Lecture 8

How would you define learning?

Two definitions of learning: Behaviorist: 

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. This refers to a change in behavior, an external change that we can observe.

Cognitive: Learning is a relatively permanent change in mental associations due to experience. This definition focuses on a change in mental associations, an internal change that we cannot observe.

The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment.

B.F. Skinner: Rewards are most effective when they immediately follow the behavior. When we don’t reward or punish we increase the possibility of the behavior to be repeated.

Behaviorism: Behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.

Reinforcement increases the possibility that a behavior will be repeated.

A good example is the grade you get at a

subject.

In simple words, the behavior in operant conditioning is voluntary and it is followed with a consequence.  

When someone responds to a stimulus that would not normally produce such a response.

Meat=Unconditioned stimulus (US) Increased saliva to

meat=Unconditioned response (UR)Ring=Conditioned stimulus (CS) Increased saliva to ringing=

Conditioned response (CR)

Robert gets a ticket for driving under the influence that results in a $500 fine and suspension of his driving license.

Is this classical or operant conditioning?

What's the behavior involved? Will it increase or decrease?

What kind of consequence is involved?

Explanation:    This is operant conditioning because the behavior is voluntary and it was followed with a consequence.  The behavior is driving under the influence and it should decrease in this example (a strict behaviorist would obviously want some proof of this first).  The consequences are both negative punishments.  They would be punishments because the behavior will decrease and they are negative because they both involve something taken away (money and driving privileges). 

Chris is bitten by the neighbor's German Shepherd. Now whenever she sees a dog in the neighborhood, she becomes afraid and runs away. She still enjoys petting her own family's cocker spaniel.

Is this classical or operant conditioning?

Explanation:    This example is a bit more complicated because it involves mostly classical conditioning, but operant conditioning is present too.  Her fear response is classically conditioned, because it is an automatic response.  Her behavior of running away is operant conditioning because it is a voluntary behavior. 

 Jacob's date was wearing a very alluring cologne on their recent date. The date itself was quite passionate. The following day when Jacob gets into his car he smells the lingering scent of his date's cologne and becomes transfixed with joy.

Is this classical or operant conditioning? What is the unconditioned stimulus?

Conditioned stimulus? Unconditioned and conditioned response?

Explanation:    This is an example of classical conditioning, because the response of becoming transfixed with joy is automatic.  The US would be the passionate date, which led to the UR of a joyful reaction.  The CS was the scent of the cologne and the CR would be the joyful reaction. 

Martin has a panic attack during a plane ride. Now the mere thought of an airplane makes him very nervous. Twenty years pass and Martin is still afraid of airplanes even though he never took another flight.

Is this classical or operant conditioning?What are the US, CS, UR, and CR?Why hasn't this response extinguished?

Explanation:    This example is primarily classical conditioning, because his fear response is automatic.  (However, the choice to avoid planes would be a voluntary, operant conditioning, behavior.)  The US would be the panic attack and the UR would be the fear it automatically triggered.  The CS would be the airplane and the CR would be fear (the response has apparently generalized to all planes).  The response hasn't extinguished in 20 years because Martin never went through extinction.  He would need to be exposed to the CS (airplanes) without the US (panic attacks) over many trials for his CR (fear) to extinguish. 

You throw a wild party at which you consume too much alcohol (vodka and orange juice). You become very sick and spend a few hours vomiting. The next morning while cleaning up the mess, you get a whiff of the vodka and orange juice that were still sitting out in the kitchen. You immediately become nauseated and run to the bathroom to vomit some more (pretty picture, isn't it?).

Classical or operant? What are the assorted stimuli and

responses involved?

Explanation:   The main focus in this example is on classically conditioned behaviors, because nausea is an automatic response.   (However, I should point out that throwing parties, drinking alcohol, and learning from your mistakes are voluntary and would be examples of operant conditioning.)  The US is nausea (caused by alcohol poisoning) and the UR is the retching and vomit reflex.   The CS is the smell of vodka/orange juice (both or either) and the CR is the retching and vomit reflex.  (You would probably also have a strong CS-CR with the taste and possibly the sight of vodka and orange juice.)

People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. “Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (Bandura). 

Reciprocal causation: According to Bandura, behavior can also influence both the environment and the person. Each of the three variables: environment, person, behavior influence each other.

Self efficacy: Self efficacy means learners self confidence towards learning. People are more likely to engage in certain behaviors when they believe they are capable of implementing those behaviors successfully, this means that they have high self-efficacy.

Self regulation: Self-regulation is when the individual has his own ideas about what is appropriate or inappropriate behavior and chooses actions accordingly. There are several aspects of self regulation.

Modeling: Modeling means doing what others do. There are different types of models.▪ live model: and actual person demonstrating

the behavior.▪ symbolic model: a person or character

portrayed in a medium such as television, videotape, computer programs, or a book.

Imitation: An individual uses another person’s behavior as a discriminative stimulus for an imitative response. The observer is then reinforced in some way for display imitation.

Vicarious reinforcement – behavior is acceptable

Vicarious punishment – behavior is unacceptable

The term reinforce means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to anything stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response.

For example, if you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time he sits for you. The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat. This treat is reinforcing because he likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do so.

Positive Reinforcement: For example, adding a treat will increase the response of sitting; adding praise will increase the chances of your child cleaning his or her room. The most common types of positive reinforcement or praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced this as both the giver and receiver.

Negative Reinforcement: Think of negative reinforcement as taking something negative away in order to increase a response.  Imagine a teenager who is nagged by his mother to take out the garbage week after week.  After complaining to his friends about the nagging, he finally one day performs the task and to his amazement, the nagging stops.  The elimination of this negative stimulus is reinforcing and will likely increase the chances that he will take out the garbage next week.

Punishment: Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a behavior. The most common example of this is disciplining (e.g. spanking) a child for misbehaving. The reason we do this is because the child begins to associate being punished with the negative behavior. The punishment is not liked and therefore to avoid it, he or she will stop behaving in that manner.

Extinction: When you remove something in order to decrease a behavior, this is called extinction. You are taking something away so that a response is decreased

(Ignore noisy annoying remarks by fellow employees until they eventually stop)

Continuous Reinforcement Applying the reinforcement every

time the behavior is displayed.

Intermittent Reinforcement Applying the reinforcement just

enough to make the change not every time

When you and I think about punishment we think about something that causes discomfort or pain. To psychologists, punishment is a way of learning that occurs when some sort of unpleasant or aversive consequence follows a behavior. That behavior is made less likely to occur in the future as a result of that bad consequence.

Be immediate and consistent

Use appropriate intensity, don’t be too soft but don’t overdo it as well

Explain why you punish

Combine with other methods such as positive reinforcement