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Learning
Learning relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
44
To Gain Knowledge, Understanding or Skill by Study, Instruction or Experience
Association
We learn by association Our minds naturally connect events that
occur in sequence Aristotle 2000 years ago John Locke and David Hume 200 years
ago Associative Learning
learning that two events occur together two stimuli a response and its consequences
Association
Learning to associate two events
Event 1 Event 2
Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock
Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics
Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
We learn to associate two stimuli
Operant Conditioning
We learn to associate a response and its consequence
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two
stimuli a neutral stimulus that signals an
unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus
Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian
physician/ neurophysiologist
Nobel Prize in 1904
studied digestive secretions
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s device for recording salivation
Pavlov’s Classic ExperimentBefore Conditioning
During Conditioning After Conditioning
UCS (foodin mouth)
Neutralstimulus(tone)
Nosalivation
UCR (salivation)
Neutralstimulus(tone)
UCS (foodin mouth)
UCR(salivation)
CS(tone)
CR (salivation)
Classical Conditioning
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS REFLEX ACTIONwill
elicit a
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS
NEUTRAL STIMULUSREFLEX ACTION
willelicit a
CONDITIONED STIMULUSCONDITIONED STIMULUSwill
elicit aCONDITIONED
RESPONSE
NEUTRAL STIMULUSwill
elicit NO REACTION
Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response
Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response
to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth
Classical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously
neutral conditioned stimulus
Classical Conditioning
Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning the phase associating a neutral
stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response
in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
Classical ConditioningUCS(passionate kiss) UCR
(sexualarousal)
CS(onionbreath)
CS(onion breath) CR
(sexualarousal)
UCS(passionate Kiss) UCR
(sexualarousal)
Classical Conditioning
Extinction diminishing of a CR in classical conditioning, when
a UCS does not follow a CS in operant conditioning, when
a response is no longer reinforced
Classical Conditioning
Strengthof CR
Pause
Acquisition(CS+UCS)
Extinction(CS alone)
Extinction(CS alone)
Spontaneousrecovery ofCR
Extinction
If a stimulus is never reinforced, then the response will go away.
Generalization
A response can be generalized to other like stimuli.
Variations Within Classical Conditioning
After extinction, a response will suddenly reappear.
Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization is a behavior that spreads from one situation to a similar one. (A baby will call Daddy “Dada.” When the baby sees any man, the baby calls out “Dada.”)
Discrimination is the reverse of generalization. Some stimuli have pleasant consequences and some do not. (A baby gradually learns that only one person responds with a smile when called “Dada.”)
Cognitive Processes
Conditioning occurs best when the CS and UCS have just the sort of relationship that would lead a scientist to conclude that the CS causes the UCS. — even in classical conditioning, it is not only the simple stimulus-response association but also the thought that counts.
Conditioning in advertising
Biological Predispositions John Garcia
Conditioned taste aversions Not all neutral stimuli can become
conditioned stimuli. Internal stimuli—associate better with taste External stimuli—associate better with pain Biological preparedness
Nausea Conditioning in Cancer PatientsUCS(drug)
UCR(nausea)
CS(waiting room)
CS(waitingroom) CR
(nausea)
UCS(drug)
UCR(nausea)
Behaviorism
John B. Watson
viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon
consensus today
recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted
by all schools of thought today
Watson & Raynor with Little Albert
Watson took a a baby named Albert and conditioned him to be afraid of white furry objects using Pavlov’s techniques.
Conditioned fear experiments such as Albert’s experience would never occur
today because of the existing ethical
standards.
Conditional Training: Albert and Peter
Mary Cover Jones used an early form of desensitization to prove that fears (phobias) could be unlearned.
Peter, a young boy, had an extreme fear of rabbits. Jones gave Peter his favorite food while slowly bringing the rabbit closer and closer. Eventually Peter no longer panicked around rabbits.
Mary Cover Jones
1. By learning to associate a squirt of water with electric shock, sea snails demonstrate the process of:
a. habituation
b. spontaneous recovery
c. classical conditioning
d. observational learning
e. operant conditioning
2. John B. Watson considered himself to be a(n):
a. Physiological psychologist
b. Cognitive psychologist
c. Behaviorist
d. Psychoanalyst
e. Operant conditioner
3. In Pavlov’s experiments, the dog’s salivation triggered by the taste of food was a(n):
a. Conditioned response.
b. Unconditioned stimulus.
c. Unconditioned response.
d. Conditioned stimulus.
4. In Pavlov’s experiments, the dog’s salivation triggered by the sound of the tone was a(n):
a. Conditioned response.
b. Unconditioned stimulus.
c. Unconditioned response.
d. Conditioned stimulus.
5. If a bell causes a dog to salivate because it has regularly been associated with the presentation
of food, the bell is called a(n):
a. Unconditioned stimulus.
b. Conditioned stimulus.
c. Primary reinforcer.
d. Immediate reinforcer.
6. The initial stage of classical conditioning during which a response to a neutral stimulus is established and gradually strengthened is called:
a. Acquisition.
b. Association.
c. Observational learning.
d. Shaping.
7. When a CS is not followed by a UCS, the subsequent fading of a CR is called:
a. Discrimination.
b. Generalization.
c. Delayed reinforcement.
d. Extinction.
8. The reappearance, after a time lapse, of an extinguished CR is called:
a. Generalization.
b. Spontaneous recovery.
c. Secondary reinforcement.
d. Latent learning.
e. Shaping.
9. The tendency for a CR to be evoked by stimuli similar to the CS is called:
a. Generalization.
b. Secondary reinforcement.
c. Latent learning.
d. Spontaneous recovery.
e. Shaping.
10. The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus is called:
a. Shaping.
b. Acquisition.
c. Discrimination.
d. Generalization.
e. Latent learning.
11. Little Albert developed a fear of rats after a white rat was presented with a loud noise. In this case, the loud noise was the:
a. Unconditioned stimulus.
b. Conditioned stimulus.
c. Secondary reinforcer.
d. Delayed reinforcer.
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment
Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors
followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior operates (acts) on environment produces consequences
Respondent Behavior occurs as an automatic
response to stimulus behavior learned through
classical conditioning
Early Operant Conditioning
E. L. Thorndike (1898)Puzzle boxes and cats
Scratch at bars
Push at ceiling
Dig at floorSituation:stimuliinside ofpuzzle box
Howl
Etc.
Etc.
Press lever
First Trialin Box
Scratch at bars
Push at ceiling
Dig at floorSituation:stimuliinside ofpuzzle box
Howl
Etc.
Etc.
Press lever
After ManyTrials in Box
Edward L. Thorndike ( 1874–1949)
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) elaborated
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
developed behavioral technology
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
Operant Chamber
Skinner Box chamber with a
bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer
contains devices to record responses
In shaping, successively closer versions of a desired response are reinforced (as in learning to play tennis).
In chaining, each part of a sequence is reinforced; the different parts are put together into a whole (as in learning the steps to a dance).
Operant Conditioning
42
DANCING DOG
Operant Conditioning
Positive Reinforcement any event that strengthens the
behavior it follows Negative Reinforcement
The removal of a punishment or an aversive stimulus
It STRENGTHENS behavior
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning Processes
Primary Reinforcement is unlearned and usually necessary for survival. Food is the best example of a primary reinforcer.
Secondary Reinforcement is anything that comes to represent a primary reinforcer such as praise from a friend or a gold star on a homework assignment. Also called conditioned reinforcer.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Immediate Reinforcers To our detriment, small but immediate
reinforcements are sometimes more alluring than big, but delayed reinforcements
Continuous Reinforcement reinforcing the desired response each time it
occurs
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforces a response only after a
specified number of responses faster you respond the more
rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding like piecework pay
Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an
unpredictable number of responses
average ratios like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because
of unpredictability
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after
a specified time has elapsed response occurs more
frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near
Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Interval (VI) reinforces a response at
unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding like pop quiz
Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Interval
Number of responses
1000
750
500
250
010 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (minutes)
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Steady responding
Rapid respondingnear time forreinforcement
80
Punishment
Punishment aversive event that
decreases the behavior that it follows
powerful controller of unwanted behavior
Punishment
Problems with Punishment
Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavior
May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fear
Likely to be temporaryMay model aggression
Updating Skinner’s Understanding
Skinner’s emphasis on external control of behavior made him an influential, but controversial figure. Many psychologists criticized Skinner for underestimating the importance of cognitive and biological constraints.
Cognitive Approach
This approach emphasizes abstract and subtle learning that could not be achieved through conditioning or social learning alone.
Some learning is not intentional, but occurs almost accidentally—a situation called latent learning. Learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Expectancies are beliefs about our ability to perform an action and to get the desired reward. Expectancies affect learning.
Latent Learning
Cognitive Map (E.C. Tolman)A mental representation of the layout of one’s environmentExample: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
Cognitive Maps
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Overjustification Effect the effect of promising a reward
for doing what one already likes to do
the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Intrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior for
its own sake and to be effective Extrinsic Motivation
Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments
Applications ofOperant Conditioning
• School
• Work
• Home
1. Ever since his mother began to give Julio gold stars for keeping his bed dry all night, Julio discontinued his habit of bedwetting. His change in behavior best illustrates the value of:
a. Primary reinforcement.
b. Classical conditioning.
c. Spontaneous recovery.
d. Operant conditioning.
e. Latent learning.
2. B.F. Skinner’s work elaborate what E.L. Thorndike had called:
a. shaping
b. behaviorism
c. observational learning
d. the law of effect
e. latent learning
3. Dr. Kevorkian places a rat in a small, glass-enclosed chamber where it learns to press a bar to obtain a food pellet. Obviously, Dr.Kevorkian is using a _________________ to study learning.
a. Pavlovian maze
b. Bandura compartment
c. Skinner box
d. Garcia operant chamber
4. The process of reinforcing successively closer approximations to a desired behavior is called:
a. Shaping.
b. Partial reinforcement.
c. Generalization.
d. Secondary reinforcement.
e. Modeling.
5. An event that increases the frequency of the behavior that it follows is a(n):
a. Conditioned stimulus.
b. Respondent.
c. Unconditioned stimulus.
d. Reinforcer.
e. Operant.
6. Because Bertha would always pick up her newborn daughter when she began to cry, her daughter is now a real crybaby. In this case, picking up the infant served as a(n) ____________for crying.
a. Negative reinforcer
b. Conditioned stimulus
c. Positive reinforcer
d. Unconditioned stimulus
7. Escape from an aversive stimulus is a _________________ reinforcer.
a. Positive
b. Secondary
c. Negative
d. Partial
e. Delayed
8. Innately satisfying stimuli that satisfy biological needs are called ________________ reinforcers.
a. Fixed
b. Primary
c. Positive
d. Continuous
9. A stimulus that acquires reinforcing power by association with another reinforcer is called a _________________ reinforcer.
a. Negative
b. Primary
c. Partial
d. Secondary
e. Positive
10. Resistance to extinction is most strongly encouraged by _______________ reinforcement.
a. Delayed
b. Negative
c. Secondary
d. Partial
11. A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n):
a. Specified time period has elapsed.
b. Unpredictable time period has elapsed.
c. Specified number of responses have been made.
d. Unpredictable number of responses have been made.
12. Gamblers who insert coins in a slot machine are reinforced on a __________________ schedule.
a. Fixed-interval
b. Variable-interval
c. Fixed-ratio
d. Variable-ration
13. A fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n):
a. Specified time period has elapsed.
b. Unpredictable time period has elapsed.
c. Specified number of responses have been made.
d. Unpredictable number of responses have been made.
14. On the first day of class Mrs. Quigley tells her history students that pop quizzes will be given at unpredictable times throughout the semester. Clearly, studying for Mrs. Quigley’s surprise quizzes will be reinforced on a ____________________- schedule.
a. Fixed-interval
b. Fixed-ratio
c. Variable-interval
d. Variable-ratio
15. B.F. Skinner’s critics have claimed that he neglected the importance of the individual’s:
a. personal freedom
b. early childhood experiences
c. pleasure-seeking tendencies
d. cultural background
Operant vs. Classical Conditioning
Social Learning Theory
Observational Learning
Observational Learning (Albert Bandura) learning by observing and imitating
others Modeling
process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Prosocial Behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior
This series of photographs shows children observing and modeling aggressive behavior.
Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
Observational Learning
Mirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire
when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
Do what I say, not what I do—
This will teach you to hit your brother—
Why do you do that, you know you get in trouble for it—
Famous last words???