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Research Methodology

Dr. Qamruz ZamanAssociate Professor Dept: of StatisticsUniversity of Peshawar.

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Course Outline

• Chapter -1: Perception of Research

• Chapter -2: Problem

• Chapter -3: Hypothesis

• Chapter -4: Research Planning and Sampling

• Chapter -5: Survey Method

• Chapter -6: Experimental Method

• Chapter -7: Case Study Method

• Chapter -8: Design of Experiments

• Chapter -9: Tools of Research

• Chapter -10: SPSS

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Textbook• Neuman, W. L. (2000). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative

Approaches. Boston: Allyen and Bacon.

• Zikmund, W. G. (2003). Business Research Methods. Mason, Ohio: South

Western.

• Sekaran, U. (2004). Research Methods for Business New York: John Wiley &

Sons

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• Research is an art of scientific investigation which refers to a search for knowledge.

• It can also be defined as “A scientific and systemic search for pertinent information

on a specific issue/problem”.

• Systematized effort to gain new knowledge is also called research (Redman and

Morey, 1923).

• Research is actually a journey of discovery.

MEANINGS OF RESEARCH

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The main aim of research is to find out the hidden truth which has not been discovered

previously. In general, each research has/have its own specific objective (s), but it can be

categorized into the following broad groups.

(a). To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insight into it (studies

with this object in view are called exploratory or formulative research studies).

(b). To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a

group (studies with this object in view are called termed as descriptive research

studies).

© To find out the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated

with something else/others (such studies are called diagnostic research studies).

(d). To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables (studies with this

object in view are known as hypothesis testing research studies).

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

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It is often asked that why the peoples conduct research? This question is of fundamental

importance and some of the possible motives of research may either be one or more of

the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree (certificate) along with its consequential benefits.

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems i.e. concern over

practical problems initiates research.

3. Desire to get intellectual joy.

4. Desire to be of service to society

5. Desire to get respectability

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

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Research can be broadly categorized into:

(1) Theoretical Research and

(2) Applied Research

Theoretical research is based upon the development of new theory or methods. On the

other hand, applied research is based upon the collected data by using the existing methods

of data analysis, test the hypothesis related with the required objectives.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

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The basic types of research are as follow:

1. Applied vs. Fundamental Research

2. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

3. Conceptual vs. Empirical Research

4. Other Types of Research

It includes the following:

(a). Laboratory research or filed setting research or simulation research

(b). Clinical or diagnostic research

(c). Historical research etc.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

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Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (basic or pure) research.

Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an

industrial/business organization. Whereas, fundamental research is mainly concerned with

generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. Simply, “gathering knowledge for

knowledge’s sake is called ‘pure or basic’ research; while research concerning some

natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research.

Applied vs. Fundamental Research

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Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable

to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. On the other hand, Qualitative

research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e. a phenomenon relating or

involving quality or kind. Qualitative research includes, word association tests, sentence

completion tests, story completion tests, and similar other projective techniques. Also,

attitude or opinion research i.e. research designed to find out how people fell or what they

think about a particular subject or institution are the examples of qualitative research.

Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to

discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research one can

analyze the various factors which motivate the people to behave in a particular manner of

which make people like or dislike a particular thing.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

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Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea's or theory. It is generally

used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret the existing

ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,

often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up

with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.

Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect

other variables in some way.

Conceptual vs. Empirical Research

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Following are the significance of conducting a research:

1. Research includes scientific thinking and it promotes the development of logical

habits of thinking and organizations.

2. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic

system. Through research, one can devise alternative policies and can as well

examine the consequences of each of these alternatives.

3. Decision making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the

decisions of the policy makers.

Significance of Research

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5. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning

problems of business and industry. Operational research refers to the application

of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business

problems of cost minimization or of profit maximization or what can be termed as

optimization problems.

6. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships

and in seeking answers to various social problems. Because of its social

orientation, it is increasingly being looked to for practical guidance in solving

immediate problems of human relations.

Significance of Research

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In addition to above, the significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following points:

(i). To those students who are to write a master’s or PhD thesis, research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure.

(ii). To professionals, research may mean a source of livelihood.

(iii). To philosophers and tinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights.

(iv). To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative work.

(v). To analyst and intellectuals, research may mean the generalization of new theories.

Significance of Research

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The following criteria are needed (more or less) for conducting a good research.

• The purpose of a problem under study should be clearly defined and unambiguous as

possible.

• The research procedures used for conducting a study should be clearly

defined/described in detail to allow other researchers to repeat the same research for

verification of the existing theory/theories or to include other factors for checking

their usefulness.

• The procedural design should be carefully planned so as to get the results that are as

objective as possible. It can also be stated that “the procedural design should yield

the results according to the specified objectives”.

• The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design

and estimate their effects upon the findings.

Criteria for a Good Research

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• The researcher should use appropriate method for data analysis, and the analysis of

data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance.

• The researcher should completely report the limitations and advantage associated

with the procedural design and the methods used for data analysis.

• Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and

limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

• The researcher should be an experienced person and have full background

knowledge of the problem under study. In addition, to have a good reputation in

research and is a person of integrity.

Criteria for a Good Research

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VARIABLESVARIABLES

Anything that can vary be considered as a variable.Anything that can vary be considered as a variable.

A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc. Income, Height, Weight etc.

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Variable / AttributeVariable / Attribute

A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas, A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).

For example; For example;

The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male and The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male and Female.Female.

The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes – Strongly The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes – Strongly Agree, Agree,

Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.

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Types of VariablesTypes of Variables

Discrete Vs Continuous VariableDiscrete Vs Continuous Variable

Binary Vs Multinomial VariableBinary Vs Multinomial Variable

Dependant vs Independent VariableDependant vs Independent VariableThe variable that changes in relationship to changes in another The variable that changes in relationship to changes in another variable(s) is called dependant variable.variable(s) is called dependant variable.An independent variable is the one that influences the dependant An independent variable is the one that influences the dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.variable in either a positive or negative way.

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Research Methods versus Methodology

Research methods may be understood as those methods/techniques

that are used for conduction of research.

Research methods can be put into the following three groups:

1. Collection of data

2. Relationships between the data and unknowns

3. Tests

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research

problem. It provides the way to conduct a scientific research step by

step.

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PROBLEM

The identification and analyzing a research problem is the first and

most crucial step of research process.

Meaning

1. A question proposed for solution

2. A matter stated for examination

Definition

A problem is a situation for which we have no ready made solution.

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IDENTIFICATION OF A PROBLEM

The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research

Problem

Step 1 : Determining the field of research

Step 2 : The researcher should develop the mastery on the area

Step 3 : He should review the researches conducted in area to know the recent

trend and studies in the area.

Step 4: On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the

study.

Step 5: Employ his personal experience of the field in locating the problem. He

may take help of supervisor.

Step 6 : He should pin-point specific aspect of the problem which is to be

investigated.

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SOURCES OF PROBLEMS

The following are the main sources to which one may proceed for a

suitable research problem:

1. Personal experiences of the investigator

2. Literature-research abstracts, journals, hand-books of research

international abstracts etc

3. The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor,

experts of the field and most experienced person of the field.

4. It is a general practice that researchers suggest some problems

in their research reports. The researcher can pick up a suitable

problem for his own study.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROBLEM

A problem statement must have the following characteristics:

1. It should ask about a relationship between two or more variables.

2. It should be stated clearly and unambiguously, usually in question

form.

3. It should be possible to collect data or answer the questions asked.

4. It should not represent a moral or ethical position.

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CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM

Criteria for the selection of the problem suggested by Good and Scates are as follows:

1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplications.

2. Importance for the field represented and implementation.

3. Interest, intellectual curiosity, and drive.

4. Training and personal qualifications.

5. Availability of data and method.

6. Special equipment and working conditions.

7. Approachability of the sample.

8. Sponsorship and administrative cooperation.

9. Hazards, penalties and handicaps.

10. Cost and returns.

11. Time factor.

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Judging the merits of a problemHildreth Hoke McAshan has proposed an objective guide for judging

the merits

of a problem.

The following questions may be raised for this purpose.

1. Is the problem really important?

2. Is the problem interesting to others?

3. Is the chosen problem a real problem?

4. Does the problem display originality and creativeness?

5. Am I really concerned with finding the solution?

6. Am I able to state hypotheses from the problem in a testable form?

7. Will I learn something new from this problem?

8. Do I understand the relationship of this specific problem to the broader problem area?

9. Will be able to select a sample from which I can generalize to some population?

10. Will some other intelligent person be able to replicate the study?

11. Will my proposed data-gathering instruments actually give the Information which I want?

12. Is the study, including the application of its results, practical? The number of affirmative answers should be required for a suitable problem.

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Need of defining a problem

The definition of a problem serves the following purposes:

1. The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study.

2. The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the study.

3. The definition helps the researcher to control subjectivity or biases

of the researcher.

4. The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables

to be taken up into the investigation through a problem involved

into so many variables.

5. The-definition makes the research work practicable.

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Precautions are to be taken in identifying the problem

The following precautions should be taken into consideration for

identifying problem.

1. The words used for defining a problem should have a single

meaning.

2. The statement of the problem must be brief but comprehensive.

3. The assumptions are to be recognised for the study.

4. The problem should have practical importance in the field.

5. The definition or the statement of the problem should have certain

rationale.

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DELIMITING A PROBLEMA study should be delimited by the following aspects:

1. A study should be delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in the problem.

2. The study is delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level, college or university level.

3. Again study is delimited to size of sample. Considering the time, energy and money, but it should be a representative.

4. Method of Research: A Problem or study may be conducted by different methods but it is not possible. Therefore, the best method should be used so that the study should be delimited to the method only.

5. Measuring Instrument: In behavioral science number of instruments are available but all tools can not be used to measure Thus the best available tool will be used for measuring the variable.

6. Techniques of Research: A number of techniques can be used for analyzing data but most appropriate techniques should be used.

7. The other limitation should vary from problem to problem as every problem has its own delimitations.

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THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL OR SYNOPSIS

The synopsis contains a clear and concise statement of the problem, the hypothesis

involved, a recognition of the significance of the problem, definitions of the important

terms, assumptions and limitations, a resume of related literature, an analysis of proposed

research producers, and a time schedule.

A research proposal includes. the following essential parts:

1. The Problem and statement of the problem.

2. The Review of literature or theoretical framework of the study.

3. The Hypotheses and objectives.

4. The Methodology and procedure of the study.

5. Educational implications or significance of the problem.

6. Definitions, assumptions and delimitations.

7. A tentative structure of the report.

8. Bibliography.

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CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING PROPOSAL OR SYNOPSIS

The following are the some criteria which are commonly used for this purpose:

1. Significance of the proposed research, including:

(a) Importance of the problem area from the standpoint of basic knowledge of problems.

(b) Likely magnitude of the addition that will be made to knowledge if the project is successful, including the generalizability of the results.

2. Quality of the proposed research project, including such considerations as :

(a) Extent to which the application exhibits through knowledge of pertinent previous work and relates the proposed research to it.

(b) Likelihood of success of the project.

(c) Adequacy of design, methodology and tools, where appropriate.

3. Qualifications of the investigator and professional personnel as evidenced by :

(a) Experiences and previous research productivity.

(b) Quality of the discussion and analysis in the application.

4. Adequacy of the facilities and arrangements available to the investigator to conduct the proposed study.

5. Reasonableness of the budget for the work to be done and the anticipated results. These criteria should be incorporated in preparing a research proposal.