LEARNING CONTINUEDOperant Conditioning and Cognitive Learning Skills

Operant Conditioning In operant conditioning, organisms (humans

and animals) learn to engage in behavior that results in something good – like a reward Learning in operant conditioning happens when

behaviors are associated with consequences Maybe the child gets a cookie when they say

please and thank you. The student gets an A when they study hard. We also learn to avoid behaviors that produce

a negative consequence, such as pain or failure.

Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning because…

In OC, voluntary responses are conditioned – not biological!

Skinner’s Box

So – he built this box…. And he placed a rat in this box… And the rat was starving for food… All of a sudden, a little pellet of rat food

appeared and dropped into the box… The rat sniffed around and engaged in

random behavior hoping to find more food… The rat accidentally hit a lever and another

pellet of food appeared! So, the rat hits the lever again and again

making lots of little pellets appear! The rat never would have thought that hitting

the lever was the right reaction – until he saw the food.

Skinner’s box

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQtDTdDr8vs&feature=related

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cl7jr9EVcjI

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA

Skinner stumbled on the concept of reinforcement.

Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the chance that the preceding behavior will occur again. A reinforcer is a stimulus that increases the

likelihood of a prior response Animals usually need to be motivated with food

or attention. People, however, can simply be told what to do. For example, we learn whether or not we made

the right choice in a situation right away. If we turn on our car, and the engine stalls, we

realize we’ve made a mistake and will attempt different behavior.

When we turn on our car and the engine starts right up, we know that that behavior was correct and we will do it again and again and again.

So, if a reinforcer increases the probability of a behavior,

A punishment DECREASES the chance that a previous behavior will occur again Punishment is the process of decreasing of the

probability that a behavior will be repeated An example? If you want to increase the likelihood that your

dog will sit on command…you give your dog a treat- a reinforcer

If you want your dog to stop jumping on you, you scold your dog…the scolding is the punisher that is there to stop the behavior

Positive and Negative Reinforcers In order to better understand positive and

negative reinforcement, it is useful to understand appetitive and aversive stimuli

Appetitive stimulus = pleasant Aversive stimulus = unpleasant A positive reinforcer introduces an

appetitive stimulus A negative reinforcer removes an aversive

stimulus

A positive reinforcer is one that increases the frequency of the behavior they follow when applied.

Food, fun, and social approval are all examples of positive reinforcers.

Negative reinforcers Increase the frequency of the behavior when the unpleasant stimulus is removed; Behavior is strengthened because something

unpleasant goes away For example: if we sit in the sun too long, we

get hot, so we stop sitting in the sun. If we have gnat bites all over our bodies, we

scratch them, even when told not to, because we act to make that discomfort disappear.

Reinforcement v. punishment A reinforcer increases the probablity of

repeated behavior A punishment decreases the probability of

repeated behavior Positive punishment = an aversive (yucky)

stimulus is presented (to stop behavior) Negative punishment = an appetitive

stimulus is removed (again to stop behavior) Examples?

Negative punishment = taking away driving privileges

Positive punishment = spanking

How do we know?

In order to figure out if the conditioning is positive or negative, reinforcement or punishment, ask yourself these questions: Is the conditioning purpose to repeat behavior or to stop

behavior? Repeat = reinforcement Stop = punishment

If a stimulus presented or taken away? Positive = presented Negative = taken away

If the answer to these questions are______ and _____ then the type of conditioning is: Repeated; pleasant positive reinforcement Repeated; unpleasant negative reinforcement Stopped; pleasant negative punishment (removing

pleasant) Stopped; unpleasant positive punishment (adding

unpleasant)

Types of Reinforcers

A primary reinforcer is something that function due to biological makeup.

Examples would be food, water, and shelter. No animal or human needs to know why

those things are important. Secondary reinforcers are learned. Examples would be money, attention, and

social approval.

Occasionally, secondary reinforcers only emerge after long periods of time.

Good grades, for example, may not be a secondary reinforcer at first.

Then, when college looms, grades may be important.

It may take some people longer! They may need to understand that

getting into a great college leads to connections and jobs and, therefore, money…

Then, the good grades become the secondary reinforcer.

EXAMPLES: identify the unpleasant stimulus and the behavior that is being strengthened by its removal

1. taking aspirin to relieve a headache2. hurrying home in the winter to get out of

the cold weather3. Giving in to an argument or to a dog’s

begging4. fanning oneself to escape the heat5. leaving a movie theater if the movie is

bad6. following prison rules in order to be

released from confinement7. faking a stomach ache to avoid school8. putting a car safety belt to stop an

irritating buzz9. putting up an umbrella to escape the rain10. turning down the volume of a very loud

radio

Identify the positive and negative reinforcers in this ad.

Negative = taking something away

Positive = adding something Reinforcement = goal is to

repeat behavior Punishment = goal is to

STOP behavior

Lets work with some more examples:1. We may continue to go to work each day

because we receive a paycheck on a weekly or monthly basis.  

2. An employee is late for work and consequently, the employer takes away that person’s privilege of listening to music while working

3. If we receive awards for writing short stories, we may be more likely to increase the frequency of writing short stories. 

4. an employee does not follow directions, and this behavior decreases as the result of being criticized by a supervisor

5. Receiving praise for our karaoke performances can increase how often we sing. 

MORE:1. putting a bark collar on a dog that

shocks the dog when it barks excessively

2. Taking the car keys away from a teenager when they are “grounded” due to misbehavior

3. You apply aloe lotion to relieve yourself of the burn from a sunburn

4. So, getting kicked off of the basketball team because of failing grades

5. The basketball player starts to study more to make the feeling of failure go away

In Groups:

We are going to be divided into small groups, and your group should choose ONE BEHAVIOR that you want to shape.

Then, decide how you will use positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment to shape that behavior

Reward and Punishment A reward increases the frequency of

behavior. However, reward is a simple term and

does not get to the heart of the concept.

A positive reinforcer is something that any organism will find rewarding.

A reward is less likely to please every organism every time.

Punishments are unwanted events that decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow.

Punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement.

Punishments decrease the frequency of behavior

Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior when the reinforcer (the unwanted idea) is removed

So, getting kicked off of the basketball team because of failing grades– punishment

But, the feeling of disappointment from getting kicked off is the negative reinforcer, and the basketball player may study harder to rid him/herself of that disappointment (so, the disappointment INCREASES the frequency of studying)

A person is caught littering and receives a $1000 fine….

PUNISHMENT! A student studies for a test and

decreases fear of doing poorly on the test…

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT Another student is studying and is

enjoying learning new material… POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT!

Strong punishment can rapidly end bad behavior.

Some psychologists believe it is not the ideal way to deal with an issue for a variety of reasons.

First, punishment does not TEACH an alternate behavior. A child only learns what NOT to do, not the alternative.

Second, punishment only works when consistent and guaranteed. If a student gets away with not wearing a uniform 20 times, they will continue to break the rules.

Third, people or animals who are severely punished may try to run away from the punishment and the situation, rather than attempting to solve the issues.

Fourth, punishment creates anger and hostility. The severely punished child takes it out on other children.

Fifth, punishment is not clear: Why am I being punished? I do not know so I will keep doing everything the same as before!

Sixth, PUNISHMENT IS IMITATED. When a child does not get what he or she wants out of the behavior of another child, they will punish that child. These children believe that hitting another person solves problems.

Finally, some children learn that the only way to get attention from their parents is to misbehave…

Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement = reinforce the

behavior every time the behavior occurs Partial = behavior is NOT reinforced every

time; the behaviors learned through partial reinforcement tend to last longer

2 types of partial reinforcement schedules1- deals with amount of time (or interval) that

occurs between the reinforcements and the behavior

2- deals with the number of correct responses that must be made before a reinforcement occurs (ratio)

Interval Schedule

Fixed Interval: set time between reinforcements Friday quizzes- kids study on Thursday

night Variable Interval: varying amount of time

between reinforcements Response rate is consequently steadier

Ratio Schedules ratio schedule depends on how many

responses are needed for a reinforcement

Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of correct responses response must occur five times before

a reinforcement occurs, then the ratio is 5:1

Variable ratio schedule: reinforcement is offered at a varied number of correct responses- so, reinforcement can come at any time

Lets Practice- what kind of reinforcement schedule is being used?

1. Buying state lottery tickets and winning2. A hotel maid may take a 15 min break after cleaning 3

rooms3. Watching and seeing shooting stars on a dark night4. A teenager receives an allowance every Saturday5. Checking the front porch for a newspaper when the

delivery person is extremely unpredictable6. A professional baseball player gets a hit approximately

every third time at bat7. Checking the oven to see if chocolate chip cookies are

done, when baking time is known8. A blueberry picker receives $1 after filling 3 pint boxes9. A charitable organization makes an average of ten

phone calls for every donation it receives10. Calling a garage mechanic to see if your car is fixed

yet11. A student’s final grade improves one level for every

three book reviews submitted

Extinction happens in operant conditioning too.

For example, when Skinner’s rat pushed the lever again and again and no food was dropped into the box, the rat stopped pushing the lever.

When a student studies for a test but does not get a good grade, that student will stop studying for tests because they were not reinforced.

Cognitive Factors in Learning Latent learning is learning that remains hidden until it is

needed. For example, no one has reinforced you to remember

the layout of this school – but when you leave class, you know where to go to get to your next class.

When you leave school, you know how to get home, even though no one offered you a cookie to learn that information!

If you drive the same route to school every morning, and pass a particular corner, you do not think about that corner, right?

But, if your friend asks to meet you on that corner on a Saturday, you know how to get to that corner… that is latent learning at work.

Observational Learning Albert Bandura (we’ve met him

before) discovered that we acquire knowledge and skills by observing and imitating others.

For example, the new student in the class may learn that speaking up during discussion is welcomed by observing the other students.

Children learn to speak, eat, and act by observing their parents and siblings.

We learn to buy products based on advertising campaigns……

Violence in Media Bandura’s research has been used to argue that

violence in media has had a destructive effect on children.

T.V. is one of our observational learning touchstones. If a child watches 2-4 hours of T.V. every day during

his or her time in elementary school… That child will have witnessed 8,000 murders and

100,000 other acts of violence before entering middle school.

The American Psychological Association, in partnership with other medical associations, released data showing: Media violence supplies models of behavior for

children Children exposed to violence are more likely to

assume that acts of violence are acceptable behavior Viewing violence can lead to emotional

desensitization and can decrease the likelihood that the child will come to the aid of someone experiencing violence.

Viewing violence can lead to REAL LIFE VIOLENCE. Children who are exposed to violence are more likely to engage in violent activity later in life.

PQ4R

Based on the work of educational psychologist Francis P. Robinson, the PQ4R method to learning works best.

Many students expect the simply attending classes in biology, psychology, history or Math will allow them to learn the subjects.

In reality, students must take an active approach to learning if they are to actually absorb anything.

This method has been tested and is believed to help students learn to study in primary, secondary, and later in their educational careers.

1. PREVIEW Get a general idea of a book, a presentation, notes. Get an

overall cognitive map of the material so you know to where to return later with questions.

2. QUESTION Establish goals! Ask questions about what you are going to

learn! When we want to learn, we become better learners. Write down all the heading in a book, for example, and

phrase questions around those headings or lead paragraphs.

3. READ Duh. 4. REFLECT Relate new information to old information, whether from

earlier in a course or from your personal life. MAKE IT MATTER!

5. RECITE It’s old school, but it still works. Reciting new information

implants it in the brain for future reference. Memorization is not learning – true. HOWEVER, reciting new information puts it in the brain so

that it can be used to connect ideas and enlarge the scope of learning.

6. REVIEW Go back over notes, chapters, presentations, and lectures.

This will jog your memory. Quiz yourself. STUDY REGULARLY!