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A DEFINITION OF LEARNING2
A relatively permanent change in behaviour potential that results from experience.
Learning verses performance Experience required Internal processes (behaviour is the manifestation)
Learning reflects a change in the potential to behave. Motivation, maturation, illness, fatigue may cause
changes in behaviour but this is not learning. Behavior changes that learning causes are not
always permanent. New, competing behaviors, may be learned.
HISTORICAL ORIGINS3
Several schools of thought have contributed to the the study of learning processes. Functionalism Behaviourism Associative Cognitive
Functionalism4
Early school of thought in psychology that emphasized instinctive origins and adaptive function of behavior.
Antecendents Dualism Darwin’s Natural Selection
John Dewey
Father of functionalism Suggested that reflexive behaviors of lower
animals had been replaced in humans by the mind In humans, the mind had evolved as the
primary mechanism for survival Mind enables individual to adapt to
environment
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The main idea of Dewey’s functionalism was that the manner of human survival differs from that of lower animals.
William James
Argued that the major difference between humans and lower animals is in the character of their inborn or instinctive motives Humans possess greater range of instincts that
guide behavior than do lower animals These include “social” instincts, which directly
enhance our interaction with the environment and our survival
Instincts are both purposeful and directional
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The concept of instincts was strongly criticized based on: Anthropological observation of differences
in values, beliefs, and behaviors among cultures
Widespread and uncritical use of the instinct concept did not advance the understanding of human behavior.
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By the 1920’s, psychologists had moved away from the instinct explanation and began to emphasize the learning process.
Psychologists who viewed experience as the major determinant of human actions were called Behaviorists
Behaviorism14
School of thought that emphasizes the role of experience in governing behavior
Behaviorists believed that the important processes governing behavior are learned
Major goal of behaviorism was to the determine the laws governing learning
Associationism16
Aristotle was the earliest advocate of associationism. Aristotle’s associationism had an important
influence on behaviorism. Aristotle proposed that associations
develop from two events that are contiguous, physically similar, or polar opposites.
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John Locke, a 17th century British philosopher, expanded on Aristotle’s ideas Claimed that there are no innate ideas
All ideas result from experience Distinguished between simple ideas which
are based on sensory input and complex ideas which are combinations of several simple ideas
David Hume
Proposed three principles of association connect simple ideas into a complex one: Resemblance Contiguity Cause and Effect
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Thorndike
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Edward Thorndike Unlike Locke and Hume, who were
philosophers, Thorndike was a scientist Work with cats in the puzzle box led to Law
of Effect Law of Effect stated that a response made
in the presence of a stimulus that leads to a satisfying result will strengthen the bond between the stimulus and the response.
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Law of Readiness stated that the organism must be motivated to develop an association or to exhibit a previously established habit.
It is noteworthy that, in Thorndike’s formulation, the consequence or reward was merely a facilitator to strengthen the stimulus-response relation. Future behaviorists would hypothesize about the
importance of the role of the motivation
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Thorndike also proposed the concept of Associative shifting or the gradual changing of the stimulus could result in the association of that response to a totally new stimulus.
Pavlov23
Pavlov believed that rules of association determine which behavior occurs in the learning situation. Was trained as a physiologist studying
digestion, using the dog as a model He noticed that the dogs started to secrete
stomach juices before the food was placed into their mouths
He concluded that the dogs had learned a new behavior
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Unconditioned stimulus An environmental event that can elicit an instinctive
reaction without any experience Unconditioned response
An innate reaction to an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus
A stimulus that becomes able to elicit a learned response as a result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus
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Generalization Responding in the same manner to similar
stimuli Extinction
The elimination or suppression of a response caused by the removal of the conditioned stimulus
Watson27
John B. Watson demonstrated the importance of Thorndike and Pavlov’s learning principles to human behavior. His belief that abnormal as well as normal
behavior can be the result of learning led to the Little Albert Study.
Little Albert Study28
Subject: 9 month old boy (Albert) UCS or US: loud noise CS: White rat Initially, the boy was not afraid of the rat.
Then, each time he reached out for the rat, Watson & Raynor sounded a loud gong behind his back, causing a fear response
Eventually, Albert showed a fear response to the white rat alone
Thus, Watson & Raynor demonstrated that phobia could be learned.
Peter and the Rabbit31
Subject: Three year old Peter Problem: Peter was afraid of rabbit Procedure: Mary Cover Jones first brought
the rabbit into a room where Peter was at ease and eating. Eating produced a positive emotional state
whereas the rabbit produced a negative emotional state.
She kept a comfortable distance but gradually brought the rabbit closer and closer. Eventually Peter could touch the rabbit without fear.
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The process was called counterconditioning. Counterconditioning: the elimination of a
conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is paired with an opponent or antagonistic unconditioned stimulus.
This played an important role in the development of the behavior modification technique of systematic desensitization.
Adding Cognition into the Picture
Conditioning
Implicit
Classical InstrumentalSkills
Explicit
Semantic Episodic
HabituationThinking/Reasoning
Multiple Forms of Learning
Sloman’s Evidence
1) Dissociations“H.M.”“Unconscious Sequence Learning”
2) Simultaneous Contradictory Belief“Linda Problem”“Visual Illusions”
Sequence learning
Nissen & Bullemer (1987) –
Serial Reaction Time
*
A B C D Experimental Group = fixed sequence of locations
D – B – C – A – C – B – D – C – B – A -
circular sequence, 10 times per blockControl Group = random sequence of locations
Violated Sequence
Subjects are sensitive to the presence of the sequence even when they deny knowing that there was a sequence
Linda Problem
Linda is 20 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majors in philosophy. As a student, she is deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and participated in the Occupy Wall Street Movement.
Which of the following is more probable?
(1) Linda is a bankteller. (2) Linda is a bankteller and a member of the NDP.
Why Study Animal Learning?
1) precise control2) start simple3) use potent stimuli 4) model behavioural dysfunctions5) avoid subjective data6) interest in its own right
Learning
3 Types of Questions?
1) Can it be learned?2) What conditions encourage/hinder learning?3) What is the underlying mechanism?
Learned: Delayed Responding?Rats: 10-sRacoon: 25-sDog: 5-minHuman
1-year: 24-s2-year: 50-s6-year: 20-min
Hunter (1913)
ChoiceLocation 1Location 2Location 3
Cue
Location 2
Grice (1948) Results
2030405060708090
100
25 100
175
250
325
400
475
550
625
700
Trials
Per
cen
t C
orr
ect
0s
5s
2s1.2s
0.5s
10s