Learning Classical and Operant Conditioning, Cognitive-Social Learning, Neuroscience and Evolution

LearningLearning

Classical and Operant Conditioning, Classical and Operant Conditioning, Cognitive-Social Learning, Cognitive-Social Learning,

Neuroscience and Evolution Neuroscience and Evolution

Key TermsKey Terms

Learning—A relatively permanent change in Learning—A relatively permanent change in behavior or mental process as a result of behavior or mental process as a result of practice or experiencepractice or experience

Conditioning—Learning associations between Conditioning—Learning associations between environmental stimuli and behavioral environmental stimuli and behavioral responses.responses.

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning—Learning that occurs Classical Conditioning—Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) (also known as respondent or Pavlovian (also known as respondent or Pavlovian conditioning).conditioning).

Unconditioned Stimulus-ResponseUnconditioned Stimulus-Response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)—Stimulus Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)—Stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) without previous conditioning.without previous conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)—Unlearned Unconditioned Response (UCR)—Unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that occurs without previous conditioning.that occurs without previous conditioning.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)—A stimulus that, Neutral Stimulus (NS)—A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.about the response of interest.

Conditioned Stimulus-ResponseConditioned Stimulus-Response

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)—Previously Conditioned Stimulus (CS)—Previously neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), now with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), now causes a conditioned response (CR).causes a conditioned response (CR).

Conditioned Response (CR)—Learned Conditioned Response (CR)—Learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that reaction to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that occurs because of previous repeated pairings occurs because of previous repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov

Although his name is most often associated Although his name is most often associated with psychology and classical conditioning, he with psychology and classical conditioning, he won a Nobel Prize as a physiologist for his won a Nobel Prize as a physiologist for his study of the role of saliva in digestion.study of the role of saliva in digestion.

Pavlov’s discovery and pursuit of classical Pavlov’s discovery and pursuit of classical conditioning came as he began to think conditioning came as he began to think critically about an observation made which critically about an observation made which was really an interference with his primary was really an interference with his primary research.research.

John B. WatsonJohn B. Watson

In what would now be considered an unethical In what would now be considered an unethical experiment, Watson discovered that emotional experiment, Watson discovered that emotional responses can also be conditioned through classical responses can also be conditioned through classical means.means.

Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)—A Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)—A classically conditioned emotional response to a classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus.previously neutral stimulus.

Watson’s experiment led to understanding of phobias. Watson’s experiment led to understanding of phobias. He also founded the school of psychology known as He also founded the school of psychology known as Behaviorism.Behaviorism.

Principles of Classical ConditioningPrinciples of Classical Conditioning

Generalization and DiscriminationGeneralization and Discrimination Stimulus Generalization—Learned response Stimulus Generalization—Learned response

not only to the original stimulus but also to not only to the original stimulus but also to other similar stimuliother similar stimuli

Stimulus Discrimination—Learned response Stimulus Discrimination—Learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimulisimilar stimuli

Principles of Classical ConditioningPrinciples of Classical Conditioning

Extinction and Spontaneous RecoveryExtinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction—Gradual weakening, or suppression of Extinction—Gradual weakening, or suppression of

a previously conditioned response (CR).a previously conditioned response (CR). Spontaneous Recovery—Reappearance of a Spontaneous Recovery—Reappearance of a

previously extinguished conditioned response previously extinguished conditioned response (CR).(CR).

Higher-Order Conditioning—A neutral Higher-Order Conditioning—A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS). previously conditioned stimulus (CS).

Applications of Classical Applications of Classical ConditioningConditioning

Prejudice—the Clark Study in the 1930’s and Prejudice—the Clark Study in the 1930’s and Powell-Hopson & Hopson in the 1980’s Powell-Hopson & Hopson in the 1980’s illustrate how prejudice can be classically illustrate how prejudice can be classically conditioned through repeated pairings of conditioned through repeated pairings of characteristics or traits with one group of characteristics or traits with one group of people.people.


Phobias—through the application of Watson’s Phobias—through the application of Watson’s experiment and understanding of conditioned experiment and understanding of conditioned emotional responses (CER), we can emotional responses (CER), we can understand irrational fears and how to treat understand irrational fears and how to treat them.them.

Medical Treatments—classical conditioning Medical Treatments—classical conditioning can be used to treat alcohol-dependent patients can be used to treat alcohol-dependent patients by forming negative associations or to increase by forming negative associations or to increase success of treatment by forming positive success of treatment by forming positive associationsassociations


Advertising—John B. Watson proved that, if Advertising—John B. Watson proved that, if you lose your job as a psychologist for you lose your job as a psychologist for unethical behavior, you can always be unethical behavior, you can always be welcomed into the field of advertising welcomed into the field of advertising

Advertising pairs neutral stimuli (the product) Advertising pairs neutral stimuli (the product) with positive conditioned stimuli (models, sex, with positive conditioned stimuli (models, sex, fun)fun)

The reverse can also be true when creating The reverse can also be true when creating negative associations such as in political negative associations such as in political advertisingadvertising

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Learning in which voluntary responses are Learning in which voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences (also known controlled by their consequences (also known as instrumental or Skinnerian conditioning)as instrumental or Skinnerian conditioning)

The organism performs a behavior that The organism performs a behavior that produces an effect on the environment—produces an effect on the environment—known as reinforcementsknown as reinforcements

Reinforcement strengthens a response and Reinforcement strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occurmakes it more likely to occur

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

In operant conditioning the organism’s In operant conditioning the organism’s response is active and voluntary vs. classical response is active and voluntary vs. classical conditioning where the response is passive and conditioning where the response is passive and involuntary.involuntary.

Edward Thorndike—Edward Thorndike— The Law of Effect—the probability of an action The Law of Effect—the probability of an action

being repeated is strengthened when followed by a being repeated is strengthened when followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequencepleasant or satisfying consequence

B. F. SkinnerB. F. Skinner

Skinner emphasized external, observable Skinner emphasized external, observable behavior. We can only know if something is a behavior. We can only know if something is a reinforcement or punishment reinforcement or punishment after the factafter the fact..

He developed the He developed the Skinner BoxSkinner Box in which an in which an animal was trained to push a lever to receive a animal was trained to push a lever to receive a food pellet.food pellet.

From this basic apparatus, Skinner was able to From this basic apparatus, Skinner was able to demonstrate a number of operant conditioning demonstrate a number of operant conditioning principles.principles.

Principles of Operant ConditioningPrinciples of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement—Primary and SecondaryReinforcement—Primary and Secondary Primary reinforcers—stimuli that increase the Primary reinforcers—stimuli that increase the

probability of a response because they satisfy a probability of a response because they satisfy a biological need, such as food, water, and sex.biological need, such as food, water, and sex.

Secondary reinforcers—stimuli that increase the Secondary reinforcers—stimuli that increase the probability of a response because of their learned probability of a response because of their learned value, such as money and material possessionsvalue, such as money and material possessions


Reinforcement—positive and negativeReinforcement—positive and negative Positive reinforcement—adding (or presenting) a Positive reinforcement—adding (or presenting) a

stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recurit more likely to recur

Negative reinforcement—taking away (or Negative reinforcement—taking away (or removing) a stimulus, which strengthens a removing) a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recurresponse and makes it more likely to recur

Premack principle—using a naturally occurring Premack principle—using a naturally occurring high-frequency response will reinforce and high-frequency response will reinforce and increase low-frequency responses.increase low-frequency responses.


Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement—Every correct Continuous reinforcement—Every correct

response is reinforcedresponse is reinforced Partial (Intermittent) reinforcement—some, but not Partial (Intermittent) reinforcement—some, but not

all, correct responses are reinforcedall, correct responses are reinforced

Partial Schedules of ReinforcementPartial Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs after a fixed (predetermined) number of responses.after a fixed (predetermined) number of responses.

Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule—Reinforcement Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number or amount) occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number or amount) variesvaries

Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs after a fixed (predetermined) time has elapsedafter a fixed (predetermined) time has elapsed

Variable Interval (VI) Schedule—Reinforcement Variable Interval (VI) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the interval (time) variesoccurs unpredictably; the interval (time) varies


Shaping—Reinforcement is delivered for Shaping—Reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired successive approximations of the desired responseresponse

Punishment—Punishment— Positive punishment—adding (or presenting) a Positive punishment—adding (or presenting) a

stimulus, which weakens a response and makes it stimulus, which weakens a response and makes it less likely to recurless likely to recur

Negative punishment—taking away (or removing) Negative punishment—taking away (or removing) a stimulus, which weakens a response and makes it a stimulus, which weakens a response and makes it less likely to recurless likely to recur

Side Effects of PunishmentSide Effects of Punishment

Increased aggressionIncreased aggression Passive aggressionPassive aggression Avoidance behaviorAvoidance behavior ModelingModeling Temporary suppressionTemporary suppression Learned helplessnessLearned helplessness

Applications of Operant Applications of Operant ConditioningConditioning

Prejudice—prejudice and discrimination can be Prejudice—prejudice and discrimination can be learned through positive reinforcement (positive learned through positive reinforcement (positive attention, acceptance by others, increase of self-attention, acceptance by others, increase of self-esteem)—stimulus generalization may also play a esteem)—stimulus generalization may also play a part as people may have had a punishing experience part as people may have had a punishing experience with a member of a group.with a member of a group.


Biofeedback—a bodily function (such as blood Biofeedback—a bodily function (such as blood pressure, or heart rate) is recorded and the pressure, or heart rate) is recorded and the information is fed back to an organism to increase information is fed back to an organism to increase voluntary control over the bodily functionvoluntary control over the bodily function Positive reinforcement (feedback is added as a way to Positive reinforcement (feedback is added as a way to

increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated)increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated) Secondary reinforcer (the value we place on health)Secondary reinforcer (the value we place on health) Shaping (the information through data helps the organism Shaping (the information through data helps the organism

approximate the desired outcome)approximate the desired outcome)


SuperstitionSuperstition Behaviors get accidentally reinforced such that the Behaviors get accidentally reinforced such that the

organism associates the reinforcement with the behavior.organism associates the reinforcement with the behavior. Can also become conditioned through partial schedules of Can also become conditioned through partial schedules of

reinforcement.reinforcement.

Cognitive-Social LearningCognitive-Social Learning

Cognitive-Social Theory emphasizes the roles Cognitive-Social Theory emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior.of thinking and social learning in behavior.

Insight—sudden understanding of a problem Insight—sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution.that implies the solution.

Cognitive Map—a mental image of a three-Cognitive Map—a mental image of a three-dimensional space that an organism has dimensional space that an organism has navigated.navigated.

Cognitive-Social LearningCognitive-Social Learning

Latent Learning—hidden learning that exists Latent Learning—hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs.without behavioral signs.

Observational Learning—Learning new Observational Learning—Learning new behavior or information by watching others behavior or information by watching others (also known as social learning or modeling)(also known as social learning or modeling)

Neuroscience and EvolutionNeuroscience and Evolution

Changes in biochemistryChanges in biochemistry The Brain—learning and memory create new The Brain—learning and memory create new

synaptic connections and changes in brain synaptic connections and changes in brain structuresstructures

EvolutionEvolution

Biological Preparedness—Built-in (innate) Biological Preparedness—Built-in (innate) readiness to form associations between certain readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responsesstimuli and responses

Instinctive Drift—Conditioned responses shift Instinctive Drift—Conditioned responses shift (or drift) back toward innate response patterns(or drift) back toward innate response patterns

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Learning Classical and Operant Conditioning, Cognitive-Social Learning, Neuroscience and Evolution