dependent

clauses.

The young boy smiled at the big dog.

Compound Sentence: A sentence that contains at least two independent clauses and no dependent

clauses. Essential to the compound sentence is its punctuation, as it must contain either a comma and

a coordinating conjunction (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So) or a semi-colon that conjoins the two

independent clauses. Joseph taught the students about delivering speeches, and Sarah taught them

composition skills.

Complex Sentence: A sentence that contains one and only one independent clause and at least one

dependent clause.

Because the weather forecaster announced the threat of an impending hurricane, the students

canceled their luxurious boat cruise to the Azores.

Compound-Complex Sentence: A sentence that contains at least two independent clauses and at

least one dependent clause. Because the weather forecaster announced the threat of an impending

hurricane, the students canceled their luxurious boat cruise to the Azores, but the cruise line would not

refund the students’ money.

Independent/dependent clauses

Independent Clause: Typically thought of as a sentence, offering its readers a complete thought and

containing a subject, verb, and its complement (Prepositional Phrase, Direct Object, Adjectival, or

Adverbial). The grammar book was thick.

Dependent Clause: A clause that cannot stand alone and does not offer its reader a complete thought.

A dependent clause will typically be an Adjective, Adverb, or Noun clause.

When the frost is on the pumpkin, farmers often know that the harvest season is almost over. (Adverb

Clause and Noun Clause, respectively)

The book that was on the table was thick. (Adjective Clause)

Defining and Non-Defining Relative Clauses

A relative clause gives us information about the noun it modifies. A defining relative clause gives

essential information about the noun it modifies. The sentence would not make sense if the clause

were removed. Defining relative clauses often come right after the nouns that they modify, without a

comma.

People who eat healthy foods live longer.

What’s the name of the hotel that you stayed at?

A non-defining relative clause gives us additional but non-essential information about the noun it

modifies. The sentence would still make sense if the non-defining clause were removed. In writing,

non-defining relative clauses are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by commas before

and after the clause.

Isabel Allende, who wrote Daughter of Fortune, lives in the San Francisco Bay Area.

Watership Down, which is my favorite novel, is a story about rabbits.

Participle Clauses

Participle clauses use a present participle (-ing) to join together sentences, whether in the present or

the past, that have the same subject.

Troy stars Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom.

It is a very exciting film.

Both of these sentences have the same subject (Troy).

Starring Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom, Troy is a very exciting film.

Another example:

Johnny Depp appeared in Pirates of the Caribbean, Chocolat, and many other films.

He's one of the most talented actors of his generation.

Appearing in Pirates of the Caribbean, Chocolat, and many other films, Johnny Depp is one of the

most talented actors of his generation.

Participle clauses use a past participle if the main verb is passive.

Troy was filmed in North Africa.

It stars Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom.

Filmed in North Africa, Troy stars Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom.

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses give you information about something or someone. We start relative clauses with

which if we are referring to a thing or an idea, and with who if we are referring to a person.

A diary is a book which you write in every day.

He’s the person who lives next door.

In these examples, both which and who can be replaced by that.

We can also form relative clauses with where and when. We start clauses with when if we are referring

to a time, and with where if we are referring to a place.

July is a month when many people go on vacation.

A registry office is a place where a couple can get married.

We use whose in place of his, her or their in relative clauses.

The best man is the person whose job it is to help the groom.

They are the people whose car was stolen.

If who, which, or that is the subject of the relative clause, it must remain in the sentence. If it is the

object, it can be omitted. Whose is always followed by a noun and cannot be omitted from its clause.

She’s the friend who likes to go to the theater with me.

She’s the friend (who) I like to go to the theater with.

Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs are made up of two parts, a verb plus a particle. A particle is a preposition that has

become linked to a verb. Together the verb and particle have a fixed meaning. Phrasal verbs can take

objects or not. Phrasal verbs that take objects can be inseparable or separable. Don't forget: phrasal

verbs have tenses too!

Inseparable phrasal verbs always remain together. Examples:

The brothers set off to seek their fortunes.

The girls get up early every morning.

The burglar almost got away.

Alice is looking after her baby sister.

In separable phrasal verbs, the object can often go between the verb and its particle:

He took off his jacket or He took his jacket off

But if the object has been replaced by a pronoun, the pronoun must go between the verb and particle:

He took it off

If the object is particularly long, don't use it to separate the verb and particle:

He took off the jacket he'd bought last week at Harrods.

Say/tell

The verbs say and tell are used in both direct and indirect speech. We use say to refer to any kind of

speech. It can be used interchangeably with tell in indirect speech, but not in direct speech. We use

tell to refer to situations where instructions or information are given.

Mary said that the restaurant was closed.

Mary told us that the restaurant was closed.

Caleb said “Good morning.”

It is incorrect to use tell in this sentence.

Direct and indirect discourse

When one reports what others have said word for word, this is called "direct discourse." It is generally

signaled by the presence of quoation marks:

• Philippe said, "I'll come if I have the time."

• My roommate said, "Clean the place up, or get out of here!"

When one paraphrases the words of others, writing them so as to avoid direct quotation, this is called

"indirect discourse." Indirect discourse entails certain changes:

A. Quotation marks are not used:

direct discourse: He told me, "You're stupid"

indirect discourse: He told me that I was stupid.

B. When the verb in the reported discourse is conjugated, is it generally preceded by "that"; however,

the inclusion of "that" is optional

• She said that she would be late.

• OR: She said she would be late.

• They informed us that the plane was delayed.

• OR: They informed us the plane was delayed.

C. Imperative forms, when recounted in indirect discourse, generally become infinitive constructions:

direct discourse: He told me, "Write to me."

indirect discourse: He told me to write him.

direct discourse: I told them, "Get out of here!"

indirect discourse: I told them to get out of here.

D. When a quotation is put in indirect discourse, care must be taken to verify that verb tenses reflect

the change in temporal context:

direct discourse: She said, "I will be on time."

indirect discourse: She said she would be on time.

direct discourse: When he called he said, "I am at the airport"

indirect discourse: When he called he said he was at the airport.

Indirect Speech

Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct speech can also be called "quoted" speech. We use direct speech when we want to reproduce

someone's words exactly. We always use quotation marks.

Elizabeth said, "I'm tired.” Jessie said, "I want a new job."

Indirect speech can also be called "reported" speech. We use indirect speech when we want to

reproduce the idea of someone's words without using their exact words. The verb forms and pronouns

may change, and quotation marks are not used.

Elizabeth said that she was tired. Jessie said that she wanted a new job.

Notice that the verbs in the examples changed to the past in the indirect speech statements to

coordinate with the past tense verb "said". Look at these verb changes:

Sam says, "I drive to work."

Sam says that he drives to work.

Sam said, <I drive to work.>

Sam said (that) he drove to work.

Sam said, <I am driving to work.>

Sam said (that) he was driving to work.

Sam said, <I have driven to work.>

Sam said (that) he had driven to work.

Sam said, <I drove to work.>

Sam said (that) he had driven to work.

Sam said, <I will drive to work.>

Sam said (that) he would drive to work.

Sam said, <I can drive to work.>

Sam said (that) he could drive to work.

Sam said, <I may drive to work.>

Sam said (that) he might drive to work.

Reporting questions in indirect speech

Reporting questions using the question words what, where, when, why, how, etc.

When we want to report a question that starts with a question word, we include the question word in

the reported speech.

<What’s the time?> arrow He asked me what the time was.

<Where do you live?> arrow He asked me where I lived.

When we report a question, we do not put the verb in the interrogative form.

They asked me where I lived.

Not

They asked me where did I live.

Reporting questions without question words

We use if or whether to report a yes-no question that doesn’t use a question word.

<Do you want an ATM card?> arrow She asked me if I wanted an ATM card.

<Is life expensive in Brazil?> arrow He asked me whether life was expensive in Brazil.

<Can I open an account?> arrow She asked whether she could open an account.

Remember! You need to coordinate the tense of the verb in the reported question with the verb that

introduces the reported question.

ANNEX El Verbo 'To Be'

En esta lección aprenderemos cuándo utilizar el verbo to be.

Cuando queremos expresar condiciones y características físicas, como por ejemplo edad, peso, talla,

color, y ocupación, entre otras, utilizamos el verbo to be. Es uno de los verbos más comunes en el idioma

inglés, así que lo verás utilizado muchas veces, de varias formas.

Utilizamos diferentes formas de to be con diferentes sujetos de oración.

Cuando el sujeto es I usa am:

I am a teacher.

Cuando el sujeto es he, she, it, usa is:

My hair is brown.

She is tall.

Cuando el sujeto es you, we, o they, usa are:

We are parents.

They are beautiful.

Cuando el verbo to be es el principal en una oración, puede ser seguido por un adjetivo, un nombre, o

una preposición.

sujeto + to be + adjetivo

I am hungry.

You are beautiful.

Sarah and Collin are sad.

sujeto + to be + nombre

I am a student.

Laura is a lawyer.

We are friends.

sujeto + to be + preposición

I am at the table.

It is on the sofa.

They are in the bedroom.

Contracciones son formas cortas de sujeto y verbo combinadas en una sola palabra.

I am a student. = I'm a student.

He is married. = He's married.

They are hungry. = They're hungry.

My name is Sarah. = My name's Sarah.

Forma Completa del Verbo 'To Be'

Contracción

I am

I'm

you are

you're

he is, she is, it is

he's, she's, it's

we are

we're

you are

you're

they are

they're

Presente Simple

En esta lección aprenderemos cuándo utilizar el tiempo presente simple.

El tiempo presente simple se usa en las siguientes situaciones:

1. Long-lasting situations (Situaciones de larga duración)

Meghan lives in Seattle.

Ella vivió allí en el pasado y seguirá viviendo allí en el futuro. Esta situación es de larga duración y

posiblemente permanente, por eso utilizamos el presente simple.

Más ejemplos:

She often plays tennis on Mondays.

She cooks dinner once a week.

2. Facts (Hechos)

Megan speaks three languages.

Hechos generales y verdades sin tiempo también se expresan en presente simple. Es un hecho que

Meghan habla tres idiomas, y esto no cambiará prontamente.

Más ejemplos:

She is an American.

She has two sisters.

3. Habits (Hábitos)

She usually goes shopping on the weekend.

Ir de compras durante los fines de semana es un hábito regular para Meghan. Usamos el presente

simple para hablar acerca de hábitos y lo que hacemos en la vida diaria.

Utilizamos palabras como usually, often, sometimes, in the evening, in the morning para mostrar que

la acción es habitual.

Más ejemplos:

She is an American.

She has two sisters.

4. Opinions (Opiniones)

She thinks riding a bike is fun.

Frecuentemente expresamos opiniones y estados de ánimo en presente simple. En vista de que el

ciclismo es su deporte favorito, la opinión de Meghan es que montar en bicicleta es divertido.

Más ejemplos:

She considers it good exercise.

I agree with Meghan.

5. Feelings (Sentimientos)

Meghan loves strawberries.

Sentimientos como el amor y el odio también son expresados en el tiempo presente simple.

Más ejemplos:

She hates onions.

She feels sad when it rains.

6. Schedules (planes)

Her yoga class begins at 6 p.m.

Detalles acerca de agendas y calendarios también son expresados en el tiempo presente simple. En

este caso, la clase de Meghan está planeada para comenzar a las 6 p.m.

Más ejemplos:

Classes at Seattle University begin on September 1.

The flight to Madrid leaves at 5 p.m.

Situación

Ejemplo

Long-lasting situations

My address is 123 Main St.

Facts

The sky is blue.

Habits

I rarely eat breakfast.

Opinions

He thinks it's beautiful.

Feelings

I love dogs.

Schedules

My plane leaves at 2:30 p.m.

Grados de Comparación

En esta lección aprenderemos cuándo usar las formas comparativa y superlativa de los adjetivos.

Cuando queremos evaluar o hacer un paralelo entre las cualidades o características de dos cosas

entre sí en inglés, usamos la forma comparativa.

Los gatos son pequeños pero los leones son muy grandes:

Cats are smaller than lions.

Los osos son muy peligrosos, pero los perros no:

Bears are more dangerous than dogs.

Los delfines son muy inteligentes pero los sapos no:

Dolphins are smarter than frogs.

Fíjate en que la palabra more o la terminación -er son usadas frecuentemente para formar el adjetivo.

Para comparar tres o más personas o cosas, usamos la forma superlativa del adjetivo, no la

comparativa.

Comparativo:

Dr. Louis is taller than Dr. Lam.

Superlativo:

Dr. Louis is the tallest doctor.

Comparativo:

Dr. Lam is more skillful than Dr. Hall.

Superlativo:

Dr. Lam is the most skillful doctor.

Nota que para formar el superlativo normalmente se usa la palabra most o la terminación –est.

Uso

Forma

Ejemplo

comparación de dos

personas o cosas

usar "more" o terminar en

"er"

Cheetahs are faster than

snails.

comparación de tres o

más personas o cosas

usar "most" o terminar en

"est"

Dr. Louis is the tallest

doctor.

Formando el Pasado Simple

En esta lección aprenderemos reglas para formar el tiempo Pasado Simple.

Formamos el tiempo pasado simple usando el tiempo pasado del verbo.

El tiempo pasado se forma de otra manera, dependiendo de si el verbo es regular o

irregular.

Los verbos regulares siempre siguen los mismos patrones de conjugación. En el tiempo

pasado adoptan la terminación 'ed'.

Los verbos irregulares no siguen patrón alguno y pueden tener varias terminaciones

diferentes.

Por ejemplo, teach - taught, swim - swam.

Primero demos una mirada a los verbos regulares.

1. Si el verbo termina en 'e'...

por ejemplo dance, smile, like, practice

...entonces agregamos 'd' para formar el tiempo pasado.

Por ejemplo, danced, smiled, liked, smoked, practiced

2. Si el verbo termina en una consonante + 'y'...

por ejemplo, cry, marry, study, rely

...entonces quitamos la 'y' y agregamos 'ied' para formar el tiempo pasado.

Por ejemplo, cried, married, studied

3. Si el verbo termina en una vocal + una consonante...

por ejemplo stop, rub, hop, hug, drag

...entonces doblamos la consonante y agregamos 'ed' para formar el tiempo pasado.

Por ejemplo stopped, rubbed, banned

Ten en cuenta que no doblamos la consonante si el verbo termina en 'x'.

Por ejemplo fix -> fixed, mix -> mixed

4. En todos los otros casos agregamos 'ed' al verbo para formar el tiempo pasado.

Por ejemplo, want –wanted

laugh – laughed

train – trained

stay – stayed

Ten cuidado cuando la palabra termina en 'y': si la 'y' es precedida por una vocal (por

ejemplo, play, stay, annoy, delay) entonces no reemplazamos la 'y' con 'i'. (Por ejemplo,

play - played, stay - stayed, annoy - annoyed, delay - delayed).

Los verbos irregulares no siguen patrón alguno, y desafortunadamente la única forma

de aprenderlos es memorizarlos.

Verbos Regulares

Regla

Ejemplo

terminados en 'e'

agregar 'd'

store - stored

terminados en

consonante + 'y'

retirar 'y' y agregar 'ied'

try - tried

terminados en 1 vocal +

1 consonante

doblar la consonante y

agregar 'ed'

stop - stopped

con otras terminaciones

agregar 'ed'

walk - walked

Artículos Definidos e Indefinidos

'A', 'an' y 'the' son artículos: palabras pequeñas que preceden y modifican a los

nombres. Son muy comunes en inglés, y es importante saber utilizarlas correctamente.

En esta lección, aprenderemos acerca de los artículos definidos e indefinidos, y

cómo usarlos.

'A' y 'an' son llamados artículos indefinidos. Se usan antes de los nombres

singulares contables.

Por ejemplo, He is a teacher. She is a sales manager

'A' se usa antes de palabras que empiecen con consonantes como b, c, d, f. Por

ejemplo, banana, camera, woman

'An' se usa antes de palabras iniciadas con vocales como a, e, o. Por ejemplo, apple,

egg, olive

Ten en cuenta que esta regla aplica más al sonido de la palabra que a su escritura en sí:

Cuando una vocal suena más como una consonante (como cuando 'u' suena como 'y', u

'o' suena como 'w'), usamos 'a', no 'an'.

Por ejemplo, a union, a European, a one-sided argument

Cuando la consonante suena como una vocal, por ejemplo cuando se deletrea F, L, M,

N, S, X ( ef, el, em, en, es, ex, etc.), o con la 'h' silenciosa, entonces usamos 'an', no 'a'.

Por ejemplo, an FBI agent, an X-ray, an honor

Hemos aprendido cómo decidir si debemos usar 'a' o 'an', pero ¿cómo saber si debes

usar un artículo definido (the) o un artículo indefinido (a/an)?

Los artículos indefinidos se usan en los siguientes casos:

� para identificar cargo o función, por ejemplo, It's an ashtray. He is a manager.

� para dar un ejemplo general, por ejemplo, A cat has a long tail.

� para referirse a una persona/cosa en particular por primera vez, por ejemplo, I

saw a man in the street. He was buying a newspaper.

� describiendo algo, por ejemplo, He has a beard and a loud voice.

También utilizamos artículos indefinidos con:

� exclamaciones usando 'what' (por ejemplo what a pity, what a nice man)

� expresiones usando 'quite, rather, such' (por ejemplo, quite a few people)

NO utilizamos artículos indefinidos con:

� la forma posesiva

� nombres no contables

por ejemplo, a my friend (incorrecto) - my friend (correcto)

a water (incorrecto) - water / some water

Los artículos definidos se usan con:

� items específicos, por ejemplo, Yes, he's the one.

� cosas que ya han sido mencionadas o insinuadas, por ejemplo, Please open

the window. (tú sabes de cuál estoy hablando)

� cosas que son únicas, por ejemplo, the world,the sky, the sun, the US

president

� en algunas generalizaciones, por ejemplo, I can't playthe piano. (No estoy

hablando de un piano en particular, quiero decir que no soy capaz de sacar

melodías de ningún piano.)

Uso de los Artículos Indefinidos

Uso de Artículos Definidos

para identificar empleo o función

objetos específicos

para dar un ejemplo general

cosas que ya han sido mencionadas o

insinuadas

para referirse a una persona o cosa en

particular por primera vez

cosas que son únicas

describiendo algo

algunas generalizaciones

Prepositions of Place (A)

Prepositions of place are small words that tell us about position and location. They

describe where an object is in relation to something else.

In this lesson, we're going to learn how to use the prepositions 'in', 'at' and 'on' to describe

location.

In

The preposition 'in' is used to describe an object that is inside an enclosed space or container,

for example:

Mother is in the kitchen.

The flowers are in the vase.

They are swimming in the water.

The tea is in the cup.

On

The preposition 'on' is used to describe a position on top of a surface or above something.

e.g. on the table

on a bike

on a horse

on the mountain

on the carpet

'On' is also used to show that something is attached to or in contact with something else:

e.g. The writing is on the wall.

There is a stain on his shirt.

The coat is hanging on the door.

There's a fly on the ceiling.

Put the mat on the floor.

At

The preposition 'at' is used to describe an object that is nearby something else, or located at a

specific place.

e.g. at the bus stop

at the cinema

at the door

at the station

It is used when we talk about buildings and places, especially when we are mainly interested in

the function of a place and not the inside of the building.

e.g. She's at the cinema. (She watching a film)

BUT It's too cold in the cinema. (The room is too cold)

In

At

On

He's in the kitchen.

She lives in Japan.

The pen is in my pocket.

I'm sitting on the chair.

There's a rug on the floor.

What's that mark on your

shirt?

I saw him at the station.

He's at work.

I'll meet you at the corner

of the street.

Yes/No Questions

In this grammar lesson we will learn how to form different types of yes/no questions.

The basic structure of yes/no questions depends on the verb in the sentence.

As you can see, there are three different types of yes/no questions:

1. questions with 'be'

2. questions with auxiliary verbs

3. questions with 'do'

The easiest way to form yes/no questions is to look at the statement first.

1. The Verb 'To Be'

If there is one verb and the verb is a form of 'be', simply move the verb to the beginning

of the sentence. In other words, the subject and the verb change position.

They are in the office. -> Are they in the office?

She is sick. -> Is she sick?

We are on holiday. -> Are we on holiday?

2. Auxiliary Verbs

In English, some verbs have two or more parts and require an auxiliary verb.

e.g. I can speak German.

He was living in Turkey last year.

You have been working here since April.

To form a yes/no question from these statements, we change the position of the first

auxiliary verb and the subject of the sentence.

You have been to America. -> Have you been to America?

They are going to leave the office soon. -> Are they going to leave the office soon?

3. Other Verbs

The last group of sentences has a one-part verb which is not a form of 'be'.

e.g. He works harder than her.

They live in Paris.

To change these sentences to yes/no questions, simply add the correct form of the

auxiliary verb 'do' (do, does, did) to the beginning of the sentence. Finally, remember to

change the verb to the infinitive form (eg. drives = drive).

Jane drives a car. -> Does Jane drive a car?

You travel often. -> Do you travel often?

Verb Type

Rule

Example

be

change the position of the

subject and the verb

You are from China.

Are you from China?

auxiliaries and modals

(e.g. can, have, be)

change the position of the

subject and the auxiliary

We can come tomorrow.

Can we come tomorrow?

other verbs (e.g. play,

add do/does/did to the

He works from home.

Talking about Grammar

In this lesson we will learn how to talk about grammar in English, and find out why it is

important to learn grammar when studying a language.

Why Study Grammar?

Although grammar is not the MOST important part of learning a language, it should not be

ignored. It can help you in many ways, such as:

� by showing you the rules and patterns of English, you can learn more quickly

� it helps you think about and talk about English

� it can show you where to find information and how to ask for help

� it shows you that although English has exceptions, most of it follows regular patterns

� it helps you organize your learning effectively

� correct grammar makes it easier for others to understand you

How to Study Grammar

Learning grammar should be done in stages:

1. Read examples

2. Identify patterns

3. Make rules

4. Do practice activities

All these steps are important, for example don't just try to learn rules without doing practice

activities.

Parts of Speech

It is very important to know how to classify words in English, and what name to give different

groups of words.

In English, we divide words into parts of speech. This shows how the words are used, not what

they are. It is important to know that the same word can belong to different parts of speech

depending on the sentence.

e.g. I walk to work every day. (walk = verb)

I take my dog for a walk every evening. (walk = noun)

There are eight main parts of speech in English: noun, verb, adjective, adverb , pronoun,

preposition, conjunction and interjection.

We can also go further and divide each part of speech into smaller groups.

For example:

Nouns can be countable (cup) or uncountable (water), singular (child) or plural (children).

Verbs can have different tense (present, past, future), voice (active or passive) and aspect

(perfect or progressive).

Adjectives can be ordinary (good), comparative (better) or superlative (best).

Pronouns can be personal (I, me), possessive (yours, mine), relative (which, who),

demonstrative (that, those), etc.

Parts of a Sentence

If you want to talk about grammar, we need to look at more than words: we have to put words

together to form phrases, clauses and sentences.

A complete sentence always has a subject and a predicate. The subject tells us who or what

the sentence is about. The predicate is everything in the sentence apart from the subject.

e.g. My sister (subject) is a doctor. (predicate)

An object may follow the verb to complete its meaning. It can be direct or indirect.

e.g. He gave the pen (direct object) to me . (indirect object).

A complement follows verbs like be, seem, feel and become.

e.g. She is a teacher. I feel tired.

Part of Speech

Function

Example

noun

name of a person, animal, place, thing,

abstract idea

Who is that woman?

verb

describes actions, events, or states of

being

She works for Microsoft.

pronoun

replaces nouns or other pronouns

He doesn't believe her.

adjective

used to describe, identify, or quantify

nouns and pronouns

I'll have a large, cold Coke.

adverb

shows manner, time, place, cause, or

degree

He works quickly and carefully.

preposition

links nouns, pronouns and phrases to

other words in a sentence

The pen fell off the desk.

conjunction

links words, phrases and clauses together

He is clever but modest.

interjection

used to show emotion or get attention

Wow! Did you see that?