Learning in rural communities: fear of information communications technology leading to lifelong learning?

Research in Post-Compulsory Education, Volume 6, Number 3, 2001

261

Learning in Rural Communities: fear of Information Communications Technology leading to lifelong learning?

LYNN LYNN LYNN LYNN M.M.M.M. MMMMARTINARTINARTINARTIN University of Central England, Birmingham, United Kingdom ALISON HALSTEADALISON HALSTEADALISON HALSTEADALISON HALSTEAD Coventry University, United Kingdom JULIE TAYLORJULIE TAYLORJULIE TAYLORJULIE TAYLOR Stratford-upon-Avon College, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT Set against the context of information communications technology (ICT) development in rural areas worldwide, this paper explores research accompanying two projects supported by the European Social Fund (ESF) which took place in the West Midlands region of the United Kingdom, between January 1999 and December 2000. These projects targeted groups which still remain under-represented in learning in the UK, i.e. women, the unemployed and those without ICT access and awareness. Here participants were primarily unemployed women from rural areas, on programmes designed to promote learning, leading to higher level awards and to deeper understanding of ICT. Among the outputs were 92% completion rates for 12-month programmes including deadlines, examinations and qualifications. However, the paper focuses on the community impacts of these projects, since wider effects were observed than simply those related to women returning to learning. Higher and further education, schools, family and non-family members were all involved in these projects, which had high levels of involvement from those key new learners for whom school was a painful memory. Further research is recommended to provide a more holistic view of rural communities and their needs and of ways to develop ICT in these areas. Given the impact on attitudes to school and engagement with it as a result of the projects, research is also called for to explore how deep-seated antipathy to formal learning can be changed by community-based initiatives.

Rural Areas, Global Contexts

Over the period 1997-2000, successive governmental policies and interventions across Europe sought to engage socially excluded groups in learning, and identified the importance of information communications technology (ICT) in

Lynn M. Martin et al

262

delivering these new learning opportunities (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 1996; DfEE, 1998b; European Commission, 2000; European Council, 2000). Further afield, problems related to rural isolation were also a recurring theme, again with ICT as a key solution to the provision of advice and information for those in R-3 communities (remote, rural, regional). Emphasis is placed on more rapid adoption of Internet technologies in countries with dispersed rural populations (Barling & Castleman, 2000; Martin & Matlay, 2001) and on the development of new, rural, niche market opportunities such as the growing interest in locally produced food, sourced via the net (typified by Sparkes & Thomas, 2001). In developing economies, ICT is also seen important in enabling information to be shared across isolated and dispersed rural populations. Information is the key to ‘the effective adoption of new production techniques, application of agricultural inputs, decision making on markets, prices and methods of conserving water, soil and vegetable resources’ (Ojiambo, 1989; Kiplang’at, 1999).

However the supply of information was seen as only one small part of the benefits ICT could bring to these areas. In Australia, reports by Chambers & Parker (2000) and by Wilde & Swatman (1999a, 1999b, 2001) described the potential for Technologically Enhanced Communities (TECs), while Herbert-Cheshire (2000) stressed the need to address community rather than single issue needs. Through improved communication, TECs were expected to provide more effective support for isolated groups, to open up commercial markets to isolated businesses via eCommerce; and to deliver better social and medical services. Later reports however, found that ICT was a mixed blessing in R-3 areas since although R-3 communities were ‘better integrated with the wider world ... the very same technologies possibly undermined the cohesion and independence of R-3 areas. While they brought the outside in, they also presented many alternatives to local life. This had an impact on the local community as well as the local economy’ (Barling & Castleman, 2000, p. 3).

In the United Kingdom (UK), the experience of those in rural areas also shows little in common with the model of rural empowerment through ICT, despite intended benefits (Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), 1998b; Fryer, 2000). A set of practical barriers still remains for those not in urban centres, with difficulties attributable to location including less access to cable-based Internet links, fewer training and awareness events to promote ICT use (Martin & Matlay, 2001; European Survey of the Information Society, 2000; Stratford District Council, 1999; UK Ministry for Agriculture Fisheries and Food [MAFF], 2000). Similarly, whether employed or unemployed, these divisions remain, since companies in rural areas have fewer resources to develop ICT (Action with Communities in Rural England [ACRE], 2000; UK MAFF, 2000).

Whether work or home-based, the need to address rural community needs encompassing economic, social, and cultural spheres of rural life rather than single agricultural problems (Herbert-Cheshire, 2000), emphasises the need for support to fit the context. This is seen in the USA (OECD, 2000a; LeBoeuf et

LEARNING IN RURAL COMMUNITIES

263

al, 2000), Australia (Poon & Swatman, 1997), Cina (Trappey & Trappey, 2001), and Europe (OECD, 2000a; European Commission, 2000) and the UK (Country Landowners Association [CLA] 2000a–e; Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs [DEFRA], 2000, Countryside Agency, 2001). A series of interventions, policies and measures attempt to deal with this ‘overarching’ need to deal with rural decline in terms of community issues rather than single items such as predicted falls in farm produce prices (European Commission, 2000; OECD, 2000b; UK MAFF, 2001).

This focus on community rather than individual farm enterprise is echoed in successive UK reports. UK rural firms have ‘their own special problems’ in terms of business expansion, regulatory frameworks and rural infrastructure, despite generating 30% of the UK’s GDP and 30% of its employment (DEFRA, 2000; CLA, 2000c). To help to combat this, policies and initiatives again have community rather than sectoral implications with economic, social, demographic and environmental dimensions (CLA, 2000e; UK MAFF, 2001, 2000). Whether these measures are, or will be, successful remains to be seen given comments that ‘disruptive rural restructuring’ can extend rather than reduce social exclusion (Beatty & Fothergill, 1997; Monk et al, 1999; Lowe & Talbot, 2000, p. 481).

Learning

Developing all groups within society would help to develop a knowledge-based economy and to address deficiencies in national human capital. McGivney (1990) and Gallacher and associates (1996) both comment on the importance of human capital for economic growth and development, and argue that increased access to education for disadvantaged groups will lead to economic competitiveness with international rivals. An increase in access to universities is expected to be a vital part of this development of human capital, with some calling for fundamental changes in higher education to turn rhetoric into reality in terms of higher education and lifelong learning (Frost & Taylor, 2001). In the United Kingdom, measures to increase participation in learning have met with some success, according to recent National Institute for Continuing and Adult Education (NIACE) reports (Aldridge & Tuckett, 2001). However the same report also concludes that some groups still remain disadvantaged in terms of learning, i.e. women, those who are not in employment and those not using ICT.

The issue of ICT use was one of the strongest themes to emerge in governmental policies, especially related to national economic development and competitive advantage. Those disengaged or disenfranchised were to find new routes to learning via such ICT-driven initiatives as the University for Industry, Learndirect (DfEE, 1998b; National Advisory Group for Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning [NAGCELL], 1999; Fryer, 2000). Based on Scandinavian studies, it was also anticipated that an area of growth might be in ‘hard to reach’ rural areas, where ICT might act as a source of key economic advantage


264

(Countryside Agency, 2000, pt 4; DEFRA, 2000), although more recent Australian reports on R-3 (remote, rural and regional) communities call this into question as too simplistic (Barling & Castleman, 2000).

Background to the study: the projects

Earlier reports point to gender differences in access to learning and in qualification profiles (Coats, 1989; McGivney & Bateson, 1991; Felstead, 1997). Despite recent improvements in terms of the numbers of those learning, women are still under-represented as learners – only 1 in 4 women compared with 1 in 3 men are engaged in learning (Aldridge & Tuckett, 2001). Factors cited as barriers to women learning included timing, type and location of training (McGivney & Bateson, 1991), although gender differences in use of ICT may also provide difficulty (Venkatesh et al, 2000; Gefen & Straub, 1997). In targeting women then, the recruitment and location of learning was designed to be as local as possible to participants’ rural community and the timing would fit in with the school day to facilitate those caring for children. In addition, the content and delivery would also reflect Coats’s (1989) view that those seeking to attract female learners needed to provide specific education and training relevant to women’s needs.

To attract participants, strong community links were developed, with schools providing a route to target parents and communities, without formal advertising. Rurally based primary and secondary schools played a key part in the process, both in terms of recruitment and of location of taster sessions. Due to the development of the National Grid for Learning (NGL) in this geographic area, schools and therefore potentially communities, now possessed high level accessible ICT facilities – and for the first time in many cases. From pre-school upwards, the youngest community members were beneficiaries, gaining confidence and competence in using email, an intranet, word-processing etc. Low awareness of ICT was combined with anxiety about what it was going to mean for local children in communities taking part. This therefore provided an excellent springboard for projects to recruit family members and related community members

Community groups and agencies also publicised the programmes, including libraries, schools, playgroups, doctors, health visitors etc. Very little media-based advertising was carried out; however, the schools took a very active part in sending out literature to parents and encouraging children to bring back responses. Schools therefore provided more than the venue for tasters, since they also took the initiative in recruiting participants, as a way to enable pupils to reinforce IT-related learning in the home. This was a key issue for head teachers and for staff addressing the use of ICT at school, who expressed fears that their own skills were insufficient for the task and that without ‘levelling the playing field’ those from disadvantaged backgrounds would be left behind by those from ICT-confident homes. For this reason, teachers distributing forms and leaflets stressed their importance, attributing


265

extra value and worth to the programmes which was transmitted to family and community members (as can be seen by participants’ comments in the next section).

Participants in the projects took part in a range of learning activities, all of which included ICT and other IT-related training and awareness events. These also included other features, such as study skills, development of ideas and skills to enable job hunting etc. Training, during school and playgroup hours, was delivered by staff from partner further education colleges, who then provided follow up courses in the college, linked to awards such as the European Computer Driving License or Computer Literacy Awards from the Royal Society of Arts. The university co-coordinating the project also developed new half modules for those seeking to build ‘credit’ in order to gain access to higher education so that these basic IT qualifications could be ‘topped up’ to provide half or full modules at entry level.

The active involvement of school staff in recruitment meant that there was a very high response rate. Three and a half times the required number of participants registered an interest and came along to initial taster sessions, simply because their children or their neighbour’s children, had emphasised the importance of coming along. Once participants felt established on programmes and were showing commitment to completion, extra opportunities were included, such as science and technology workshops and personal development sessions. Initial discussions revealed that some learners had never taken part in any other post-school programmes and had only participated in this project due to the urging of their children. Additionally, for some of the participants, it also represented a first encounter with their children’s school, since their own previous educational experience acted as a deterrent to involvement.

Methodology

All participants completed a written questionnaire as part of their enrolment onto the programme. Following this, participants in two areas, north and south Warwickshire (but including those from neighbouring counties), also took part in individual interviews and focus groups. A further group was also surveyed by telephone or by post, 12 months after the end of the programme. Questions related to personal characteristics, motivation for participation, level of involvement with school beforehand and personal views of school.

Once data had been collected, the results were subjected to thematic review rather than statistical analysis, given the sample size, although the computer package Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) was used to look for patterns or trends across the range of variables used.

Sample

This was a rurally based initiative; all participants came from villages or small county towns. The North Warwickshire sample included 47 participants, the


266

south Warwickshire 94, all of whom completed initial questionnaires. Following commencement of the programme, further groups took part in focus groups (North Warwickshire 47: South Warwickshire 39). Individual interviews also took place (North Warwickshire 12: South Warwickshire 21).

In north and south Warwickshire, participants had similar characteristics, i.e. largely female, rurally based, low qualification level and low ‘school involvement’ level in terms of their own earlier experience and their children’s current education (see Tables II–V). This group included parents, various family members and neighbours of the children at these schools.

Results and Discussion: why did you take part in this initiative?

As might be expected from an initiative based around school and community, key reasons cited by participants were not linked with new work opportunities or with ICT developments, but were linked with home and family, see Table I.

No. % Male Female No. % Male Female % of all To find out what my kids were doing 14 30 1 13 29 31 2 27 30 My children made me 13 28 1 12 17 18 2 15 21 My neighbours were coming 6 13 0 6 9 10 0 9 11 To learn about new IT developments 5 11 4 1 11 12 1 10 11 To learn something new 3 6 1 2 9 10 1 8 9 To get a new job 6 13 2 4 19 20 5 14 18 Totals 47 9 38 94 11 83 % 19 81

Table I. Reasons for participation Area A and B. As with the father below who identified that he had ‘only attended because of his nine year old son,’ often participants felt pressure to support their primary-school age children, following weeks of nagging in some cases.

I’d never been into the kids’ school, had enough when I was his age. My son was so keen for me to come in and see his computer, and he wanted me to see it, not his mother this time – he just kept on at me about it and he was so disappointed when I kept putting it off. So I did drop in and then I kept going


267

... It just creeps up on you because you realise that this is something you can master. And after a while I made the wife go too.

As can be seen by his comments, some participants had also overcome antipathy to learning based on earlier unpleasant experiences, to support their children. The importance of earlier educational experience in deterring adults from learning has been identified before, not only for socially excluded groups (DfEE, 1998a, 1999b; Sargant, 1991; McGivney, 1990), but also more widely in small firms. Hyland & Matlay (1997) maintained that by far the most important factor in the chief executive’s attitude to training was his or her own previous experience of education and training, echoing the emphasis on individual attitude in learning from earlier studies (Homan, 1993; Uden, 1995).

Education and Attitudes to School

A key aim of the project was to address low qualification levels. Table II shows that very few participants had qualifications. Overall just over half possessed a qualification but this varied from north to south. Although 42 % of North Warwickshire participants had qualifications for instance, 31% of these were at level 1 or pre level 1. Few had level 2 or above.

No. % Male Female No. % Male Female % of allNo qualifications 24 51 5 19 41 44 7 34 46Level 1 15 32 1 14 38 40 4 34 38Level 2 7 15 2 5 13 14 0 13 14Level 3 1 2 0 1 2 2 2 2

47 8 39 94 11 83

Table II. Pre-course award level Areas A and B.

Similarly, as can be seen from Table III very few saw schooldays in warm terms. While 39% did not mind school or more rarely enjoyed school, the rest either did not enjoy it, disliked even hated it. Among the group, 40% had truanted in their last three years of school and 11% had left ‘as soon as legally possible’ (Easter term of year 11 or sometimes earlier). Asked for reasons for their feelings about school, most related it to particular personalities, usually teachers or head teachers but sometimes fellow pupils who had bullied them. While older participants remembered physical punishments (‘the slipper’) with what occasionally seemed to be nostalgia, (‘you knew where you were with that, no messing; I’ve had it many a time’), all ages of participants remembered sarcasm and verbal bullying, from both teachers and fellow pupils which had made their lives miserable. Participants not identifying bullying described a lack of involvement at school and a lack of relevance in what was taught in school to their lives (both at the time and since leaving school).


268

No. % Male Female

Enjoyed school 4 9 0 4Did not mind school 14 30 3 11Did not enjoy school 18 38 3 15Did not like / hated school 11 23 2 9 47 100 8 39

Table III. What do you feel about your own time at school (Area A only)?

No. % Male female

Truanting 19 40 6 13Left early (i.e. before official end of year) 11 5 11 3 2

Table IV. Activities at school included (Area A only).

No. % Male Female

Don’t go into school usually 14 30 5 9Never been into school before 5 11 2 3Go into school sometimes 13 28 1 12Go into school often 15 32 0 15 47 100 8 39

Table V. Usual involvement with children’s school (Area A only).

This attitude to school was reflected in their involvement with their children’s school. While 32% ‘went into school often’, 41% had either never been into school before or did not usually go. This was more marked for male than for female participants.

The project was characterised by a higher level of commitment to completion of awards or programmes by those taking part. In Area B, 94 were enrolled onto tasters, 60 signed up for 12-month programmes and of these 92% completed. They achieved foundation modules awarded by the university taking part and also gained the European Computer Driving Licence (ECDL). Following the end of the project 20 participants then purchased a further training course from the participating college for a further 10 weeks, a further 11 paid standard fees to join regular one and two year college programmes; seven enrolled on higher education-related programmes.

Over the two projects, 15% entered employment at the end of the project; a further 15% went into self-employment. To identify what had happened to some of these in terms of ICT use and further learning, a follow up survey was carried out by telephone and by post a year after the end of the project. This showed a high level of home and work use of IT with 16 of the 20 participants confirming that they had developed further since their course, using the resources in unexpected and creative ways (see Table VI).


269

Use of IT/ICT Using to help children with homework. Writing letter, etc.

I use the knowledge gained to book holidays etc. Set up spreadsheets for banking details. Set up database for school addresses. Use Word for letters. Helping my husband organise his stamp business. Working from home within my husband’s business. I haven’t been able to find a job although I have quoted the ECDL qualification. I’ve used the skills to complete the applications. As secretary of the school PTA I am much more confident in producing minutes. and using PowerPoint etc. for presentations. Helping family. Using IT skills at home: Internet shopping Tesco and for school governor demands. Not working but using IT skills at home. Using skills for PTA minutes. I am trying to keep up with all the knowledge I gained. I used IT skills to do our on-line banking and preparing drafts for my job applications. I am using IT skills on a daily basis for work and at home. Yes at home.

Types of regular use of IT/ICT

5 Able to create decorative cards, etc. Can use database and spreadsheets. Especially important for record keeping and database use. I can do my charity work and also any parent school work required. Specialised scheduling software and financial software at work. Using mailmerge for address list for postcards/making invitations. Use databases, lists and tables/use Internet. The more I use IT skills, the braver I get to try new things and the better I understand the whole process. I feel I have more confidence in using the software and when something goes wrong I can have a look to fix it. Have the Internet and am now confident enough to use it daily and show my daughter. I now bank on the Internet, confident in emailing my son in Australia and not afraid to try things on the computer any more. I am no longer terrified of computers. I am much better at it than I thought I would be! Using IT skills to maintain work contacts with USA. Using IT skills at home – very much so! With such a greater understanding I make the best use of my new knowledge.

Table VI. Results from post-project survey Area B only.

Informal Support Groups

A key aspect of the composition of groups taking part was the way in which groups had been recruited from the same small village communities. Focus


270

groups and individual interviews revealed that this had been a very effective feature, since learning was reinforced in community contexts. Whereas normally an informal network springs up over the lifetime of a learning programme, supported by the tutor, here this had been accelerated. In these cases, participants felt ownership of the programmes and established links outside course time from the first day of the taster sessions. Comments on this informal networking were characterised by a focus on mutual encouragement, on the work required for the course or on contextualising the learning being carried out:

I would never had had the nerve to come on something like this – I’ve seen things before and not taken part, but this felt different because we were going as a group. I knew that if I needed help I’d get it, well, there’s safety in numbers ... (Area B, women returner, no previous learning since leaving school)

It’s just been great – you get so much confidence from being together at something like this. (Area A, women returner, no previous learning since leaving school)

We’ve been talking about it when we meet. There’s a bit of competition but it’s all in good fun – mainly it’s about helping each other cope with what the course wants ... (Area A, male returner, no previous learning since leaving school)

The playgroup is where we go over next week’s tasks! We’ve even gone round to the nearest house to try to prepare a piece of work for our tutor as soon as the kids have gone in ... (Area A, women returner, no previous learning since leaving school)

It’s funny how you realise the way things work with these computers, you’ll be watching someone do something and it clicks into place. At the doctors three of us were working out how the database they’ve got actually works. (Area A, women returner, no previous learning since leaving school)

When I got my test right first time, I went down to the gates [of the school to collect her children] and everyone came up and congratulated me, it was so important because I left school when I was 15, I never imagined I’d be able to do this stuff ... I couldn’t have dropped out – I’d never have lived it down – we [encouraged] each other to come even when the subject seemed difficult ... (Area A, women returner, no previous learning since leaving school)

Conclusions and Recommendations

Lifelong learning has been the focus for academic and popular debate and the basis for governmental policies in the United Kingdom and further afield


271

(OECD, 1996; DfEE, 1998b; European Network of Reference and Expertise in Vocation Education and Training, 2000; Fryer, 2000). Given the successive governmental emphasis on learning in all aspects of life (DfEE, 1996a,b, 1998a–c; National Advisory Council for Education and Training Targets [NACETT], 2000), it might have been anticipated that participants would be very focused about learning and would see learning as part of life. Despite this, however, more than 50% of participants had not embarked upon learning since leaving school and had not envisaged themselves learning in future. This echoes recent large-scale reports about increases in accessibility to learning by some groups within society, rather than others (Aldridge & Tuckett, 2001), this demonstrated that those in work, especially those employed as managers or professionals were particularly likely to be involved in learning.

Initiatives such as these projects which focus on unemployed groups are therefore of great importance, given this background. Similarly, indications that men ‘still get more learning opportunities than women ... with one in three men taking part, as against just over one in four women’ (Aldridge & Tuckett, 2001), means that it is still important to focus on women as a group for development. In this group, women were the main target group, recruited effectively through partnerships within the community. This may still remain the key ways to develop female learning opportunities.

As predicted earlier (NAGCELL, 1999), the internet had become a new and dynamic source of learning in the 2001 NIACE report since those with access to the Internet were ‘twice as likely to be learning as people without ICT’. It is therefore essential to enable and encourage access to the Internet, especially for those in areas with problems connected with social and geographic exclusion. The National Grid for Learning provides this opportunity, often in areas where other sources of ICT access are limited (Martin & Halstead, 2001). In rural areas, however, it forms part of the multi-layered change affecting rural areas (OECD, 2000a,b; Martin, 2001; Martin & Matlay, 2001). Without efforts to engage local communities, enabling them to develop through this new development, it will present a problem rather than a new opportunity. Given the nature of rural areas, the way in which changes affect communities rather than individual institutions or businesses, this will be vital to rural regeneration over the next five years. Leaving these areas to fend for themselves will lead to non-take-up of benefits and may lead to decline or even to further social exclusion (Barling & Castleman, 2000).

To conclude; in these projects, fear engendered by new school-based ICT activities carried out by even the smallest children, acted as a spur to those who had so far avoided all contact with formal learning since leaving school. Following the end of the project they carried through their new ideas and skills at home and at work (see Table VI); they took other programmes, paid for new courses and used ICT to learn new skills (not necessarily those connected with IT). To mimic this effect, those developing programmes for these groups might benefit from taking a holistic view (Martin, 2002). Rather than emphasising new jobs or new skills, contextualising learning in terms of home, family or


272

community might provide a new source of learners, and those from groups who do not normally take part in the learning process. In addition, the difficulties faced by those in rural small firms may be addressed by increasing learning opportunities, particularly for women, who are taking the lead in developing enterprises as a way to retain their property or livelihood (Martin, 2001).

Further research to explore how the National Grid for Learning is affecting rural areas in terms of social exclusion and learning opportunities would be beneficial (and how it is affecting urban areas with social exclusion problems), especially given the view of some teachers taking part that the exclusion gap was worsened by these new facilities rather than improved if parents could not be involved, ‘those with ICT at home have a head start – they already have a framework and a vocabulary ... learning at school is reinforced by discussion and extension with ICT-confident parents at home …’ Research might also look at the way in which antipathy can be overcome to learning institutions and involvement encouraged, to support and reinforce learning in home situations and therefore to develop family participation in leaning.

The lessons from R-3 communities globally should also be brought to bear in UK rural areas; without a careful and holistic view of rural needs and developments, it is likely that the situation will worsen rather than improve and that social exclusion will increase (Lowe & Talbot, 2000; Martin, 2001; Martin & Matlay, 2001). The need to develop indicators related to rural disadvantage (Countryside Agency, 1999) is as important as the need to develop appropriate responses. Without relevance to rural participants, schemes for enterprise, development or growth will falter, and the hope expressed in the Rural White Paper for a living and working countryside, with thriving rural communities and a diverse economy, will not be realised (DEFRA, 2000, sector 1.22).

Correspondence

Lynn M. Martin, Knowledge Management Centre, University of Central England in Birmingham, Wellhead Lane, Perry Barr, Birmingham B42 2SU, United Kingdom ([email protected]).

References

Aldridge, F. & Tuckett, A. (2001), Winners and Losers in an Expanding System, The NIACE Survey on Adult Participation in Learning 2001. Leicester: NIACE.

Barling, G.D. & Castleman, T. (2000) Investigating the Impacts of Technologies on Rural, Regional and Remote Australia. Working Paper, Deakin University, Australia.

Beatty, C. & Fothergill, S. (1997) Unemployment and the Labour Market in RDAs. Centre for Regional Economic and Social Research. Sheffield Hallam University (for the Rural Development Commission).

CEDEFOP (2000) Ciretoq Newsletter, URL, www.cedefop.gr.


273

Chambers, T.A. & Parker, C.M. (2000) Factors Motivating and Inhibiting the use of Web Commerce by Rural Small Businesses. 9th Australasian Conference on Information Systems (ACIS2000), Brisbane, Australia, 6–8 December.

Coats, M. (1989) Support for Women Learning: requirements and resources, Adults Learning, 1, pp. 104-105.

Country Landowners Association (CLA) (2000a) The Future for Farming and the Countryside. London: Country Landowners Association.

Country Landowners Association (CLA) (2000b) Encouraging Rural Business – improving the planning system in the countryside. London: Country Landowners Association.

Country Landowners Association (CLA) (2000c) Rural White Paper, debate in Westminster Hall, 27 October. London: Country Landowners Association.

Country Landowners Association (CLA) (2000d) Rural Society and the Rural Economy. London: Country Landowners Association, http://194.200.85.11/sources/400124/4000835/4012099/issue008.htm.

Country Landowners Association (CLA) (2000e) Rural Development: criteria for the countryside’s future. London: Country Landowners Association, http://194.200.85.11/sources/4000124/4000835/4012093/issue003.htm.

Countryside Agency (1998) Developing Indicators of Rural Disadvantage, Research Notes RDR36/S.

Countryside Agency (1999) The State of the Countryside. Cheltenham: Countryside Agency.

Countryside Agency (2000) Not Seen, Not Heard? – Social exclusion in rural areas. Cheltenham: Rural Media Company.

Department for Employment and Education (DfEE) (1996a) Lifelong Learning: a consultation document, December. Sheffield: Department for Employment and Education.

Department for Employment and Education (DfEE) (1996b) Meeting the National Skills Challenge, a Summary of the Labour Market and Skill Trends, 1996/7. Sheffield: Skills and Enterprise Network.

Department for Employment and Education (DfEE) (1998a) Higher Education for the 21st Century, response to the Dearing report, February. London: Department for Employment and Education.

Department for Employment and Education (DfEE) (1998b) The Learning Age, a Renaissance for a New Britain, February. London: Department for Employment and Education.

Department for Employment and Education (DfEE) (1998c) Further Education for the New Millennium (website) London: Department for Employment and Education.

Department for Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) (2000) Regeneration Research Summary, no. 31. London: DETR.

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) (2000) Our Countryside: the future a fair deal for rural England. London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 28 November.

European Commission (2000) EC Policy and Approach to Rural Development, Fighting Rural Poverty, 15 June, DG Development – Rural Development and Food Security.


274

European Survey of the Information Society (2000) Information Society Indicators in the Member States of the EU. URL: http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/esis.

Felstead, A. (1997) Unequal Shares for Women: qualification gaps in the national targets for education and training, in H. Metcalf (Ed.) Half Our Future: women skill development and training. London: Policy Studies Institute.

Frost, N. & Taylor, R. (2001) Patterns of Change in the University: the impact of ‘lifelong learning’ and the ‘world of work’, Studies in the Education of Adults, 33(1).

Fryer, R. (2000) Creating Learning Cultures, 2nd NAGCELL report. URL www.lifelongleanring.co.uk/nagcell.

Gallacher, J., Osborne, M. & Postle, G. (1996) Increasing and Widening Access to Higher Education – a comparative study of policy and provision in Scotland and Australia, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 15, pp. 418-437.

Gefen, D. & Straub, D.W. (1997) Gender Differences in the Perception and Use of E-mail: an extension to the technology acceptance of e-mail, Management Information Systems Quarterly, 21(4).

Herbert-Cheshire, L. (2000) Contemporary Strategies for Rural Community Development in Australia: a governmentality perspective, Journal of Rural Studies, 16, pp. 203-215.

Homan, R. (1993) Disaffection and Access, in J. Calder (Ed.) Disaffection and Diversity, Overcoming Barriers for Adult Learners. Barcombe: Falmer Press.

Hyland, T. & Mattay, H. (1997) Small Businesses, Training Needs and VET Provision, Journal of Education and Work, 10(2).

Kiplang’at, J. (1999) An Analysis of the Opportunities for Information Technology in Improving Access, Transfer and the Use of Agricultural Information in the Rural Areas of Kenya, Library Management, 20(2).

LeBoeuf Binninger, H. & Emery, M. (2000) Facilitating Entrepreneurship in the New Millennium, Small Business Enterprise development Conference, Manchester, April.

Lowe, P. & Talbot, H. (2000) Policy for Small Business Support in Rural Areas: a critical assessment of the proposals for the small business service, Regional Studies, July, pp. 479-487.

Martin, L.M. (2001) The Changing Role of Women in Rural Areas; work, knowledge and learning, Gender Work and Organisation Conference, University of Keele, 25-28 June.

Martin, L.M. (2002) No yoga for Eric; lifelong learning with a small firm perspective, International Journal of Lifelong Education.

Martin, L.M. & Halstead, A. (2001) Micro-enterprises; community-based learning attracting smaller firms. (under review).

Martin, L.M. & Matlay, H. (2001) Blanket Approaches to Small Firm Support; some lessons from the DTI adoption ladder, Journal of Internet Research, Winter.

McGivney, V. (1990) Education’s for Other People, Access to Education for Non-participating Adults. Leicester: National Institute for Adult and Continuing Education.

McGivney, V. & Bateson, B. (1991) Child Care: continuing debate, Adults Learning, 2, pp. 203-204.

Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food (2000) Rural Enterprise Programme, MAFF (now DEFRA).


275

Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food (2001) England Rural Development Programme 2000-2006, February.

Monk, S., Dunn, J., Fitzgerald, M. & Hodge, I. (1999) Finding Work in Rural Areas; bridges and barriers. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation, YPS.

NACETT (2000) Learning Pays. URL, www.nacett.org.uk/lifelong/lifelong.

National Advisory Group for Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning (NAGCELL) (1999) Creating Learning Cultures: next steps in achieving the learning age – second report.

Ojiambo, J.B. (1989) Communication of Agricultural Information Between Research Scientists, Extension Personnel and Farmers in Kenya, PhD Thesis, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, cited in Kiplang’at, above.

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (1996) Employment and Growth in the Knowledge-based Economy. Paris: OECD documents.

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2000a) Agricultural Outlook 2000/2005: 2000 Edition.

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2000b) Agricultural Policy Reform; developments and prospects. Outlook, OECD Observer.

Poon, S. & Swatman, P.M.C. (1997) Small Business Use of the Internet; findings from Australian case studies, International Marketing Review, 11(5).

Sargant, N. (1991) Learning and Leisure, a Study of Adult Participation in Learning and Its Policy Implications. Leicester: National Institute for Adult and Continuing Education.

Sargant, N. (1993) Learning for a Purpose – participation in education and training by adults from ethnic minorities. Leicester: National Institute for Adult and Continuing Education.

Sparkes, A. & Thomas, B. (2001) The Use of the Internet as a Critical Success Factor for the Marketing of Welsh Agri-food SmeS in the Twenty First Century, British Food Journal, 103, pp. 331-347.

Stratford District Council (1999) Mapping Rural Deprivation.: Stratford-upon-Avon: Stratford District Council.

Trappey, C.V. & Trappey, A.J.C. (2001) Electronic Commerce in Greater China, Industrial Management & Data Systems, 101(5).

Uden, T. (1995) The Will to Learn, Individual Commitment and Adult Learning. Leicester: National Institute for Adult and Continuing Education.

UK Ministry for Agriculture Fisheries and Food (2000) England Rural Development Programme: Maff Consults on Two New Schemes, News Release 202/00, 19 June, http://www.maff.gov.uk/,

UK Ministry for Agriculture Fisheries and Food (2001) England Rural Development Programme, http://www.maff.gov.uk/erdp/about/economy.htm.

Venkatesh, V. & Morris, M.G. (2000) Why Don’t Men Ever Stop to Ask Directions?, Management Information Systems Quarterly, 24(1).

Wilde, W.D. & Swatman, P.A. (1999a) A Preliminary Theory of Telecommunications Enhanced Communities, 12th International Bled Conference on Electronic Commerce, Bled, Slovenia, 7-9 June.

Wilde, W.D. & Swatman, P.A. (1999b) Telecommunications Enhanced Communities. 3rd Annual CoLLECTeR Conference, Wellington, New Zealand.


276

Wilde, W. D. & Swatman, P.A. (2001) Studying R-3 Communities: an economic lens. Deakin University working paper no 3.

Wilde, W.D., Swatman, P.A. & Castleman, T. (2000) Investigating the Impact of IT&T on Rural, Regional and Remote Australia. Breckenridge: CoLLECTeR USA.

Documents

Learning in rural communities: fear of information communications technology leading to lifelong learning?