LASER, English Grammar Handbook (Complete)

8/11/2019 LASER, English Grammar Handbook (Complete)

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l

I

1 1

.1

li

ľ

1

I

i

I

I

I ( , )

I r , / '

~

> 0

id

. . .

,~

E

E

I i

'

.J

-

resent simple and present continuous

Present simple:

t be

lU

U

. . . .

,

eJ

l.

tit

t;

c,

'0

.j

-

am

am not Am

C I 1 )

(ď I 1

11

()t)

are not

you

we late?

You

You

late. Areate.

r e not )

(areri't)

are

Cre)

..................................

they

he

she

it

Is

regular verbs

You You

do not

We We

(dont)

They work. They work.

He He does not

She works. She (doesn't)

It It

Do you

we

work?

,

. ,

: ,

Does

it

e

r

l have - he/she/i t has

l go - he/she/it goes

l do - he/she/it does

The

p r e se n t s impl e

is used to talk about ...

• habits My father drives to work.

• how of ten things happen It rains almost eve ry day in the rainforest.

(or don't happen) It never snows in the Sahara desert.

• permanent s ituations

• general truths and facts

• general abili ties

l live in North London.

Water boils at 100° C.

l play the piano.

l know him and his brother.

My train leaves in an hour.

.

.:

t : ;

'v

. .. •

• states

• the future in tirnetables

(see page 23)

• the future in time clauses

(see page

24)

I'Il

t el l Car rie when

l

see her.

,

.

j

~

ti :

'0

t )

e

When we want to emphasise an action or situation in the present,

\ \ particularly to emphasise that it actually happens, or that it's

different to what someone else thinks. we can use the emphatic

p r e se n t s impl e ,

with

do

or

does.

'Your brother plays the

piano. doesn't

he?'

'No, but he does play the guitar.'

'l know you don't like peanut butter. '

'No , you'r e wrong. ldo like peanut butte r.'

tj

,;

'

q

. .

)

(We

don't

use t he e m ph a ti c p re s en t s im p le with the verb t o b e .)

Present continuous:

Cm not)

You

You

are not you

We are

working. We

('re not) working.

Are

we working?

They

(arent)

not

She is

('s not) Is

It

('s)

(isn't)

The presen t c on ti n uou s is used to talk about ...

• actíons in progress at the Come inside - it's raining.

moment of speak ing

• temporary ser ies of actions

• temporary situations

• changing situations

• annoying habits

(usually with a/ways)

• defini te arrangements and

p lans for the future

(see pages

22-23)

~

l

l am learning to drive .

We are staying,at the Grand Hotel.

This city is get ting bigger eve ry year.

Oh You are always losing your keys

We are having a test tomorrow.

C ~ :



I

l·

i l

I

i

t

l i,

l i

l ,

l

Jfl)

. : . f .

,~

od

W

•

i

Some people use the te rm

pre sen t progr ess ive

instead of

pr ese nt

\ \ i co nt inu ous.

They mean the same thing.

'..-._ -- --- -- - --- ----_

..

__ ... _ - - - _ .... _ ..

-- -- - -- --- -- --- -- ---

.... _ . .... _. --.- .-._ ----- --- ---_ ._ -----.---- ------- -- ---- ---- -

~

.

e

E

oú

. .

o

Check y ou r u nd erstanding

u

~

l . '

r . :. ..

• ..

'

-~

r

.. •

l

Which tense do we use to talk about scientific facts?

htasestlíkejoncea, m

Stative verbs

Some verbs are not normally used in continuous tenses because they don't

describe actions. These are called 'stative verbs', For example, we say 'l love

you', not 'lam loving you'. Some of these verbs can be used in continuous

tenses. but the meaning changes.

Sta tive ve rbs of ten refer to ...

thinking

emotions

the human senses

appearance

relationships between things

eg believe. imagine, understand, know

eg love, hate, like, pref'er, want, satisfy

eg hear, see, smeli, raste. sound

eg seem. resernble, appear, look

eg belong to, own, consist of. ínclude.

involve

Look at how the mean ing changes when we use some of these verbs in the

continuous form.

The milk smells/tastes funny.

l am smelling/tasting the milk to see if it is okay.

l see much better with my new glasses.

l am seeing Debbie tomorrow about the car.

But Elvis Presley is dead l mu s t be seeing/hearing/imagining things

l think you 're wrong. (That is my opinion.)

l am thinking of a famous person. Guess who (l have a picture in my

mind.)

He looks just like his father. (He resembles his father.)

He is looking at me in a funny way.

~ i 'w i~ h 'h ; ~ ; : '~ ~ ; '~ ~ ; ; ;~ ~ i l,

~~ '~ f~ ~ '~ ~~~ '~ ;~ ~~ d~ '~~~ ib ~ '~h~~ 'i~ '

• i

happening now. For example: l can hear a strange noise coming

l . from the kitchen.

tj

u,

Check your understand ing

V

l. : :

l Which of these is a stative verb? play/hat e lco me

2 Which is cor rect?

Yo u se em w o rr ied '/Y ou are se eming wor r ied .

· ''''~~o.'isÓ;dl'a:'stätive verb?

~ť úide rstand/prefe r/leave

L

l..:

Q '

~~

12-

-

'

o

o U

. .. . •

Past simple and past continuous

Past simple:

'to be

l

He was not

he

She

(wasn't) Was she

late. It

late. it l Iat e?

You were not you

Were we

they

He

She

I

was ,

.._.~.~..L;__J

You

, >we·d,yver~1 '

Theyj

......:..:.;'l ',~', ' r

Ú~:~

':;_

' , :

regular verbs

o

You

You

you

We

We

did not we

They worked.

They

(didn't) work.

Did

they ] work?

He He

he

She

Sh,e

she

It it

.~t?-~,~~

,':.H~ r l lf·J~_·'ft

Jf~~'~; l

it,.:

• f o . .

A·~ ·~ ~ b ·~ ~ · ·~ f· ~ ~ ~ b ~· f~ ;; ;:;·~ ·h ~ ľ~.

~~~~··~~~~·~·i~.~~

r~ ~ ~ ~ i~ '~ ~ ~ ~ :

j

•............................................................................................................................

( 5 )

, . • . .



i ( ~ )

lír

• .> ;

~

íQ

W J

s.,

l U

E

ti

'V

'

I

The

p a st s imp le

is u sed to talk about ...

• s ingle completed act ions lwalked to school yeste rday morning.

• repeated actions which My father walk ed to school every day when

dori't

happen now he was a boy.

• pas t s ta tes lknew her when we were at primary schooL

When we want to emphasise an action or situation in the past. particularly to

emphasise that it actually happened, or that it was different to what someone

else thínks. we can use the e mp ha ti c p a st s imp l e, with did.

'You l ived in Oxford , didri't you?'

'No, but ldid stay the re once.'

'lbet you didn't ask Mary to go out.'

'No, youre wrong. ldid ask her and she said yes.'

(We

don't

use the e mp h at ic p a st s imp l e with the verb t o b e .)

•

' ('-Th~-~~;;;;~;i~-~~~-~i-~~'-~-~f~;-~~--~h-~-~;~~~~~ --i~'-~~~dí-~;~-~~-i-~~~-~~nces

\ (If l had more money, ... ) and after certam phrases (It's high time

we left/ľd rather you came at five o'clock). This is called the

t. u n re al p as t because it refers to now, not the past. (see page

49)

- '

u

u..

.

J

e.,

n,

i ; ;

V~

ju

-- '

Past continuous:

He

She

It

You

We

He

She Was

It working.

You not

l

he

she

it

i working?

' 1

was

working.

were:

TheYj,

..• .. , : •. ~_ ' <

-;. ; , 1

Most uses of the

pas t con t inuous

are like the us es ot the

present continuous,

but

in the past .

For example, the past cont inuous is used to ta lk about ...

• act ions in progress

at a point in the pa st

• temporary situations in the past

l was reading a book at ten o' clock

yesterday morning.

l was staying in a hotel until my

fiat was ready.

At that time, unemployment was

getting worse.

• chanving situations in the past

When l was a child, my parents

were always criticising me.

lwas worried on Monday night

because we were having a test the

nex t day .

We also use the pas t con ti nuous to talk about ...

• act ions in progress over lwas reading a b ook all morning .

a period of time

~~

• annoying pas t habi ts

~,;

rJ

• • • •

• arrangements and plans for the

future in the past

~

~

id

t : _ ~)

Mum was washing up while

l

was doing my homework.

The sun was shining. The birds

were singing. Suddenly, a bomb

exploded.

'

- -:

'c

,

two actions in progress

a t the SiJme time

• background information in a story

The p a st s imp le and the pa st cont inuous are oťten used together to show that

one act ion happened

(pa st s imp le )

during the time defined by another act ion

(past cont inuous) . For exarnple. imagine l started watching TV at 5 pm and the

phone rang at

6

pm.

l

can say:

'lwas watching TV when the pho ne rang.'

Spm

7pm

....1.

8pm

.1

6pm

. 1 . . L

Á

...when the phone rang.

.. . . : .

l w as wa tc h ing T Y..

. .

Sometimes this means the action in progress i s in terrupted or stopped.

l was reading when suddenly all the light s went out.

•

Some people use the term

pa st p ro qres sive

ins tead of

pas t con t inuous.

\ They mean the same thing .

Compare the use s of the past con tinuous with these of the present cont inuous

(page 3). Of ten, it is used in the same way, but in the past.

(7 -2

- ,

. .. .

. , ' '



I ,, , - -

: (8)

~ ..~'

s .,

J

- '

, .

'o

~:

E

.c

:-~, .

check your understanding

v

l Which tense do we use for a single completed action?

2 Which tense do we use for background information in a story?

3 It's tim e you went to bed. Does this refer to the present or the past?

: -, · hi, .. 1_ ,~' ~ . ~j '~ ,~,;;'8;,-:~~~:~:.·~:':;~;'r·c~~:~',

u

-

•

ll

:'~

íl.

Í 1 i

c,

. , J

- '

Would, used to, be used to

W ou ld

and

u se d t o

can be used to talk about past habits, especially for the

distant

pa st. W ould can be used like this:

When

l

was a child, my grandma would read to me every night.

U s ed t o

can be used in the same way:

When lwas a child, my grandma used to read to me every night.

The difference between them is that used to can be used to talk about states

in the past, but would can't.

lused to like toma to soup, but now lhate it. V)

l

we dd

lil(e taiHato saus But

ROW

l Hate i t. (X )

We dont use

wou ld

or

use d to

in the negative or in questions very often. The

negative of

would

is

would n ever

or

wou ld n ot.

The most common negative

form ať use d to is ne ver use d to.

J

never used to be very good at languages.

You might also see these negative forrns.

l didn't use to be very good at languages.

l used not to be very good at languages. (this is quite formal)

U s ed t o

has this question form.

Did you use to live abroad?

B e u sed to is used to talk about something that is familiar to you, or that isnt

strange to you any more. It is followed by a noun or an -ing form.

l didn't like this town at first, but now l am used to it.

ľm used to studying every day, but l found it hard at first.

Be

us ed

to

can be used to talk about the pa st like this:

I found studying every day hard at first because l wasn't used to it.

When we want to talk about the process of becoming familiar with

something, we use

g e t u s ed to.

It's hard at first, but youll soon get used to it.

•

se d to

and

be used to

are pronounced differently from the verb

use.

l

used

an opener to open the battle. (/ju:zd/)

l

used to

live around here. (/ju:st;}/)

l

am used to working hard. (/remju:st;J/)

check your understandinql

l

Which of these is not used for pas t hab its? would/used to/be use d to

2

What is the most common negative form of

us ed to?

3

Which of these can be used to talk about pa st states?

wo uld /used to

..

, z

'.

'-

~J

- . :: ,

.

}~

':-~~

'

.,

I~

,

Present perfect and present perfect continuous

Present perfect:

~ i~ :1 ~ :~ ~ , ;.

~ : ~ ; : : ~ J ~ : ; : , ;. .

~ ~ v ' j ~ ~

~ : : ' d :.?

She [has : She l (hasn't) i iHas : she

I t

j ( 's)

l I t ; : i it .1

,

In general, present perfect tenses are used to connect the past with the

present.

The

prese nt perfect

is used to talk about ...

• actions and situations continuing

up to now

• a series of actions continuing up to now

ľve known him for about ten

years.

I' ve played che ss every Friday

for two years now.

We've seen that film before.

Julian has broken his arm.

• completed action s at a time in the past

• completed actions where the important

thing is the present result

• C · . ~ · . · ~_ . ~ b ď i ~ ·_

. t :_~ .~ ~ . ~ j ? . ~ ~_

;h ~ X ~_~ ~ ~ ;_~~.;t.i~i~.i.~·_. ~ . ~ . ~ : ; . ~ . ; i i ~ · I ~ ~.; i .Y . : . · . ;

( 9 )

\



l,

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ľ

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I

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10

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.:.:

~

hJ

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s.,

- . l

e

E

'V

,-

Ú

The prese nt perfect is used with words and expressions like: j us t, y et, already,

Thi s is the fir st tim e .. . , ever ; never , [o r, sinc e, so

[ar.

up to now, etc.

Rachel has just left.

Have you seen the new James Bond film yet?

ľve already told you once that you can't go to the party

This is the first time I've used a computer.

Have you ever met a famous person?

John has never eaten Indian food.

I've known Michael for seven years.

ľve been at this school since 2002.

We've received over a hundred applications so far I

up

to now.

Present perfect cont inuous

~~;

,

ili

~ J

t·~

~,

,, '

You

have not

you

We

(havent)

Have

we

They

('ve not)

been -íng .. they been -ing ...

7

He

has not

he

1.)

U_l

\_~

l , ' :

••.l

iJ

L. _

,~

(i

,.

~

'

O

.~

'lj

L

t:.

: :~

I~

•

The present perfe ct con tinuous is used to talk about ...

• (temporary) actions and situations ľve been working here for six

continuing up to now rnonths.

• (temporary) actions over a period I'rn out of breath because I've been

of time that has recently ended running.

The pre sen t pe rfect con tin uous is of ten used with words and phrases like all

morning/day/week/etc , just.jor. since , etc. It can of ten mean that the action is

not complete.

I've been reading a great book about dinosaurs. (l haven't finished

it.)

Sometimes, you have to look at the context to decide:

I've been working all morning and now ľm going to watch TY. (1 finished

recently.)

I've been working all morning and ľve only done half of it. (l haven't

finished.)

We don't say:

l have si){months to see Tara. (X)

Instead, we say:

l havent seen Tara for six mon ths. ( .l)

The present p er fect can also be used to refer to the future in time

clauses after when, as soon as , etc.

I'Il cali you when I've finished my homework.

When you want to say exactly when something happened, you

should use the past s im ple.

l saw that film last week at the cinema. (.l)

l

have seen that film la st '•••.

ek

at the cinema.

(X)

With the verb go , we somelimes use been as the pa st paniciple.

Compare:

Johns gone to Paris. (Hes there or on his way there.)

Johns been to Paris. (He went there and now he is back.)

•

e dont normally use ever or never with the presen t perfe ct continuous.

ľve nevel been reading an) of his books. (X)

ľve never read any of his books. ( .l)

•

' Some people use the term pr es ent perfec t proq ressive instead of present

\ pe rfect con tin uou s. They mean the same thing.

Check your under st and ing

l Which auxiliary verb is used to make the present perfect?

............................pa st pa rt ic ip le

, .. _ , .~> ' e ' :'~

'o . ' ; , ; _ ,) ' ',_ .

2',.. Whi~h i,s,cotIect?, Ld iJ~ :yg ~tp;1ffy .lI ha ve don e it yes te td ay. , .'

~~g~~~t~lk~~B.rJi~~ ,(~ii;ii;;

/.. • '-~ .

( II , l

.,

~



I

I

I

i ; ,

I

liii

c

'o

.. . •

Articles

. .

j

te

·0

~j

There are three articles in English: a, an and the. A and an are called

'indeľinite articles' and both mean the same thing.

An

is used with word s

which begin with a vowel sound: an umbrella. an orange, an hour. Notice

that we say 'a uniíorrn' and 'a US citizen' because these begin with ay

sound.

The

is called the 'definite article'.

. . . •

I..J

' : --

~

n,

. ..

'

'1

'ol

. .. . •

We use the indefinite article (a , an) to talk about ...

• single countable nouns

l

saw an accident yesterday.

(not particular ones)

We use the definite article (t he) to talk about ...

• single countable nouns (particular ones) There's the man l mentioned

yesterday.

The lion is a very fierce animal.

Where are the children?

The weather is quite warm.

• single countable nouns (in general)

• plural countable nouns

G uncountable nouns

We dont use an article when we are talking about ...

• plural countable nou ns in general Lions are very fierce animals.

• uncountable nouns in general Coff ee is generally bitter.

Notice how we use articles in the following phrases:

• entertainment, media and sport • 'the television'

=

the piece of

equipment

• Turn on the TV.

• watch televisíon. on television

• but: listen to the radio, on the radio

• go to the cinema/the theatre

• listen to music

• l love tennis.

no article for games and sports

• for years, usually no article

• for seasons. with 'in' and 'during'

the meaning is usually the same

either with or without article

• for mon ths and days, no article

• in 2002

• but: in the 19905, in the 20th

century, etc

• in winter or in the winter

• in March, on Friday, on Sunday

• morning

• in the morning/the afternoon/

the evening

• at night

• geographical areas use

the

with:

seas. mountain groups, rivers,

island groups. regions

• dori't use

the

with: planets,

continents, countries, towns/cities,

street s, lakes. most mountains,

individual islands

• jobs usually with a or an

• use

the

with positions

of authority

• organisations usually use

the

• public buildings usually use the

• the Mediterranean, the A/ ps,

• the Thames, the Bahamas, the Ar ctic

~

'v

'. - . ' ~ i .

• eg

Ma rs, Europe, Ge rman y, London,

Carn ab y S treet, Lake Superior;

(M ou nt) Ev eres t. C rete

• but:

the Ea rth , the world , the

M oon, the Su n, the UK , the US A

• She is

an

engineer .

• the

Mayor

k:

r~'

'-'

~. . . •

,- '

ea

~~

kt

~

'$l

,

.J

• the arm y. the nav y. the police , etc

• the ba nk , the po st offi ce , the Theatr e

Ro yal ,

etc

• but:

g o to prisonťhospital, b e i n

prisonthospital

• . ( '~ ; - '~ - ; - ~ - ~ ; - ;~ - ;h ~ - ~ - ~ i~ ~ ~ ;~ h ;- h ;~ ~ i~ '~ 'i - ;~ - ~ - ~ ~ ~ - i - b i~ - - ~ h ~ ;

VW i is only visiting.

', - ---- - --- -- --------- - - - - --- -- -- --- --- -- -- ----- .-- -- -. _ -- ---- - --- -_ .- ---- - --- -- ---_. --- - -- -- - --- -- -- - -- --. ---- ..

- .---- -----

• nationalities, no article for

particular people

• but: use th e when talking about

nationalities in general

• travel

• education

• She's Nigerian.

• The French drink a lot oť wine.

• go home

• on the bus, in the car, etc

• but: go by car /bus/bike/plane. etc

• go to school/university, etc, be at

school/university, etc

• be in Class 5

l)

He

's

go ne to the sc hoo l:

is possible when the person is only visiting.

• for subjects. usually no article • l love chemistry.

l)

( · w ~ - ; ~ - ~ - ~ - ~ · b ~ ŕ~ ~ ~ - - ~ i - ~ ~ - ~ i ~ · ; - - ~ - ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ b · l ~ - ~ - ~ ~ - ~ - ~ - ~ i ~ h - -

\ i

It doesn't depe nd on spelling. So, we say

an

umbrella' but

a

:-,_~.~i.~~~si_t~'_,_'~~_our' b~t.:_~.~~.li~.a.~::._~t~: .__.. . ... _

\ 13 ':

- - . .



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ul

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t')

C h ec k y ou r u nd erstanding

. . . . •

~J

' ..

'

..

tJ..

< ;;

U

'a

.. . •

-

ast perfect and past perfect continuous

Past perfect:

You

You you

We

been ... We been ... we been ... ?

They had

done ... They had not done ...

Had

they done ...

?

He

('d)

worked ... He

(hadn't)

worked ... he

worked ... ?

She She she

It It

it

i . : : • • , .

When we are talking about the past and we want to talk about something

earlier in the past. we can use the pa st pe rfe ct.

The pa st perfec t is used to talk about ...

• actions and states before the main

time in the pa st we are interested

in

J

had heard about Alicia before l

met her.

• what somebody said in reported

spee ch (see pages 26-27)

• a hypothetícal past in conditional

sentences

(see page 52)

• wishes abou t the past (see page 53)

Emma said she had never been to

Morocco.

I ť

ľd known you were coming,

l

would have bought a cake.

J

wish lhad studied harder for

the test.

I f I I 1 \ (T'h~';~~~ ;~~f~~;';~ ~~~d'~i'~i~';'~~'d~'~~ď '~'~~'~~'~~;~';~~'ii'k~: b~i;;~:'~ft~; '''')

. 1 when , al re ady , as so on a s, It was the f ir st t im e ... , etc. A number of verbs

1

l .

form their past participle in an irregular way.

. l

~ r ~h~ ;~ ~~ ';~;i;~ ;~~ s~~;~~ľ~'e'~ b~ ~~~d ~j~h'b;j;r~

'~~ ~~i'k' b ; ; ' ~ ~ ; I ~

• i

action which dídnt ha pp en or wasn't completed in time.

i Joel called before I had ťinished my hornework.

: (= l hadn't

finished my homework when Joel called.)

'

-_ ._ - - - - - - _ _ - - - - -- _ - -

..

-- -----_. _ _ --. --_._ ._- ----- --- _ _ _ -- _ . _ _

.

E

i

o o

, ,,

~

i ' . :

,~

. -

o

Past perfect continuous:

~

l

'

.

·C

You

You

l

you

we

e

l i

We

They hadlbeen -ing ... They had not been -ing ... IHad theylbeen -ing ... 7

He I('d) He (hadnt) i he

she:,,1

, l . s.: ,

She:

k.';~h'•.

i . i'~h~'

.

.Iť

~t-~

The p a st p e rfect co ntinuou s is used to talk about:

• longer actions which continued up l had been runnlng so 1was

to the main time in the past we are out of breath when lgot home.

interested in

• what somebody said in reported speech Mrs Collins said she had been

(see page 26) doing the garden.

The pa s t p e rf ec t co nt inu ous is often used with words and

phrases

like al l

morn ing/day/wee k /e tc, just, fo r, since, etc. It can olten mean that the action was

not complete.

•

(·w~.d~ ·~ :·~ ·~~ ; ;;;:~ iľ;·~ ·~ ·~ ··~ ;~ ·;·~ ·~ · ·~~ · ;~ · ;·~ ;~ ·.~;~·;;~;;~;;:··· ··

\ :

i

ra ne ••. r aeeB thiBkiHg

ot

deing Frenefl uHtil my ffiUffi

i

suggeslea it. ( ,x)

. . .I.'.~.~~.~.~~.~~~.~~~t..~~.~~.~~.~.~.~~.~~~.~l.~.~I~.1~~.y.I~~.~1 ..s.~~~e.s.t~~.~~. « ~ . . . . .

•

:·.S~·~·~·~·~·~~·i~·~;~·~·;·h~.~~·;;;:·;~·;;·;~;f;;;·~;:;;·;~~;;·~~i~~;~~·d·

\ i

continuous.

They mean the same thing.

i

:, _ - -_ . _ _

_ -- - _ . _ - - - - - - - - - -- - _ . -- - _ . - - . - - - _ . _ - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - _ . _

------ -------- _ - _ . _ - - _ _ - - - - - - - -- _ ..:

Compare the uses of the

p a st p e rfec t co nt inuous

with those of the

pr es ent perf ec t

continuo us

(see page ll). Often, it is used in the same way, but

in th e pas/o

5

~._<A



i:

I

I

I

( ~ )

ilt~

-tI~}I/

-'o(

~

'ú

ul

C

I v

E

C

'ó

t J

IJ\ i

' - w ~ - ~ ;~ - ~ f ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ - ~ - ~ h ~ - ;~ ~ - ; - ( ; i ~ ; i ; - ~ ~ - ~ ~ - ~ t i~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ )

- ľ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ - d - ~ - ť~ h ~ - ; ~ ; ; - - - - -

.ier fec t (sim ple or continuousi, particularly if aft er or before make the

i order of t he actions clear:

i l ate my lunch after my friend left.

=

l ate my lunch after my friend i

l . had left. :

adjectives with three or more syllables

• Use

m ore

and

th e mo st

(or

les s

and

th e le ast)

int eres tinq - mo re in ter es tinq - th e most in te resting

• If the adjective is formed from a two-syllable adjective ending in -y , then

use either more - th e m ost or -ier - -ies t.

un happy - more unhappy - the most unhappy or unh appy - unhapp ier=

unhappiest

adverbs

• Use more and th e mos t (or les s and the least)

qui ckly - mor e qu ick ly - th e most qu ickl y

(superlative adverbs like this are not

used in English very much)

A number of adjectives and adverbs. and one or two other words. form the

comp arat iv e and the sup erl a tive in an irregular way:

irregular adjectives

• good - be tte r - bes t

• b ad - w orse - wors t

t J

'L

s

~

~

• .. .

<ll

d

. ... •

Check yo ur u nd erstanding

l Which tense do we use after

It

wa s th e firs t tim e ...

?

2 l w ish ' l h ad n

t

spe nt my money . Does this refer to the pas or.the

;;~~32~+~~,~(lh;~~{~~;;~ťJiii~\~;;~~;t.~

,,,,;?:~;~,~:_,·b:-:)ú;~:~,, ·;:i'l); .{ .d.; ..~ -'·{; t:i~r~.. ;~' ;~ fff

Comparatives and superlatives

When we want to compare two or more things, we can use the

comp ara tive

and

super/ativ e

forms of adjectives and adverbs. We use the

compara tive

to

compare things or people that are different and separate from each other:

The blue book is bigger than all the red ones.

irregular adverbs

• The adverbs

ear ly , la te, fa st, hard

and

oft en

follow the rules for adjectives.

• ea r/y - ea r/i er - earlies t

• of ten - more of te n - the most o ft en

• f ar - fa rth er/fu rth er - far th es t/fur th es t

• bad ly - worse - worst

irregular determiners

• / it tle -less - the /ea st

• mu ch/many - more - the mo st

We use the superlat ive to compare one member of a group with the whole

group:

This book is t he biggest one on the shelf.

one-syllable adjectives

• With most one-syllable adjectives. add -er, -es t.

black - bl acker -

blackest,

young - young er - y ou ng est

• If the adjective ends in -E, add -T ,

-s t.

lat e -I at er - la tes t, br ave - b raver - br av est

• If the adjective has one vowei followed by one consonant, double the final

consonant, then add

-er, -est.

bi g - b ig ge r - bi gges t, th in - th in ner - th innes t

two-syllable adjectives

• If the adjective ends in

-y,

replace the

-y

with

-ier, -ies t.

happ y - happ ier - happiest, love ly - /ovelie r - lov eliest

• Otherwise, use

mo re

and

the mos t

(or

les s

and

th e /eas t)

bor in g - m or e boring - th e mos t b or ing

•

.---- -- ---- -- -- - --- -- --- - - - --

..

_ - - -- - - - - - - - _ . - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - -- - -- - - - '.

\ i With some two-syllable adjectives. there is a choice:

clev er- c lev erer-

i

\

cleverest or cleve r - mo re dever - th e mo st clev er. Weusually use the

l . forms with more and the most . j

With the

co mpa ra tiv e,

we usually use

than:

Rachel is older than all her cousins.

When you want to emphasise the difference, you can use

much:

My

dad ismuch older than yours.

S;~;O~~~í)~~

~rp( ff r·r ...~ ~(-r~_l~ nJ(~~J '

. c . : -. L ~l t. lo . . . . . -. /' i

. - ; ;:

.J

&ú

,.

hJ

i.;'

'

;;

'0

ú

' -- '

.)

u.

'

,

1-,

•

v,

, , ,

'

»: - \

( ~~A



lw i~

t

s : : :

id

IlIl

. .

tJ

I E

e

rtl

• . .

'

When you want to say that two things are or aren't the

same,

you can use

as ' as :

My computer is as fast as yours. (= My computer is the same speed as

yours.)

My computer isn't as fast as yours. (= My computer is slower.)

Notice that the ve rb 'was' is in the same tense as 'took' in the first sentence

(pastsimple). Also notice that we do not need to say who did the action.

When we do want to say who did it, we normally use

by .

We normally only

do this when it is important information. For exarnple:

Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese.

When we want to say that the action was done using something, such as a

tool. we use wi th:

The dead man had been shot with apistol.

.- ~ : , :

'v

~

'V

~

t ::

'v

tj

l~j

t}

u,

i tj

U

<.J..

.

'

H.

t'i

'11

~..l

I I h .

: ~ W h '~ ~ ~ '~ ~ ~ ~ '~ ~ '~ ~ '~ '~ 'ik '~ 'b ~ '~ ~ '~ ' h~ ~ ~ '~ '~ ; i~~ ~ ~ ť ;~ ~ ~ ~ h ľ~ ~ ~ '; ~~~ ;~ ~ '~ i '~~ : ~ '~

.: can use

th e + co mpa rat ive , th e + co mparative : :

i

The oIde r my grandfather becornes. the sIower he gets. :

1 The more you exercise, the fitter you become.

j

'• _o• __ • • • __ • • _• _• ___ • __ • __ • • __ • • • __ • __ •

'

~- '

v

'~

.-~

We use the passive ...

• when we dont know who does/did

something

• when we

aren't

interested in who

does/did something, or it's obvious

• for emphasis

A man was arrested at the airport

as he gat off the plane.

The radio was invented by

Marconi. (We are mainly

interested in the radio, not Marconi.)

The bank has been robbed

Check your understanding

What is the comparative form of brig ht?

t.

-

Some verbs are not normally used in the passive. They include intransitive

verbs (without objects) and verbs such as

ha ve , let, lac k, se em , ap pear . res embl e ,

fit and sui t.

The passive

Some verbs can take two objects: a direct object and an indi rect object. For

example:

Our teacher gave us some photographs.

There are two possibilities in the passive. The first is probably more common.

We were given some photographs (by our teacher).

Some photographs were given to us (by our teacher).

We make the passive by using an appropriate form of the verb to be and the

past partíciple of the main verb:

This castle was built in J 450.

Your papers wi ll be col lected at the end of the exam.

A good way to think about the passive is to start with an ordinary active

sentence:

They took the young man to hospital.

Some sentences have a clause as the object.

People think/say/believe that th e ec onomy is in troub le.

There are two possibilities in the passive. The first is probably more common.

The economy is thought/said/believed to be in trouble.

It is thought/said/believed that the economy is in trouble.

This sentence is in the

pa s t s impl e,

with Thev' as the subject and 'the young

man' as the object. To make i t passíve. we put the object first, then the ve rb to

be

in the right tense (here,

p as t s im pl e),

then the past participle of 'take':

Check your understand in g

l Which word is missing? Th e l ot ter y .~ won by a m an from Lond on.

2 Which of these is not normally used in the passive? appear/break/make

: J ~

Write one reason for using the passive vaice:, _

;~-: .:,.. - . •. l ~ . ~ , . ;. _: ;... , 'f-': ~ • ,~\ ,.,;-

( 1 9 ~



[

t

/ ,

l'

I

i

/

l ,

[i

r

iiji~)

t:.

-o

• • •

ountable and uncountable nouns

•

se many and mu ch before a noun in negative statements and in

questions. In positive statements (and also In negative staternents

and questions) use a lot of lots of or a large number/amoun t of (You

can use mu ch or ma ny in positive staternents. but it's very formal.)

'\.'

'u

There are different kinds of nouns: those we can count

(a book , tw o b oo ks)

and

those that we can't count

(in formati on, advi ce ).

Please pass me those pencíls, would you? (countable)

The news was a bit of a shock. (uncountable)

,.

.,)

E

E

'Ó

V

tu

IJ

. • ..

,

'

.

• . . ..

L

l,;

.

'u

..l

We use a singular verb with these nouns.

Your advice was really useful.

Few /little

and

a fe w/ a little

mean different things.

few

(countable nouns) l have few friends.

afew

(countable nouns) l have a few days off work.

lit tle

(uncountable nouns) They gave us little information. = not much

a little

(uncountable nouns) Let me give you a little advice. /= some

L

- .

.

.

' -)

l

Uncountable nouns often refer to collection s of things, materials and other

things we think of as 'masses: rather than individual objects. You have to be

careful because nouns that are countable in your language might be

uncountable in English. Here are some common uncountable nouns.

in fo rm ation, ad vice , lugg ag e, baggage, know ledge , money, new s, trave l, fu rniture

~

= not many

k..

= some/

Some nou ns can be countable with one meaning and uncountable with

another icoffee , a coffee). This often happens when we talk about a material or

substance and a thing made out of it. For example:

Chocolate is made using cocoa beans. (uncountable, refers to the

substance)

Would you like a chocolate> (countable, refers to one from a box of

chocolates)

You really should get your hair cut, (uncountable)

Theres a hair in my soup (countable)

The phrase on ly a fe w ... means 'not many' and only a little ... means 'not

much'.

Sometimes, you might want to use a countable no un instead of an

uncountable noun. With many of them, you can do that by using the phrase

a pie ce o f ... , eg Let me give you a piece of advice.

There are some uncountabJe nouns which are plural and which take a plural

verb. They do not have a singular form. These incJude: [eans, trousers,

spe ctac les, scissors , groceries , etc.

'Ne

need a ne' ••••SciSSOfS. (X)

We need some new scissors.

.r)

We need a new pair of scissors. .r)

We often use different words with countabJe and uncountable nouns. Here

are some.

Countable nouns: many, how many , a lot of lot s of so me, a [ew , [ew, a numbe r of

a, an, one, tw o, thr ee , etc, the

Uncountable nouns:

much, how much, a lot o f l ots of so me, a li ttle, little , an

amou nt of a pi ec e o f the

check

your

understanding

l Which of these is countable? money /ad vice /qu estion

2 Which is correct? The news was shoc ki ng./T he n ew s we re sho cking .

,3

Which is

incort ecthnfo rm atio ns/ trou sers/jeans

.... . ~.'j~it:;i y)-t:n,~.'

i:,j

:j·,_{{~ ~·it~:~\t~1('~~I~.

1~yj~··i.v1;~.

21



When we have made some arrangements (bought a t icket, agreed to rneet.

etc), we oft en use the present co ntinuous

m

meeting

Helen tomorrow outside the library.

We re

flying

to Paris and then

staying

in a great hotel.

We dori t normal ly use the pr esent co ntin uous for talking about intentions.

However, the difference between an intention and an arrangement can be

qui te small , so you could use be goin g to in both of t hese situations. It depends

on what you want to emphasise.

I mgoing to

meet Helen tomorrow outside the l ibra ry.

We re

going to

fl y t o Pari s and t hen stay in a great hotel.

The future l)

There are a number ofdi fferent ways of tal king about the future in English. It

can be confusing because often more than one of them could be correct.

Somet imes you have to think about which ismore natural. It help s i fyou

think about what you want to express.

making predictions

When we make predictions t hat we are sure of based on our own judgement

or knowledge , we often use will

l think United

will

win the Championshi p t his year.

making offers, promises, suggestions, refusals

When we make offers, promises or suggestions, we generally use w ill or sha l

In modern English,

s ll

is quite rare and is usually used in quest ions. When

we refuse to do something, we can use wo n t the pres ent continuou s or be go ing

to

• offers

When we make predictions based on evidence we can see now, we often use

b e g o in g t o

Look out You re

going to

drop the drinks

In general, be g oi ng t o is more informal than will and i smainly used i n

conversation. Often, we can talk about predictions using both of them with

no difference in meaning.

Do you thi nk we/Il see Tom at t he party?

Do you think we re

going to

see Tom at the party?

When we predic t the future bu t we are not so sure of our predictions, we can

use other modal verbs (see pages 35-39).

Be careful You

might

have an accident.

Do you think we

might

see Tom at the party?

l think Uni ted

could

win the Championship this year.

making decisions

We of ten use will when we are making a decision.

Oh, l dori t know. Mmm ...

I ll

have an omelette. please.

I rn really tired. l think

I ll

stay in tonight.

But we can also use b e g oin g to if we want to emphasise the intention.

ľm real ly t ired. l t hink

l m going to

stay in tonight.

talkíng

about plans, intentions and arrangements

When we want to tell somebody about our plan s or i ntenti ons, we often use

b e g o in g t o

I rn

going to

apply fo r a job at that new factory.

I mgoing to

be a teacher when l fin ish uni versity. Not rm

Being

a

teacher ... )

• promises

• suggestions

• reťusals

I ll

help you, if you like.

Shall

l open the ,window for you? Not v l ... )

I ll

return your book as soon as ľve read it.

Shall

we try that new Chinese restaurant?

No,

won t

do your homework for you.

No,

l m not doing

your homework for you.

No,

I mnot going to

do your homework for you.

talking about timetabled future events

The t ime or date when some things happen is decided in advance. usually by

someth ing l ike a timetable or the calendar. When we want to talk about

things l ike thi s, we can use the present si m ple

Our plane

leaves

at four in the morning.

Our exams

start

on 20th May.

Next year, my parents

celebrate

their 50th wedding anniversary.

Christmas Day

falls

on a Friday this year.

23



. .

~

~

/ :

, , '

< i ; \

1_'

tV

t'

f,

'U

()

~U

tj

.• .

.

'

.

IC l

•• •

.}

'u

--

I

.

I

I ( '

I .

24 j

IIJ,I ;',~.

1~ť }'P '

These ideas can often be expressed using either the present cont inuous (for

arrangements), b e g o in g t o (for intentions and predictions) or wil l (for

predictions) .

Om plane isleaving at four in the morning.

Our exams are going to start on 20th May.

Next year, myparents are celebrating their 50th wedding anniversary.

Christmas Daywill faIl on a Friday this year.

Christmas Day is going to fallon a Friday this year.

When the sentence doesn't have an auxiliary verb, we use the verb do .

Youlive in the town centre, don't you?

Phil plays footbal on Saturdays, doesn't he?

Colin has a very bighouse, doesn't he?

t

~;

~

, . )

f~

(:)

We use question tagswhen we want to ...

• ask someone to agree with us It's a nice day, isn't it?

• check whether something is true You've been to Paris,Sue, haven't you?

When weare asking someone to agree with us our voice goes down atthe

end of the sentence. When we are checkingwhether something istrue our

voice goes up at the end.

t J

Ll. •

~

k ..

t;

Co

'Il

~j

•

i ~h~';;;~;~;'~';~;i~i'~';i~~ ~~~d ~~'~~'lk'~'b~~~ ~h~'f~~~';~ i~'~i~'~~'~~ ' ''''

\ i

after words like when ,

until,

if w ha t, etc, as well as in conditional

i

sentences (see page 33).

i l hope we see Mike when we are in York. (Not: ... 'NftEH Ne will

[ Be iH York. )

i l can't call Mary until she gets home from school.

i Ifl go to university, I'll probably study maths.

•

We also use tags when we want somebody to do sornethíng. either

\ \ using le t's or an imperative.

When wewant to add a question tagwith

let's,

we use

s ha ll w e ?

Leťs order a pizza, shall we?

After a positive imperative, we use w i ll lw o u ld / co u ld y o u? and after a negative

imperative. we use w il l y ou?

Passme the salt, will/would/could you?

Don't go out with Sandra. will you?

ch eck

your understand ing

In sentences with a negative word like never , little , no , hardly , nobody, etc, we

use a positive tag.

Younever turn up on time, do you?

Nobody called while l was out, did they?

There's no reason to leave now, is there?

Question tags

In sentences with the verb

be

asa main verb, we make question tags using

be .

We usually make the question tagpositive if the verb is negative and negative

ifthe verb is positive.

It's warm, isn't it?

You/re

not nervous. are you?

In tag questions where the subject is 'there'. we repeat 'there: inthe tag.

There's a lot ofvocabulary to learn, ísn't there?

In sentences with an auxiliary verb, we make question tags using the

auxiliary.

You/re

going to Greg's party, aren't you?

Youhaven't forgotten, have you?

ľm meeting you tomorrow, aren't l? (Not: ..., 8Hm't I?)

Emily can play the piano, can't she?


l Y ou ' ve m et P au l, . . you? What ismissing? d idn ' tt haven ' t/ a r en t

2 What question tag do we use after Let'« .. . ?d o w e ť wi ll we /sha li w e

,

25

i



i

I

I

I

~~Sl

, ,

~

,O

l

. -

.

~~

t : :

~

-

eport ed speech

With reported questi ons, we use

if

or

whether

and change the tense and the

word order .

'Have you

finished?

Sarah asked me. Sarah asked me íf'/whether

l

had finished.

I C:

r~;

u .

;; i

\'

t o

-, )

ci

- '

tj

, -

iu

L.

~: ..

.

iJ

ú

_J

We use reported speech when we want to tell someone what someone else

said. We usually have to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the past.

We sometimes have to change other words as well, such as pronouns

(we,

you,

etc) or words that refer to time and place

( n ow , h e re ,

etc .). We also have

to decide which reporting verb to use , for exarnple.

sa id , admi tt ed , s ugges t ed ,

etc.

With

wh -

questions

( wh at , w h o,

etc), we repeat the question word and change

the tense and the word order.

WhoIeft the fridge open?' asked

Mrs Harris.

t:

h.

,

This is how the tenses change ...

Direct speech

Pre sen t s imp le

'l

am

hungry.' said Tim.

Pre sen t con ti nuous

'l am writing a let ter, ' said Al ice.

Pas t s impl e

'We

had

an ice-cream on the beach,'

said Colin.

Pas t con ti nuous

'We were t alkíng about Iootball .'

she said.

Pre sen t pe r fe c t s imp le

'l

have had

a great idea ' Simon said.

Pre sen t pe r fe c t con ti nuous

'Georgia

has been waiting

all day,'

my mum said.

, - ,

U

~:.

Mrs Harr is asked who had left

the ťridge open.

.• Reported speech

•• Past s im ple

Tim said (that) he

was

hungry.

•• P as t c o ntin uo us

Alice said (tha t) she

was writing

a letter.

• • P as t p er fe ct s im ple

Colin said that they

had had

an

ice-cream on the beach.

• • P as t p e rf ec t c on ti nu ou s

She said that they

had been

t alkíng about football .

•• P as t p er fe ct s im ple

Simon said (that) he had had a

great idea.

•• P as t p e rf ec t c on ti nu ou s

My mum said (that) Georgia had

been waiting all day.

We also often have to change words that refer to time and place:

• h er e becomes there

• t od ay

becomes

t ha t d ay

• now becomes then or at t ha t mome nt

• t omo r row becomes t he f ol lo w in g d ay or t he n ex t d ay

• y e s te rday

becomes

t he d ay b ef or e

• ago becomes before or t he p r ev io u s d a y

~j

c,

'ti

•• ,j

The words

t hi s, t ha t, t he s e

and

those

change as follows:

• t h is / tha t

+

noun become the/that

• t h e se t tho s e +

noun become

the/those

• t h is / tha t ( as subject o r object) become it

• t h e se / tho s e

(as subject) become

they

• t he se / lha s e (as object) become them

Jerry said (that) he

could

speak

three languages.

She said (that) Ben

would

be at

the par ty.

The Headteacher said (that) all

students had to be on time.

Alice said she hated the/that film.

Tony said he wanted

the/those

books.

Dad said

it

was a great show.

Mary said

they

were n ice cand les.

John said he had bought them in

town.

'l left my purse

here

five minutes ago.' said Donna.

Donna said (that) she had left her purse there five minutes before.

'We can finish these exercises tomorrow morning our teacher said.

Our teacher said we

could

finish

the

exercises

the following morning.

' l hate this f ilm, ' said Alice.

' l want

these

book s ,' Tony said.

This is a great show,' Dad said.

These

are n ice candles.' said Mary.

'l bought

these

in town,' said John.

(The

p a st p e rf ec t s imp le

and

pas t pe r fe c t con ti nuous

t en ses s tay the same. )

Some modal verbs change ...

'l

can

speak three language s ,' said Jerry.

'Ben will be at the party,' she said.

'All students must be on time :

said the Headteacher.

( ; 7 -

',~,~



I

I

I

I

I - -

~;~,~)

,~

li:

t e

v

We can also report what some one said using d ifferent verbs, each wi th their

own grammar.

'1

didnt steal your money ' Peter said.

C:

~

o

'No, 1wont let you go: my mother said.

'What about an ice cream?' my dad said.

. . .

u,

.

'

i.

L

\))

'

~

-~

Tm a great chess p layer: said Will.

Peter denied stealing/having

stolen my money.

My mother refused to let me go.

My dad suggested an ice cream.

My dad suggested (our) having

an ice cream.

My dad suggested (that) we

( should) have an ice-cream.

Will claimed to be a great chess

player.

With impera tive statements, we use areporting verb such as told, ordered,

commanded, etc.

'Sit still ' sa id the hairdresser.

'Don't say a word: said Carol.

'Form a line: said the officer.

The hairdresser told me to s it s ti ll

Carol to Id me not to say a word.

The officer ordered them to form

a line.

We of ten dont make any changes to the verb when we are report ing what

somebody said very soon after they said it, when we are reporting a scientific

fact or when something is stil l true.

'I t' s quite cold. ' said Harry.

'Light from the sun takes eight minutes

to reach us: the professor said.

Harry just said (that) it's quite

cold.

The professor said (t hat) light

from the sun takes eight

minutes to reach us.

'1 have a niece in America: Mr Wood said. Mr Wood said (that) he has a

niece in America.

We also dori 't make changes 10 the verb when we use areporting verb in the

present tense.

Mark says that he is staying in tonight.

(heck your understanding

l What do we use reported speech for?

2 What do we change ag o to in reported speech?

3 Write three reporting .verbs,

\ ;Y~< l ; i< ;

, l ' } » ';: t :,? ;Y ' - i ~\;túi;

Indi rect questions

~ ;

.,)

. _ .

We use indirect questions when we want to ask questiorrs politely. We use an

introductory phrase (Cou ld y ou t ell m e w he re ...) followed by the normal word

order (... th e b an k is?). We don't use question word order in the second part.

Some indirect questions need a question mark at the end and some dont.

Look at the l ist below .

'V

C

t;. :

'j c-,

'V

..J

l . :> , i

~,)

1 ' ; -

'lJ

, .

bJ.

Some introductory phrases ...

with a final question mark

Can/Could you tel me ?

Could you let me know ?

Do you know ... ?

Do you think you could tel me ... ?

without a final question mark

1 wonder if you can/could tell me .

1

wonder if you could let me know .

l wonder if you know .

l would like to know .

V

v

• . .J

Here are some example sentences. Notice the word order ...

Do you know who that man is? (Not: Do you líHow ,ibo is taat man?)

Could you let me know where the meeting is?

1wonder

if

you know where l can find a chemisťs.

1would like to know when l will receive my refund.

Do you think you could tel me how this works?

ľ

I I

When the direct ques tion is a 'yes/no' question, we use if or whether.

Direct question: Are you going to John's dinner party?

lndirect question: Could you let me know if/whether you are going to

Johns dinner party?

If the relative pronoun (who , whi ch, etc) is the subject of the relative clause

and there is no other noun or pronoun. we just add an introductory phrase:

direct question indirect question

Who is responsible? l wonder if you could tell me who is responsible.

Which is better? Do you know which is better?

cheek your understanding

l Why do we use indirect questions?

2 Which word is missing? . yo u

tell

m e w ha t

timeitis,

please?

3·}.QQ'a'miJil (;ii~ect<f]l'1bhionsľľeed 'aquestion;matk; éll'.thétend:?,iy~s/ri9 ·> .n

-, ' ; . , , ; . : ~ ' , : .-( ' (: ' ~ ' :- \' _ ~ : : f ( . -

~ ~ ~ ' 0 ~ ~ ~ ;~ : : ' :

~ x / ~ : : · ; ; ; : , ä , : X <

j·j}j ·,ť;j,t·ri(} / '~,-;-.,:,:.~. . '~ ' : : ~ t > f f \ :' i~;).~·~:)t1rlfiit~ľf~t1~.,.i'~~ft%ŕ .f:.\:~· :'() ·~

29

. > l



I

I J -

30

~;'

~-)

~

l,

tij

-

• make an effort to achieve

something

, , ,

' -

S

'o

.

u

v

~~

'

i

stop

• stop an activity

• pause and do something else in the

middle of an activity

Infinitives and

-ing

forms after verbs

Some verbs are followed by the fu ll infinitive and some by the -in q form,

Some verbs can be followed by both, some times with a change in meaning.

Here are some common verbs that are followed by '

go on

• continue

• stop one activity and start

a new one

tu

<il

í\J

~,

afford, agree, ap pe ar ,

arranqe, ask. attempt, be

pleased/able, etc,

cho ose, decide , e xpect,

fail, happen, help , ho pe,

in tend. learn, manaqe,

offer.

plan , prepare,

p r e tend , p romis e, refu se,

seem , t en d , w a n t, w ish,

wouldl ike

be gi n , cont inu e, hate ,

be int end, love ,

pref e r,

sta rt

adm it, ap pr eci at e, avoi d,

be capable of goo d/ba d at,

be in te rest ed in, ca n t help ,

ca n t stand , co nsi der , de lay,

deny, di scu ss , dis lik e, enjoy ,

fee l, like, finish, g ive up,

imagine, involve , look

fo rw ar d t o, m ention ,

mind, m i ss , p r acti se ,

succeed

in : suggest , ta lk

dG ou Cth ifzk'of '

re gr et

• be sony about what has happened

• be sorry about giving somebody

bad news

like

• enjoy

• choose to/be in the habit

of

think it

These verbs mean different things when they are followed by the fu ll

infini tive or the

-inq

form.

rem ember

• have a picture in your mind

of a past event

• do something you are/were

planning to do

ľve been trying to open this jar for

ten minutes

~

l

: & :1

l stopped smoldng ten years ago.

l was studying all even ing, but l

stopped to have a snack at seven.

'O

f .ô

t ,;

~~

l.)

After the break. our teacher went

on explaining the grammar to us.

After explaining the grammar, our

teacher went on to tell us what the

homework was.

t~

CI.

~t~

..

k,.

,

~ . io

:;,

~.~

- J

You'll regret speaking to me like that

We regret to inform you that the

fl ight to Berl in has been cancel led.

ľm sure we all like rece iving presents.

l like to leave home at seven so that l

get to work on time.

•. When we want to use

woul d lik e/ prefer

for a particular occasion, we

• use the fu ll in finiti ve .

. _- - _

.._ - _

-- -

..-- .-- --- -- ---

Do you remember visiting

Germany when you were two?

Did you remember to calI Diane

this morning?

l would like gOiRg to the cineff ia this e 'l'ening. ( .x)

l would like to go to the cinema this evening.

.t)

l would prefer to meet on Saturday, i f possible. .t)

[orqet

• not be able to remember a pa st

event (usually

ľ ll neve r f or get ... )

1'11never forget meeting Paula for

the first time.


• not do something you are/were

planning to do

Oh, l forgat to ask Donna about

this eveníng:

tr y

• do something as an experiment

to solve a problem

It's hot in here Leťs try opening a

window

(

;;~

, ,_. -~



. .

~

f'';

,II

IA

~

E

E

'

V

lu

U

l . t .•

.

~

n.

J i'

,-

Il>

r

v ,

I r

'II

-..l

I I.

l :

f

i i,

I I

I

i

, l

I

I

~)

Prefer would rother hod better

-

~)

Prejer and would rather are both used to express preferences. Had better is used

for saying what someone should do. Try not to confuse them. We dori't say

w 8 /J1 l d heller. They are used like this ...

Conditionals l :zero, first, second

prefer

l prefer basketbal I to footbal]. (generally)

l prefer playing basketball, rather than football. (general y)

l preíer playing basketball to (playing) football. (generally)

l prefer to play basketball. rather than (play) Iootball. (generally, or on

this occasion)

l preler not to play basketbal during the week. (generally, or on this

occasion)

l would prefer to play basketbal this weekend rather than Iootball. (on

this occasion)

There are many different kinds of sentence using

if ,

and it can be a little

confusing. You have to decide whether you're talking about the pa st the

present or the future. You also have to decide whether you're talking about a

real possibility or an unreal possibility (unlikely, impossible or hypothetical).

'

tj

' • ..

~

. .

l:.

t t

v,

'ú

--l

eal possibility, present and future

Zero conditional: if ... present tense ' present tense

This is used to talk about general truths and scientific facts.

If you read a lot, you learn lots of vocabulary.

If you are making a cake. you need

10

use fresh eggs.

.: '~~ '~~~:~'~~~~~;;;'~ ~~;'~~;~':~'~~/á..

•..............................................................................

Youcan alsowrite al conditional sentences the other way round, with the if

clause second .

You learn lots of vocabulary if you read a lot.

Youneed to use fresh eggs if you are making a cake.

would rather

I would rather play basketbal than (play) footbal . (generally, or on this

occasion)

I'd rather not play basketball. (on this occasion)

had better

Youd better see a doctor.

Youd better do your homework, rather than sit and watch TY.

Youd better do your hornework. instead of sitting and watching TY.

You'd better not fail the test.

First conditional: if ... present tense ... will ... bare infinitive

This is used to ta lk about real possibilities in the present, in the future, or

generally.

If you read a lot, you will learn lots of vocabulary.

You will need a good dictionary if you are learning English.

If you have studíed. you'll do well in today's test.

Instead of will, we can also use these other modals or the imperative.

If you are going to the party, you can take this cake [ made.

Ifit's too late. we

should cali

them tomorrow.

l

might/may

take up French if l pass my English exam.

If you 've

finíshed.

do

the next exercise.

• r··~h~~.·~~·~~~··~~iki~~·~b·~~~·~h~·f~~~;~,··.~~~·;;:::.;~~;~~;.~~~;j

\: :jjJI i

if ..· Wil l . ..

i

1 I f you .,.•m see Tifla tSffiSHSW, tell her l'ffi SSHy.

( )C )

1

1 . If you see Tina tomorrow, tell her I'm sorry. (.t) :

Check your unders tand ing

l Which is correct?

l wou ld rather

staytto

stay here.

2 You better se ea doctor. Which word is missing?would/had

should

3' Which'is correctTI wó;;ld,j>( 'athe;·~.';/I·'don~tJatheť .. ;li :J;~í1iiÚ dih~h

· ~ ; ~ ~ ~ ? 2 ; ~ Ä : - . :. . . · ' . ~ - ; : , : ' . ~ .; ~ : : : ~ : : ~ . : . , ~ : : J ~ ~ . ~ ~ ; ~ ~ ~ ; ~ ; ~ ; ~ ~ ; ; ; ; ~ ~ , : ~ ~

(33

,



I

I,~~

~-I -- -

. :.t .

s i:

'U

, . .

. -

ti

\ :'2

r :;

.~

-

o

I f I h .

( 'w ~ ~ ;~ ~ ;~ ~ ~ ~ '~ id - i ik ~ ' ( ' ~ - '~ ~ - ~ ~ - ) - - i~ ~ - ' i i ; ~ - ~ '~

; ~ d ; ~ - i ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ '~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ - ~ - ~ ' - i i k ' ~ '- ' - - - - '

.i

thiS

.

lwould like to study French if lpass my English exam.

We can't use

un les s

to r eplace

if not

when

if not

doesn't mean

ex cep t if

If lwasnt ili, I'd play tomorrow. .t)

(ifnotdoe sn't mean ex cep t Ifhere because you are actually ill)

so we can't say:

UHle SS

l

was

iiI , 1'E l

Ilia . (SffiSfFSW. ( X )

Check your unde rs tanding

in case

In ca se means 'because it mighť. We use it to talk about things we do

10

prevent an unwanted result. When it refers to the future, it is ľollowed by the

present tense (like

if ).

Write down the address in case you forget it.

(= Write down the address because you might forget it.)

as long as

As lo ng as

means the same as

o nl y i f

When it refers to the future, it is followed

by the present tense (like iť). You can also use s o l on g as with the same

meaning.

You can borrow my pen, as/so long as you give it back to me at the end

of the lesson.

(= You can borrow my pen only if you give it back to me at the end of the

lesson.)

~

.

'

L

Q

• ..

,

'

,

'd

_J

l Which kind of conditional do we use to talk about real possibilities?

2 Which ofthese is used for an unreal possibility? If ...

present tense .. .I

If.:,

ipast:

tense ...

Unreal possibility, present and future

Second conditional: if ... past tense ... would ... bare inf initi ve

This is used to talk about unreal possibilities (things that are unlikely,

impossible or hypothetical) in the present and in the future,

If l won the lottery, l would move to Hawaii.

I'd get a new car if l had enough money.

Iť you weren't having a less on now, what would you be doing?

The use of the past here is called the

un rea l

past ,

because it refe rs to the

present or the future, not the past.

Instead of would, we can also use these other modals.

If lwon the lottery, lcould leave my job.

lmight feel happier if lwent to another school.

Check your unders tand ing

l What does unl ess mean?

2

Which phrase means

'because

it

rnight'?

3i .i

W ha ·tido ~s.·as ong fas,mean.? .. , ,.i ,'

, . > : , : : ~ ; l: ) -~ : ~i i? :; ~ j ; , ~ a : ,~ ~ j :4 t\ ť t /: , ' _ ~ ~ ~ L ' ~ - ~ ;~\; ~ ~ ~ i T~:I\ ~'

nstead of lfI was .. . we can also say lf l were ..., especially in formal English.

If l were Prime Minister, l would introduce new Iaws against pollution.

For information on talking about

unreal po ss ibilities

in the past (third

conditional), see page 52.

UnIess in case as long as

unless

Unl es s

means' except if'. We can use it to replace

if ... not

in some sentences.

When it refers to the future, it is followed by the present tense (like if) .

I'H be there unless it rains.

/=

I'll be there, except if i t rains./

/=

l wonr be there if it raim./

Modals l

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs which express things like possibility,

obligation. etc.

Modal verbs ...

• don't

change for person or tense.

He míght go to the cinema tonight.

(Not: He ffiigJ:.HSgs ts the eineffia tsnil' ht.)

._~

. .

w

. .,

\ ::

t:

'u

'j

t~

L_

t

'- ' -

,

,

(3~~



,

/

l

i,

t

l '

I

1

I

I

I

I , - - ,

~ V , = ~ . J

~.~

) . -- ::

'u

t.l

• dori't use

do

in questions.

Can you play the guitar?

(Not: Do you caR play tfie guitar?)

are followed by the bare infinitive (without

to) .

l

think

l

will calI John.

(Not: ltAiRk lwill to cali JOHR.)

• can be made negative using no t or -n 'to

You shouldrr't speak to your mo ther like that.

(Not: You dOR't sAould speak to your Rother like tha t.)

• dont have an infinitive. You have to use another word or phrase.

lhope to be able to attend the mee ting.

(Not: lhOfle to caR atteRd the ReetiRg.)

The modal verbs include

will,

would,

ca n , cou ld , m ay,

should, must, miqht,

shall

and

ought to .

We also use the phrase

ha ve (ga t) t o

like a modal. although it

changes like an ordinary verb.

He has to go to work. .t)

He's got to go to work. .t)

Does

he have 10 go to work?

.t)

Has he got to go to work?

(.t)

DBe 5

he

ka•••

2:et te IW

to work (X)

M ustn

t does not mean the same as

do n

t

have to.

You mustrr't speak while the teacher is speaking.

(Don

't

do it.)

You don't have to get me a birthday present. (It isn't necessary, but you

can if you want to.)

Although you can form questions beginning with must, it's very unusual and

formal.

Must we argue about this all the time?

expressing obIigation:

must, have to

Mus t is generally used for personal obligation (feelings o f the speaker and

hearer, etc) and

hav e (ga t) to

for external obligation (rules, Iaws, what other

people tell you to do, etc). They a re both used to talk about the present, the

future and general obligation.

l

must stop eating so much fast food. (personalobligation)

You must make more of an effort in class. (personal obliga tion)

lhave to be at work at nine tomorrow. (external obligation)

Do you have to wear a uniform at your school? (external obligation)

Have you got to wear a uniform at your school? (external obligation)

:~

'o

tU

' v

f c

t~

'O

l i .:

E

.v

U

;...

t..:)

u

. . .

~J

Ll.,

o

'

-

: ..

~

'

u

. - .

tj

c..

'

.,

> i .

~ )

·u

l

•

[ ' ' ' T o ; ~ i k

a b -~ ~ '~ - - ~ h -~ ~ ~ -~ ~ -~ -~ -~ -~ ~ --h ~ d - ; ; : --- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - ..- - -- -

\ \ :

l , We all had to leave the building when the alarm went off.

Like other modal ve rb s,

must

doesn't have an infinitive. soafter other modals

and when we need a full infinitive we use ( to ) h av e t o.

If I'rn late. ľll have to apologise to the boss again.

I'rn sorry to have to tell you this, but you 've failed the exam.

H ave gat to

is generally more informal than

ha ve to .

expressing ability: can, could

Can you open this jar? It's stu ck. (present ability)

My cousin can play ten different musicai instruments. (general ability)

l could walk when l was just six months old. (general ability in the pas t)

l wish l could play the violin. (hypothetical ability)

It's more co mm on to form questions using ha ve to .

Do we have to argue about this all the time?

asking for and givi ng permission: can, could, may

We use

can , co ul d

and

m ay

to ask for and give permission now, in the future

and generally. M ay is more polite than could and can , and co uld is more polite

than

ca n.

Can l stay at Anna's this weekend. Mum?

Excuse me. Could l borrow your pen for a second?

May [ speak to you for a moment, Mr Connors?

/ / e t . : · · - ~ - ; k ~ · - ~ ~ h ~ ~ - ~ ~ - d ~ i - - ~ ~ - ; b ~ : - - ~ ~ ~ - - d ; ~ ~ - ~ ; - ; - h ~ ~ ~ · - ~ ~.;~f~-~~~;~~ -:-~ ~ ·~ f~ ·~~ ·.

• [ other modals and when we need a full infinitive we use (t o) be

l

abl e to .

: I'Il be able to get a better job after l finish university.

l might be able to see you tomorrow at six.

l pretended to be able to speak Japanese.

-'\

(3?~



,)

. .> <

t ' i'

lZ

cu

ľ

n

j :Q

• . .

,a

E

E

c O

. .

1. ')

ii i

• . . .

l

}

i( i

,,

il i

~

. I

,

,~

ti

. -

l

It)

tQ

-l

1

i :

lh

,~ '

~

' j'

.1

, I

r I

l

l . :

, I

I

I

l'

, l

,.

i \ G ;J

w-:

When talking about the past, we normally use could .

My parents said l could go to the party so 1started getting ready.

(see pages 26-28 for more about reported speech)

asking for and giving advice:

should, ought to

We use should and ought to to ask for and give advice about now, the

future, or generally.

You should tell your teacher about your problems.

We ought to cali if we're going to be late.

Shouldn't we start getting ready for the party?

With non-stative verbs, we often use the continuous inľinitive

(b e -in g)

to talk

abou t act ions happening now or about probabie future arrangements. '

They should/ought to be having their dinner now.

Ben should/ought to be arriving at about seven oclock.

expressing certa inty:

must, can't

We use must when we are (almost) sure about something now, in the future

or generally, often because we have seen some evidence.

Your father's late. He must be stuck in traffic on his way home.

Hi You mu st be Mrs Johnson.

(For criticising past actions. see page 53)

expressing possibility:

may, might, could, can

We use can to talk about general possibilities.

In Russia, it can be quite hot in the summer.

When we are (almost) sure that something isn't true. often because we have

seen some evidence, we use

can

' t o

That can't be the postman at the door. He's already been today.

With non-stative verbs, we often use the continuous infiniti ve

(b e -in g)

to talk

about actions happening now or about probabie future arrangements.

They must/can't be having their dinner now.

Kelly mu st/can't be going to Athens this weekend.

(For the modal perfect, see pages 48-49. For

will

and

shall

referring to the

future, see page 23. For would in conditional sentences, see page 52)

We use

may, might

and

could

to talk about possibilities in the present, the

future and generally. We sometimes use may to show that something is more

likely to happen.

l may be a bit late for Friday's lesson.

Peter might have the right answer for number ten.

There could be some easy questions on the exam.

Ch ec k y ou r u nd erstand ing

With non-stative verbs. we often use the continuous infinitive

(be -ing)

to talk

about actions happening now or about possible future arrangements:

Ian may be doing his homework right now.

Sophia might be playing tennis at the moment.

l could be going to London this weekend.

(For deductions about pa st possibility, see pages 48-49)

expressing probability:

should, ought to

We use

should

and

ought to

to say that something is probably true or will

probably happen.

l What follows a modal verb?

the infinitive without 'to'Ithe infinitive

with 'to'.

Mr Davies should have the report by now.

(=

Mr Davies probably has the report by now.)

The exam results ought to be on the website by now.

(=

The exam results are probablyon the website by now.)

- ' > <

~

'u

<il

l-o

lV

E

E

v

' - '

o

'-,

t~.;

,.1

'

~.

Ô~-

v,

~j



;:

i r f

i j : i

~

l t i

'l

I t :

j i ' :

i~; i

I

i i ' :

il :

l ,;

h

l ; :

1 : ,

I

,

L i

',

H

l , ~ :

f t: 1

i :

l:'

l ,

': :

, ,

l

' ,

,

l , '

i'

I

~

i

i :

l;

~

•. .i.

c

IÓ

l

-

.

E

E

~~

CI

Relative clauses

Relative clauses tell US more about people and things.

0 -; _

In the first sentence. the relative clause identifies the man we are ta lking

about. It is called a

defini nq

(or

ide nt ify in g) relative cla use ,

The senrence does

not make complete sense without the

relative clause ,

The man is now ve ry rich, (Which man? We don 't know.)

In the second sentence. the relative clause just gives us extra information. It

is called a

non-defini ng

relative clau se . The sentence makes complete sense

without il.

Relative clauses are of ten introduced by relative pronouns. We use ,,,

whi ch

for things Have you got the book

which

l l en t you?

wh o

for people Theres the man

who

stole my bag

that

for people, things, This is the bike

that

I got for Christmas.

times and pJaces

who se for possession

'<l

~

'

. ,

U.

t..

'

i

' .

.

y

Bill Gates is now a very rich man.

when

for times

where for pJaces

wh y

wh om

for reasons

for people as the

object of the

relative clause

(in very formal

English) and after

prepositions

In defining relative clauses, we .. ,

• don't use commas.

Those are the books which I told you about yesterday.

• can use

that

instead of

who

or

which (th at

is more informal).

These are the books that l told you about yesterday.

• often leave out the relative pronoun when it is the object of the clause,

Those are the books l told you about yesterday.

In non-defining relative clauses, we .

• separate the relative clause with commas.

Ronald Reagan, who was the President of the United States, is ilI.

• can't use that as a relative pronoun.

ROHalá ReagaH, tHat '••••s tHe PresiáeHt of tHe UHiteá States, is iiI.

(.K )

• can't leave out the relative pronoun.

ROHalá Rea~afl. was t lie Presiáefl t ef t li e Ufl iteá Sta tes, i s i iI.

(.K)

•

hen the reJative pronoun

(which, w ho,

etc) is the subject of the

relative clause, you do

not

need another subject.

Thaťs the gir l who is going out with John.

(.l)

TRaťs tRe li irlWHOsHe is li oiflli O\:ltwitli JeHH. ( . K )

W hi ch can also be used to refer to the rest of the seruence:

He got an A in his exarn.

which

impressed everybody.

(This doesn't mean his exam impressed everybody. It means the fact that he

gat an A impressed everybody.)

Tony,

whose

father is a lawyer, is in trouble

with the police.

I still remember the moment

when

l saw

her for the first time.

England,

where

footbalI began, has strong

sporting traditions.

Thaťs the reason

why

hes aJways late.

AII students

whom

the Headteacher has

invited to dinner must reply before 5pm.

Check your under s tand ing

l Which reJative pronoun do we use for things? whoťwhich/whom

2

Here

's

th e b ook whi ch l borrow edfrom John.

Does this need any commas?

. .stno.

í~~l~.~,~»f{: s

;(,~~?.r~

,/~Jl,~I.:

> : r. ' - ~ ;

~.r~:~.:~ú;:}~L~

.,'if ;.:: :'-,

r ~ ~ : {· ~ l~ · : ~ ': . ( :i ; j. fl \

Thaťs the man

to whom

I gave the money.

Relat ive pronouns and preposi tions

Where

can be replaced by

preposition + wh ich.

The resort

where

we spent our holiday was very quiet.

(/= The resort

in which

we spent our holiday was very quiet./)

.:

. . . •

~

t:

, , ::.

'-'

j

l',

,

~ l

i

, ' .

i:.•

\;.

,~

-.~

( 4 1 )

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j,

{

il

t

~

~

r i

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i;

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f ,

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r

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:1 :

l':

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: · .i

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i

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42

I l,

l,

,, , , -

f:;

Ii

ul

.

U

I E

C

rg

• . .

o

Less fonnally, we can put the preposition at the end of the clause. When the

preposition is at the end of the clause, we can also use tha t.

The resort which we spent our holiday in was very quiet.

The resort that we speru our holiday in was very quiet,

We can use other prepositions apart from in , The one we chaose depends on

the norrnal meaning of the preposition.

The school that/which my mum went to was very traditional.

The restaurant at which we met was closed.

My brorhers so handsome that hes thinking of becoming amodel.

We dreve LO the stat ion so slowly that we rnissed our Irain.

I have to d o so much homework that I don't have time for hobbies.

When so is used to mean as a res ult , it isn't Iollowed by th at.

It was very late so l d ecided to leave.

.r)

It ',', 'a s v e ry la te s o

that

l E leciE let : io leave. (X )

•

' : : 'J

'.J

~-

.

J

e.,

».

t

,

,~

suc h

We can do the same thing with when.

The day when I won the lottery srarted badly.

(= The day on which I won the lottery started badly.)

(= The day that/which l won the lottery on started badly.)

... (h at ...

{

a /an

+

adjective

+

singular noun }

... such...

adjective + plural noun

a lot of + noun

When we use where and when, however, we don't need a preposition.

I will always love New York, the city where I was born. .r)

l will always love New York, the city which/that I was born in .

.r)

l will always love New York, the city in which l was born.

.r)

[ w i ll a lw a vs love P> l ewY t : lr l c tA e city where l w as l3 em in . (X)

I twas such a boring lesson that l feI aslcep.

My cousins tell such funny jokes that I can't help laughing.

We've got such a lot of homework that I d ont think l can do it all.

• In all the above examples, the word

th at

is optional.

My brother's so hand some hc's thinking of becoming a model.

l have to do so much homework l dont have time for hobbies .

My cousins tell such funny jokes l can't help laughing.


l Write the missing preposition.

Thi s is the to wn . ..

m o th er was born.

... ..w hi ch my

Both so and suc h can be used without a th a t clause as an ernphatic way of

saying 'very' or 'really'.

-

You're so stupid

It was such a great film

Result clauses: SO such,too, n o u h

So , su ch, too

and

enough

can be used to talk about results.

so

{

adj ect ive }

... so .. . adverb .. , that .. .

many /much + noun

too

{

adjective

. .. too... adverb

m any/ muc h

+ noun

( +

fo r

and/or

fu ll

infinitive )

T:

I V

úl

~J

~

~

.\i

o

1 ~.

.:-'

o.

r-)

(~~~

l i

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il :,

II '

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iE

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f : :

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l>

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II

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t i

Ir

it

il

l i 0~'\

~V'--)

They told my dad hes too old.

They told my dad hes too old for the job.

They told my dad hes too old to do the job.

Youre driving too slowly.

lcan't come out tonight because ľve gat too much work to do.

It's too difficult for me to do.


H ,

J

l What do we use too to refer to? som eth inq p ositive/someth inq neqative

Z It was so h ot th at l g a t a h ea dache . Is this correct? yes/no

- :::: ... ,,,: ::.:~ , -~ :....; : : , .i __

>: ': ' : : ;

,·:_,·:,iitr.·~.~~.:)iJ: ~·,;.,~~:',::~i:'<>'~,<_ ': .C :,; ,.~

.;X }'

::Reď sold eni)1 ,I jJh thá t J{ čé 4h d rive

qqir:.I$ 'thi $ ' (Correét?.yeslnii

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~ i' :X Ú ~ :' ~ i j; ~ J éi . ~ : : - ; ;· ;:;.::-~::~~j{~~iifý'~ ~~;\~~~Jr.~9';~:11l~,~~r~~~;~~~:;_,:~~f .J· ť ; :}h : i:. ~ ~ t .: . \~ ~ \. '

r:

,.

l'

:v

'~ .

~ f :

•

In fini tives of purpose

t.~•

~~

To o is used to refer to something that is bad or negative or that

prevents us from doing something.

It's too cold to play outside.

.t)

Don'r WOHV Yel:l are

tee

BOBl:llar. (X )

We can use a full infinitive to refer to someones purpose,

l ra ng to speak to George.

We left early to get to the station on time.

l raFlg

far te

sJ3eal( to George.

(X)

V>/·ed early

for 2ettitu~te

tlie 5tation on liffie. (X)

'

:;

'f}

..,

When the mean ing is positive, use other words and phrases. such as

really ,

ex tre mely

(with adjectives or adverbs) or

lot s of

(with nouns).

Dori't worry You are really popular.

We can also use the phrase in orde r before the full infinitive. In general. in

orde r

ismore formal than the full infinitive alone.

l am writing in order to request further information.

In formal contexts. we can use the phrase

so

as before the full infinitive.

So as

isnt very common in conversation.

The Prime Minister today met MPs so as to inform them of his decisíon.

With a negative infinitive and with stative verbs, we normally use

in ord er no t

or so as not. We don't normally use the full inťinitive on its own.

We left early in order/so as

no t

to be late.

l studied hard in order/so as

to

be ready for the test.

enough

.. , (no t) enough

+

noun

(+

fo r and/or + f ul l i nfini tiv e)

Yes, ľve gat enough time.

Yes. I've gat enough time to help you.

No, l dori't have enough time to help you.

No, there isn't enough time for us to go shopping.

{

adjective } ( )

... (n o t) adverb enough + for and/or f u ll i n fi n it ive

Youre old enough to go to school on your own now.

Iťs not warm enough for us to go swimming.

1didn't learn the vocabulary well enough to pass the test.


l

l we nt h ome fo r to get m y k eys.

Is this correct?

yes/no

raserri~<l~s the sameas

i n o rder? so t ha tt as

for/so

as

o ;'#J~t?Ji;~ idai~fi~1;t tJ ;ttiifthéif~t:1I4 i~ /i lJa;í.~;ô r1~ i[,~f~ ,~;;.;.

;~l:·•..

. . r . . . : : :

;'o~

•

oo and eno ugh are not followed by a th a t clause.

Tlie (eUee ' ,. ,.a5

tee

l iot tRat l EOlo:llaFl'triFlI( il.

(X)

Tlie (eUee was nor €OlE eReu2k tliat l f8l:1lE E rinl( il.

(X )

( 4 5 )

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, f ~ ;



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.

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t :

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ir:

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lii~l

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ti i

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lv~~)

t.

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ll

-

gradable

adjectives

and adverbs

James is.; ,_,_,tall. ; :

t:

We use different words with gradable and ungradable adjectives and adverbs.

'(

'

. 0

• . .

rú

~

E :

The causative

;U

, . ,

cl

.

.

I'm having my hair cut tomorrow.

We got our garden done last week.

William should have his car cleaned. It 's a mess

In this sentence. we can lise words that refer to degree or amount.

very

a little

a

bit

rather

James is quite tall.

really

extremely

incredibly

ungradable adjectives and adverbs

The match was . amazing.

ci

l<.j

lJ

. . . .

t~

'

'

.

tt

IV

L

We use the causative when somebody else does something for liS. We often

use it for things we pay other people to do. Like the passive (see pages

18-19),

we lise the causatíve when the person who does the action is unimportant or

obvious or for ernphasis. We form the causative using .. ,

hav e in the right form + obj ect + past parti cip le

We can also use the verb ge t instead of have. C el is less formal. As with the

passive

voice,

we can lise by when we want to say who does the action.

Y ou s hould

have your a rm looked at by a doctor.

s..

'

1',

'u

. . . . •

~.'

C,

'l,.

I

• and with when we want to refer to the tool or equipment.

You

look l ike youve had your hair cut with a knife and fork

In this sentence, we can use words that mean 'completely'.

absolutely

The match was completely amazing.

totalIy

I f I I 1 \ This structure can also be used to refer to things that o ther people

• did/have done to us but which we didnt ask them to do, for

exarnple. stealing something of ours.

ľve had my bag stolen.

(=

My bag has been stolen.)

•

uite with a gradable adjective means 'fairly'.

Quite with an ungradable adjective means 'completely'.



l

Which of these is gradable? perfecttcool/wonderful

2, .. ,w.lli.<;ho~ttllese, is ungradable?

beautiful /impossible/tall

, ~ i ; i_ - w h i :~ h f 6 n b e s ~ : , d Q

we use with ungradable .adjectives? ,',

~ . : ,~ J f ~ ( l ~ ~ ~ ~ t~ ~ ; t g ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ ;t~ r } Ú i5 ~ ~

radab le and ungradab le ad jec ti ves and adverbs

There are two di fferent kinds of adjective and adve rb. Words like happ y, bi g,

ang ry, s low ly, quickly, etc, are qradable. This means we think of these ideas as a

scale.

big very big extremely big

........

~

incredibly big

Words like wonderiul, im possibl e, per fect, etc, are ungradab le . We think of the se

as things you either are, or arent. In other words you are either perfect or

you arent. We don't think of these ideas as being on a scale.

r/ -

\ , ~ :4

W

;I



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r.~

W : ~

~ li: ~

l i l : ~ i j ~

I' , i

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ili

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~ .i

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I

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i ' i

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-- -. > -

-

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~

.. . ,

,

\jj

II

Modals 2 :modal perfect

Modal

+

perfect infinitive (have

+

past participle)

You must have felt great when you got your exam results.

You shouldn't have spoken to her like that.

You drove without a Iicence? You might have killed someone

Paul might have forgotten our date.

Could you have left your keys at the hotel'?

must, can't, couldn't

We use must /can t+ perfect inf init ive to talk about guesses about the past that

we are (almost) sure of.

O f

ten, we are (alrnost) sure because we have some

evidence.

Theres

John's

coat. He must have ťorgotten it.

Angie hates sweet things. She couldn't/can't have eaten the cake that

was in the fridge.

'

v,

' v

• •. 1

should, ought to

We use s h ou l d/ o ug h t l o + perfect inj ini t ive to cri tici se people (o r ourselves) for

things they díd/didn't do.

Oh, no l should have called Tony at six and I forgot ( l didn't

call

him.)

We shouldn't have left the

da g

at home on its own. (But we did.)

You really ought to have invited Maria to your wedding. (But you didn't.)

You ought not to have copied

Rita 's

homework. (But you did.)

may, miqht, could

We use

maytmiqht/could

+

perfect inf ini t ive

to talk abou t things that possibly

happened/didn't happen in the past.

How does Lisa know about the party? Iuppose Jane may/might/could

have told her.

The thieves might have escaped through the window.

Peter might not have known about the

meetíng ,

•

ight could + perfect inf init ive

can also be used to talk about an

unreal (hypo thet ical ) possibi li ty , some thing that was a possibi li ty

in the past but which we know didn't happen,

You might have hurt yourself jumping off the wall like that

Dont run across the road again You could have been killed

The

moda l pe r fe c t con ti nuous

can be formed using

moda l + have + been + -inq

to

refer to actions in progres s a t a point in the pa st or to ernphasise the dura tion

of an action,

You can't have been doing your homework all this time I don't beli eve you

Darren mu st have been sleepíng when we cal led him yes terday.

,

'0

w

'

,

t- ;

«.

'O J

.j

Check y ou r u nd er standing

l

When does the modal perfect refer to'? th e p as tIt he p re se nt/t he fu tu re

2 Which of these is used to criticise other people?

c an 't h av e d on e/

should h ave do ne /m ust h ave d on e

3 Which rnodal is missing? There '5 John. H e ...., have e«back-from.

\ ~ .

..

::'~

i,v

c ,

The unreal past

The pas t s imp le is not always used to

refer

to the past. It can be used to reťer to

the present, or even the future, when it is us ed after certain phrases or in

certain types of s en tence, This i s called the unrea l po s t.

We use the unreal past .,.

• in hypothetica l cond it ional

sentences

• to talk about unlikely

hypothetical situation s using

suppose or imagine

• t o ta lk about present wishes

If I won the lottery. ľd buy a

new house. (see page

34)

Imagine you got an

A

in the exarn .

How would you feel?

l

wish I h ad more money.

(see page 5 3 )

I'd rat her you came a t six tomorrow.after

wou ld r a th e r

when we are

tal king about things we want/

don't

want other people to do

• after

i t 's ( h igh

or

about)

time

• in po li te reques ts and quest ions

Dont you think it's about time we left?

I'm sorry, Sir, Did you want something?

Ch ec k y ou r u nd erstanding

l Does the

pas t s imp le

always

refer

to the

pas t? yes/no

2 Which is correct? ľ d rather you

don t

d o th at./ľ d ra tJ zer y ou

didn t

d o t ha t,

3 linaginéýouwonthelottery, Does the speake r think this is likely or

unlikely;~~í~ ~~~~~ť7/ľr·?t;

49 )

r



r .

~ I

~ ľ · · l ~ · i

I~i

, ~I

. ~~

H il

::

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-

o

EO

E

'';

~.

L; .)

The future 2

We have already look ed at some ways of talking about the future in Unit 6

(see pages 22-24). Here are some other ways.

Future perfect: will + have + past participle

I'll have finished my home work by 8 o'clock,

l worr't have spoken to John by the time l see you.

'u

~

'

..,~

tt.

~

' v

.j

We use the future perfect to show that an action will happen at some point

between now and a time in the future.

now

8o'clock

l 'II have [inished my homework by 8

o'

clock.

........•

~-------

V

l finish my homework at some point between these times.

This means that at 8 oclock l can say:

l have f in i sh ed my homework.

So, now l can say:

[will have finished my homework by

8 o

'clock.

We can also use other modals (might, may, should) to talk about actions that

wi ll possibly or probabJy happen between now and a point in the future.

Cali me on my mobile because we may/might have left by midnight.

(possibly)

1 should have finished my homework by six. so give me a ring then.

(probably)

Future continuous: will

+

be

+

-inq

This time next we ek, l will be lying on a tropicaI beach.

now

(eg Wednesday morn ing)

This time next week .

(eg next Wednesday morn ing)

.......................................•

t

t

. l will be lying on a tropical beach..............•

5 C ľ )

.~-.$

We use the

future continuous

to talk about an act ion happening at a point in

the future. (Compare this with the present continuous and the pa st continuous.i

We can also use may and might to t alk about actions possibly happening at a

point in the future.

Dori 't cal i a t one oclock tomorrow because l may/might be having my

lunch. (possibly)

Future perfect continuous: will + have been + -ing

We use the future perfect continuous to talk about actions that are in progress

up to a point in the future .

I'H have been living here for ten years at the end of June.

l start ed living here now the end of June

'l '

.............•

..............l t

- - - - - - - - - - - - - ~

V

10 years

At the end of June. l can say: l have been living here for ten years.

So, now l can say: l w il l have been l iving here f or ten years at the end of June.

C heck y ou r u nd erstand ing

l L'll have

finished

by 6 o' clock. When will l finish? before 6/ after 6

r.modals ihsťefld<? \Villi~ the future perfect? yes/no

' < f ; : ; , : ; ~ · ; ; .

,'~&'~.:~;;;r -~ ,7~~ ~ y~ :~ '~ :~;·..

~ · ; in

t

-ill:t h 'e

'. ;'}J:~~~;: ':T~

Transferred negation

l don't think Laura is coming to the party.

l dorr't suppose we'll have the picnic because it's raining.

When we want to express a negat ive idea using think, suppose, believe O

imagine, we normally make these verbs negative and not the second verb.

l think l can' t come

OH

Saturday . (X) (not natural)

l

don/t

think l can come on Saturday. .l) (more natural)

Sam: 59)'5 she thinl(5 she

deem '{ ha -;e

your boole (X) (not natural)

Sam says she doesn't think she has your book. .l) (more natural)

'f~

- . ;

, . ,; ,

~.

,

'

,

i ;:

~

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c i

t;

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2.

,

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i i i

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ll

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m n ~

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I I I

tj

jJ i

Ll..

p: I

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ll

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l,

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:

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l

r

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We dont do this with the verb hope.

l

aeH't

fiepe we lese t fie ffl6tEfi teffieffew. (X)

l

hope we don't lose the match tomorrow.

.l)

Checkyour understanding

l Which is better? l think he's not coming./I don't think he's cominq.

2

l don t hope my 11111m has forgo(f,e/'},my' birthday

Isthis'

corr~ct?0'~sl;n

. _ , ' : ' ,~, i '- -. it ~ _ . : ;; .

1

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-

onditionals (2):the third conditional

We can't change the past. When we want to imagine the past being

different, we can talk about it using the

third conditional.

hypothetical (unreal) possibility,past

Third conditional: if ... past perfect ... would have ... past participle

If l had known about the party, l would have gone.

(1

dídri't

know about the party. 1didn't go.)

We wouldn't have been on time if we hadn't run.

(We ran. We were on time.)

Instead of

would,

we can also use these other modals.

If I had known about the party, l might have gone. (I'm not sure.)

lf we had had enough money last night, we could have gone to the

cinema. (It would have been possible.)


l

2

.)

,~)

Wishes and regrets

·V

~-~

The ten ses we use with

wish

are like the tenses we use in hypothetical

conditional sentences

(past

to talk about the present,

past perfect

to talk about

the past). You can see this because we can use

lf only ...

as an emphatic form

of lwish ....

Wishes about the present/future:

wish

+ past (simple or continuo us)

(or past modal)

l wish 1was/were taller. (If only l was/were taller )

Don't you wish you knew more languages?

l wish l was having German lessons.

l wish I could come with you next week.

Wishes about the past (regrets):

wish

+ past perfect

We wish we had seen that film when we had the chance.

l wish l hadn't told Hannah all my secrets.

Wishes about other people's behaviour:

wish

+

would

We can use

wish

to talk about things that other people do that annoy or

irritate us.

l wish you wouldn't speak when ľm speaking.

l wish you would stop making that noise.

t

t...

~,

C

L~

< .J

~

.,l

I I \ .

We dont say: l w ish

weuM ... (X)

wil

We only use

wish

to talk about hypothetical situations. When we want

lO

talk about real possibilities in the past. present or future, we usually use

hope.

l hope we have a good time next Saturday.

l hope you enjoyed the party last night.


l l wish l was still in bedi What does this refer to? the pastIthe present/the

future

2

l wisn l would stop smoking.

Is this correct?

'yestno

3

l wish l pass the exam nextweek.

Is this correct?

yes/no

O j

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l

53 )

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Macmillan Education

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Companies and representatíves throughout the world

ISBN 1405 068035

Text © Macmiiian Publishers Limited 2004

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First published 2004

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2008

10 9

2007

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2004

2 1

2006

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2005

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Documents

LASER, English Grammar Handbook (Complete)