TLAN 101 Grammar Handbook

TLAN 101: CLASSICAL TIBETAN

GRAMMAR HANDBOOK

© Benjamin Collet-Cassart (2011)

TLAN 101: Classical Tibetan Grammar Handbook

This course covers the main elements of classical Tibetan grammar with the aim of bringing the students to the stage where they have sufficient knowledge to continue learning the language by reading and translating basic texts of the Buddhist literature.

The emphasis is placed on integrating the most important points of grammar in a short period of time (about two months). The presentation tries to stay clear, to avoid too many details, and is therefore far from being exhaustive or complete. The complexities related to the traditional Tibetan presentation (often confusing for westerners at the initial stage of the learning process) are also temporarily avoided.

Once the material of this course has been covered and integrated, students will then consolidate and expand their knowledge of vocabulary and grammar by translating and discussing increasingly complex Tibetan texts.

After having gained sufficient proficiency in Tibetan grammar through practical application, the students are encouraged to deepen their knowledge of the language by studying Tibetan grammar from a Tibetan perspective, as it is presented in the foundational treatises of Thonmi Sambhota (sum cu pa and rtags 'jug pa)


TABLE OF CONTENT

LESSON1

Nouns 1 Adjectives 3 Compound words 3 Demonstrative pronouns 5 Indefinite particles 6 Plural particles 7 Numbers 7 Order of a nominal group 8 Lists 9

LESSON2

Introduction to the particles 14 Personal pronouns 15 The connective particles 16 1. Relationships in which the connective particle can be translated as "of" 17 2. Connecting an adjective to a noun 19 3. Apposition 20 The emphasizing particle 21 The use of honorifics 21

LESSON3

Introduction to the verbs 27 Linking verbs 29 Existential verbs 31 Transitive and intransitive verbs 34 The terminating particles 39

LESSON4

The agentive/instrumental particles 45 1. The agent of a transitive verb 45 2. The instrument of an action 46 3. Adverb 47

Special structure of some intransitive verbs 48 Imperative mood 50 Nominalized verbs 53 Vocative case 54


LESSON5

La don particles 60 1. The direct object of some transitive verbs 61 2. Location 62 3. Purpose/Benefit 64 4. Adverb 67 The concessive particles 70 The "and/or" particles 70

LESSON6

The source particles 76 1. Source/origin 76 2. Comparison 78 3. Exclusion and inclusion/isolation 79 Relative clauses 80 Interrogative and indefinite pronouns 85

LESSON7

The auxiliary verbs 91 Verbal uses of particles 96 1. The connective particles 96 2. The concessive particles 97 3. The agentive/instrumental particles 98 4. The reason/purpose particle 98 5. The particle dang 99 6. The particles cing/zhing/shing 100 7. The source particles 101 8. The La don particles 102 9. The conditional particle 103 The continuative particles 104 How to approach a Tibetan sentence?


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LESSON 1

Tibetan sentences consist of a string of syllables (�� "between the dots") placed next to

each other and separated by dots (��).

→→→→ All the elements found in a sentence can be divided into two broad categories: 1) words (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, and so forth) and 2) particles. Unlike the words, the particles have no meaning on their own but are used to indicate the syntactic relationships between the various words of the sentence as well as other grammatical functions1. The uses of the particles are at the center of focus of Tibetan grammar and will be introduced in the next lessons. →→→→ Some words consist of a single syllable but most of them are made of two or sometimes more syllables, each of them usually having its own individual meaning. Tibetan sentences are written continuously, without any space between the words or any punctuation marks that

would indicate where the words end. The only punctuation marks are the dots (��) that

separate the syllables and the strokes (��). A stroke is a vertical line placed at the end of a

syllable, instead of the dot. It has no real punctuation significance. Although it is frequently seen at the end of sentences, it is not limited to that position and should therefore not be systematically regarded as a period. A stroke is placed in a text to induce a certain rhythm in the recitation (Tibetan texts are traditionally read aloud). It shows the place where the reader

marks a short pause to take his breath. Double strokes are used to indicate the end of larger

sections and four strokes the end of a chapter or an entire text.

→→→→ Due to the syllabic nature of Tibetan and its lack of punctuation marks to separate words, one of the major difficulties for beginners is to be able to identify the words within a sentence, i.e. to group the syllables into words. This initial difficulty is easily overcome with experience, by building up one's vocabulary, learning the way words are formed, and how sentences are structured. This first lesson focuses on the formation of nouns and on the different possible elements that surround the noun in a nominal group.

NOUNS

Nouns consist of one (or sometimes more) syllable(s) that is either alone or combined with

one of the six ending particles ��

1 See lesson 2


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Examples of nouns without ending particle: �� Dharma � � path �� horse �� Tibet �� Yoga

Examples of nouns with ending particle: �� sun �� house �� happiness, bliss �� virtue �� hand �� monastery �� disciple, student �� essence

• When these six ending particles (�� are the most common) are joined to a syllable to form

a noun, they become an integral part of that word without usually adding any meaning to it. In some cases however, they can create new nouns by adding a sense of agent/association or gender. →→→→ Agent/association: The ending particle indicates someone who practices/is associated with the preceding syllable.

�� Dharma �� Dharma practitioner �� horse �� horse rider �� Tibet �� Tibetan �� yoga �� yogin �� Buddha �� Buddhist

→→→→ Gender: Tibetan nouns do not indicate the gender (they are neither masculine nor feminine) except in some cases where their gender is specified by the addition of the ending

particles � �� (feminine) and �� (masculine).

�� yogin �� yoginī �� king �� queen �� god �� goddess �� son �� daughter

→→→→ It is however not the case that all nouns ending in � �� are feminine! As an example, the

following nouns end in � or �� but are neither masculine nor feminine.


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�� guru �� Middle Way (Madhyamaka) �� sun �� student �� festival

ADJECTIVES Adjectives are formed in the same way as nouns2 but there are only a few of them that are

not associated with one of the six ending particles ��

�� supreme !�� all �� new "�� old �� bad, evil �� sacred,

holy �#�� good, excellent �� big, great �� hot �� red #�� profound, deep $�� cold %� � former, past

→→→→ Adjectives are usually placed right after the noun they modify3.

��!�� all Dharmas �� red monastery ��#�� excellent Dharma

practitioner �� great bliss �� hot sun �� bad student ��"�� old house �� new student

COMPOUND WORDS: Multi-syllable words are formed by joining two nouns, two adjectives, or a noun and an adjective together. In Tibetan, each syllable usually has its own meaning. The parts of these compound words combine in different ways. For example, they can be synonyms (to emphasize the meaning intended), opposites (to indicate an abstract quality), bring a new meaning to the compound, or one part can modify the other:

2 It will quickly become evident that the categories of nouns, adjectives, and verbs often overlap in Tibetan,

and words can move from one of these categories to the other according to the context in which they are used. For example, many words can function both as nouns and adjectives. For example, �� can mean both "virtue"

(noun) and "virtuous" (adjective). Similarly, �&�� can mean "noble being" or "noble" (adjective). Many

nouns are also derived from verbs (see lesson 4).

3 Adjectives sometimes also precede the noun they modify. In that case, they are linked to the noun by a

connective particle (see lesson 2).


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�� desire (��) + attachment (��) = attachment (synonyms)

�'��(�� exertion (�'��) + effort (�(��) = diligence (synonyms)

��)�� big (��) + small ()��) = size (two opposites indicate a range of possibilities that

suggests the abstract quality "size") �#�� good + bad = quality

*�� center + circle = ma��ala

+�� medicine + house = hospital

,��'�� star + calculation = astrology

�� -�� mind + possessing particle = sentient beings (mind possessors)4

.��/�� heart + lord = compassion (lord of the hearts)

0��/�� stone + lord = diamond, Vajra (lord of the stones)

�� knowing + supreme = wisdom (the supreme knowledge)

1�� vehicle + great = great vehicle, Mahāyāna (often contracted as 1��)

2�� symbol + great = great symbol, Mahāmudrā (often contracted as 2��) →→→→ An important feature of Tibetan is the abbreviation of compound words and the omission of other parts of the language. Many compounds consisting of two syllables are formed by

omitting particles (usually the ending particles �� , but any particle can be omitted) or

even parts of words. Contracting sentences by abbreviating words and/or omitting words and particles is extremely frequent in Tibetan, especially in poetry where each line of the text has to be composed in a specific number of syllables. Here are a few examples of contracted compounds and lists of words:

4 -�� is a particle that shows the possession of the preceding noun. It can also turn nouns into adjectives. For

example, 3�� "kindness" followed by the possessing particle -�� means "possessing kindness" or "kind"

(adjective). Note that �� -�� "sentient beings" is a word that is understood to be plural although it is devoid of

plural particle.


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1�� inferior ( ��) vehicle (1��) = 1��

4�� the great (��) perfection (4��) = 4��

5�� 6�� White (6��) Tārā (5�� ) = 5��6��

��*��7� Dharma (��) body (7�) (Skt. Dharmakāya) = ��7�5

��1�� Śrāvakas (��1��) and Pratyekabuddhas (��) = ��6

��8�� Sasāra (��) and Nirvā�a (8��) = ��

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS The two demonstrative pronouns are �� "this" and �� "that". They are placed after the noun

(or the adjective if there is one) they modify.

� �� this path

�� that house

�� this happiness

�� that horse

��6�� that white monastery

�� this new student

�� #�� this excellent guru

�� that bad queen

5 The connective particle *�� will be explained in lesson 2.

6 The particle �� will be explained further in this lesson.


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*�� this great ma��ala

�� this great yogin

→→→→ There is no word in Tibetan to express the article "the", but these two demonstrative

pronouns are sometimes used in a similar way. �� and �� are also used to express the

pronouns she/he/it (the personal pronouns will be covered in lesson 2).

INDEFINITE PARTICLES: Just like there is no article "the", there is no indefinite particle "a" or "an" used systematically

in Tibetan. However, -�� 9�� (derived from the word �-�� "one") are sometimes used in

that role. Like the demonstrative pronouns, the indefinite particles are placed after the noun (or the adjective if there is one) they modify. The spelling of these particles varies according to the final letter of the previous syllable7:

After the suffix letters �� , the spelling is -�� After the suffix letters �� (or no suffix), the spelling is 9�� After the suffix letter ��, the spelling is �� 9�� a path

��9�� a horse

�� a Buddha

��-�� a wisdom

��"��9�� an old monastery 7 All the particles can be divided into two groups: the dependent (�9��-��) and the independent (��-��) particles. The independent particles always keep the same spelling. On the other hand, the spelling of the

dependent particles changes according to the last letter of the preceding syllable. The spelling rules for these particles will be presented gradually in the next lessons.


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��9�� a new house

PLURAL PARTICLES The two main particles8 used to indicate the plural are � �� and ��. Both can be used but � �� is slightly more common. They are placed after the noun, adjective, and demonstrative.

Just as it is the case for the gender, Tibetan nouns are also ambiguous regarding the number. A word without plural particle is not necessarily singular and can be understood to be plural by relying on the context. The addition of a plural particle, however, makes the plural number obvious.

�� Dharmas

� �� vases

�� Sūtras

�� those

�� those

�� these

�� these

�� these red monasteries

�� the new students

�� #�� the excellent gurus

NUMBERS →→→→ The cardinal numbers are placed after the noun and adjective they modify, but before the demonstrative pronoun (there is no plural particle right after a cardinal number) 8 See also the plural forms of personal pronouns in lesson 2.


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�-�� one �� two �: � three �9�� four ;� five <�� six �=�� seven �� eight >� nine �?� ten �� hundred �� one thousand

→→→→ The ordinal numbers (except for �� "first") are formed by adding the particle �� to the

cardinal numbers.

�� 1st �� 2d �: �� 3d �9�� 4th ;�� 5th <�� 6th �=�� 7th �� 8th >�� 9th �?�� 10th �� 100th

→→→→ The particle �� added to a cardinal number indicates the group taken together.

�� the (group of) two �: �� the (group of) three �?�� the (group of) ten

ORDER OF A NOMINAL GROUP A nominal group is a noun followed by the different elements that can modify it. A nominal group forms a "building block" within a sentence and it has to be taken together as an inseparable unit (see lesson 2). When all the elements of a nominal group are present (most of the times, only some of them are), the order is the following:

Noun + Adjective(s) + Number + Demonstrative + Plural particle

��: �� those three new monasteries

�� >�� those nine supreme yoginīs

�� #��9�� these four excellent students

� ��6�� those two white vases

→→→→ The adjectives !�� and 1 ��-� "all" can also be added at the end of this list:

��6��;��1 ��-� all these five white horses


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LISTS

The particle �� is commonly used to separate different members of a list (simple nouns or

entire nominal groups). It is equivalent to the English word "and"9. It is usually placed after each member of the list, but it is often omitted (after each member or just after some of them).

�� virtue (��) and non-virtue ( ��)

1�� method (1��) and wisdom (��)

��=��: � Buddha (��), Dharma (��), and Sa�gha (��=��)

@��A��B� ��#�� generosity (@��), discipline (A��B� ��), and patience (�#��)

��: ��9�� the first, second, third, and fourth bhūmis (��)

1�� 1��%��1��: � Hinayāna (1�� ), Mahāyāna (1��

��), and Mantrayāna (��%��1��)

�� the red monasteries and the eight black houses

�� #�� : �� this excellent guru and those three new students

9 The particle �� is also frequently seen in association with a series of words indicating possession (E�� -��), relationship (�F��), separation (F��), etc. In these cases, it is better translated as "with" or "from":

��E�� endowed with ...

��-�� together with ...

��F�� together with, in relation with, associated with ...

��F�� free from ...

As it is the case for all particles (see lesson 2), �� refers to what precedes it:

��E�� endowed with glory (��) ��-�� together with the retinue (��)

G��F�� free from mental constructs (G��) �� F�� associated with the guru (�� )


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→→→→ A plural particle placed after a list doesn't necessarily mean that the members of the list (or the last member) are plural. It usually just means that the list consists of many singular things. It should therefore be left untranslated.

→→→→ Lists frequently end by a number totaling its members. This number usually refers to the list as a whole and doesn't qualify the last member of the list only. It can be left untranslated too.

→→→→ The particle �� can be placed at the end of a list or a quote to indicate that the list (or a

quote) should continue. It corresponds to the English expressions "and so forth", "and so

on". The full form is ��, but it is often abbreviated as ��

@��A��B� ��#�� generosity, discipline, patience, and so forth

��9��H��I��J�� desire (��), anger (9��H��), ignorance (�I��J��), etc.

��)�� earth (��), water ()�), fire ( ��), and so forth

��#��: �� the three excellent yogins, the hundred

Dharma practitioners, and so on


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Vocabulary list 1 �� Buddha �� Dharma ��=�� Sa�gha ��)�� enlightenment, (Skt. bodhi) �� mind �� cyclic existence (Skt. sasāra) �� virtue H�� evil deed �� happiness K��%�� suffering �� Sūtra � � path �� monastery �� guru �� student, disciple �� supreme �� big, great �� low, inferior �#�� good, excellent �� bad, evil

�� new "�� old �� sacred, holy #�� profound, deep �� many, a lot


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EXERCICES: 1) Memorize the words of the vocabulary list 1 (with the correct spelling!), the cardinal

numbers (1 to 10), and the order of a nominal group.

2) Translate into English ��#�� #�� 1 ��-� ��#�� K��%�� L��I��#�� !�� 9�� =�� #��1 ��-� ��#��: �� !�� 9�� >��1 ��-� 1�� )�� #�� <��1 ��-� ��9�� 9��!�� H�� #�� 9��1 ��-� 1��


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��H�� 1 ��-�� 1��1�� 0��/��1��: � ��: ��"�� L��I��#�� !�� M��N��: � ��=��1 ��-� �� #�� N�� Extra vocabulary:

L��I�� (excellent) quality �� man )� water �� empowerment, initiation 1�� method 1�� vehicle, yana �M��/��/N�� Tashi, Tsering, Dawa (personal

Tibetan names) N�� moon 0��/��1�� Vajrayāna

3) Write in Tibetan This old monastery These two profound Sūtras Those five new students All those ten white horses A red house The second Buddha Many supreme paths and so forth Five great monasteries and all those old houses The king, the queen, and so forth This excellent yoginī, those new Dharma practitioners, and so on The (group of) five sacred gurus These five old students, those three new students, and the guru


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LESSON 2

INTRODUCTION TO THE PARTICLES

The particles form a complex linguistic category that includes many different elements.

→→→→ The particles are always placed right after the words they modify. This is the opposite of English where the particles precede these words (prepositions). The Tibetan particles should therefore better be understood as postpositions. For example, in the English sentences "he makes offerings to the guru" and "she works in Nepal", the particles are placed before the nouns to indicate respectively the recipient of the offering and the location where the work takes place. In Tibetan, the particles are always placed after the words they modify. The way to express these recipient and location would therefore read: "the guru to" and "Nepal in".

→→→→ The particles mark entire nominal groups (or lists), not just their last element.

→→→→ It is important to keep in mind that, like most of the words, particles can be omitted in Tibetan, especially in texts written in verses.

→→→→ Particles are traditionally divided into two groups: the case marking particles and the non-case marking particles. Unlike many of the non-case particles, the case particles are used to indicate the main functions and relationships (agent, objects, purpose, location, etc.) between the different words of a sentence10. They are traditionally presented according to eight cases, based on a similar presentation found in Sanskrit grammar. The four particles 10

Non-case particles form the biggest category and regroup all the particles that are not one of the four case marking particles. Some of them are integral parts of words (such as the ending and plural particles) while others are used to indicate "secondary" grammatical functions. We will see that the absence of particle is as important as particles to show grammatical functions.

The "case" particles are called that way because of their similarity with the case-endings (declensions) found in Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages. The traditional Tibetan classification into eight cases and the corresponding particles that mark them are listed below. The names of the cases given first are the Latin terms conventionally followed by Sanskritists. The names given in bracket are closer to the actual Tibetan names:

1st case: nominative (nominative) no particle

2d case: accusative (objective) �� 3d case: instrumental (agentive) *�� O�� L�� 4th case: dative (beneficial and purposive) �� 5th case: ablative (source) �� 6th case: genitive (connective) *�� O�� L�� 7th case: locative (locative) �� 8th case: vocative (vocative) no particle


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marking these eight cases are the connective particles, the agentive/instrumental particles, the source particles, and the �� particles. Their study is one of the most important

aspects of Tibetan grammar. However, to understand Tibetan texts, it is not necessary to identify systematically which case the particles encountered belongs to. The study of the case particles according to their traditional classification in eight cases can be a bit confusing at the beginner level. →→→→ The approach presented in this course focuses on identifying any particle and understanding their main usages. Each of the particles will be presented in turn, with the emphasis placed on the case particles, the most important ones to understand the basic structures of Tibetan sentences. Until lesson 6, we will focus on the roles that particles play within a sentence. The last lesson will then focus on the roles that they play between two sentences. Before presenting the connective particles, let us first have a look at personal pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS Many words are used in Tibetan for personal pronouns but it suffices for now to remember the most common ones. A distinction is made between honorific and non-honorific forms.

1st person: �� and �� (literary)11 "I"

2d person: P�� and P�� (honorific) "you"

3d person: ��/ �� and �� (honorific) "he/she"12

→→→→ The plural of personal pronouns is formed by adding a plural particle to their singular

form. The plural particles used in classical Tibetan are � ��, as well as -�� and �Q�, two

particles mainly associated with these pronouns.

1st person: ��-�� and ��Q� "we"

2d person: P�� and P�� "you"

3d person: �� / �� and �� "they"

11

�� is a more classical form of the personal pronoun ��. The personal pronoun �� shouldn't be confused

with the usage of the same word (noun) in a philosophical context, where it refers to the "Self" or "Ego".

12 �� is the honorific form for both �� "he" and �� "she". Keep also in mind that the demonstrative pronoun ��

is often used to express the pronouns he/she/it.


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→→→→ Reflexive pronouns are formed by adding the particles �� and ��13 to the personal

pronouns.

�� oneself (myself, yourself, himself, etc) �� and �� myself P�� and P�� yourself �� / �� and �� himself/herself

THE CONNECTIVE PARTICLES (*�� O�� L��) The connective particles are used within sentences to indicate various types of relationships between nominal groups14, adjectives and pronouns. They are usually placed right between the words they connect. The connective particles have different forms according to the suffix letter of the preceding syllable.

After the suffix letters � �� , the spelling is *�� After the suffix letters �� , the spelling is �� After the suffix letters �� , the spelling is O�� When there is no suffix or the suffix letter ��, the spelling is �� or L��15 The connective particles indicate a wide range of relationships that are traditionally subdivided into many categories and sub-categories that tend to overlap. For the ease of study, the various usages of the connective particles are subsumed here under three main groups:

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�� emphasizes the word that comes before it (the thing itself) but it can also be used to create abstract nouns.

For example, �� "empty" followed by the particle �� = �� "emptiness" and �� "Buddha" =

�� "Buddhahood".

14 Nominal groups include simple nouns.

15 �� is joined to the syllable devoid of suffix while L�� forms a separate syllable. This technique for creating a

new syllable is often used in poetry where each line must have a specific number of syllables. For example, �� followed by a connective particle can be written �� (one syllable) or ��L�� (two syllables). If the word ends in ��, the ��>� is placed directly over the ��. For example �6�� = �6��


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1. Relationships in which the connective particle can be translated as "of": This is the most frequent usage of the connective particles. It includes different types of relationships traditionally presented as "relationship between an owner and a thing possessed", "relationship between a place and its inhabitants", "relationship between a whole and its parts", and so on. The good news is that it is not necessary for beginners to be able to distinguish all these different categories in order to understand Tibetan sentences. For all the different types of relationships of this group, the connective particles can be translated by the English word "of", connecting the words from right to left . The translation follows this model:

A (nominal group/list or pronoun) + *��/��/O��//��/L�� + B (nominal group/list) = B of A

��*�� the teachings (� ��) of the Buddha (��)

��)�� 1�� the vehicle (1��) of the bodhisattva (��)�� )

�� S�� the wisdom (��) of the queen (�� )16

��*�� people ( ��) of Tibet (��)

�T� �� the meaning (��) of meditation (�T� ��)

*��O�� the deities (��) of the ma��ala (*��)

��*��7� the body (7�) of Dharma (��)

��U��!�� all the religious traditions (��U��!��) of Tibetans (��)

and Indians (��)

��6�� S�� #�� the excellent guru (�� #��) of the white monastery (��6��

��)

16

This could alternatively be written �� L�� This applies to every instance where the connective

particle is ��


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�� -��1 ��-�*�� the supreme protector ( �� ) of all sentient beings (�� -��1 ��-�)

��#�� the oral instructions (� ��) of that excellent Dharma

practitioner (��#��)

�� the monastery (��) of the guru and the students (�� )

��#�� 9�� S�� the rituals (��) and sacred commitments ( ��S��) of the four

profound empowerments (��#�� 9��) →→→→ The same model applies if there are several connective particles in a sentence (remember to connect from right to left)

��"�� S�V�� the jealousy (V��) of the owner (��) of those

many old houses (��"�� )

��W��O��6�� S�� the teachings (� ��) of the guru (�� ) of the white

monastery (��6��) of Nepal (��W��)

→→→→ Possessive pronouns are formed by adding a connective particle to the personal pronouns

�� my guru (the guru of me)

�� my red house (the red house of me)

P��*�� #�� your excellent disciple (the excellent disciple of you)

�� his great pride (the great pride of him)

��-��6��: � our three white horses (the three white horses of us)

�� the monastery of my guru (the monastery of the guru of me)

→→→→ Although the connective particles can here be translated as "of", some other English prepositions ("in", "at", "for", "to", etc.) might be more appropriate in some contexts. It is


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nevertheless possible to begin by translating the particle as "of", before adjusting the translation to the particular context (by common sense). ��)��*�� the path (� �) of enlightenment (��)��) = the path to enlightenment

=��O�� the space (� � ��) of the front ( =��) = the space in front

�� the offerings ( ��) of the guru (�� ). This is grammatically correct but "the

offerings for the guru" could be more appropriate depending on the context.

2. Connecting an adjective to a noun: We saw in lesson 1 that adjectives usually follow directly the noun they modify. The (only) other possibility for an adjective to modify a noun is to precede it and to be joined to it by a connective particle. The model then becomes Adjective + Connective particle + Noun17. This model is frequently seen in Tibetan sentences. Grammatically, both ways of combining a noun and an adjective are valid, but it seems that some adjectives always follow or always precede the noun they qualify. Moreover, when an adjective precedes a noun, the connective particle between them (together with the ending particle of the adjective) is regularly omitted.

�� sacred ( ��) Dharma (��) often seen abbreviated as ��

#�� S�� profound (#�� ) path (� �) often seen abbreviated as #��

4�� perfect (4��) Buddha (��)

�� virtuous (��) action (��)

�� Tibetan (��) man ( ��)18

17

For example, there are two grammatical ways for the adjective 6�� "white" to modify the noun �� "Dharma": ��6�� or 6�� S�� = the white Dharma (they can respectively be abbreviated as ��6�� and 6��). 18

Note that the adjectives �� "virtuous" and �� "Tibetan" are used as nouns in other contexts.


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3. Apposition: An apposition is a situation where two or more nominal groups are describing the same thing by using different words. The nouns in apposition can be synonyms, or one of them can introduce complementary information regarding the other. A connective particle can be placed before them.

��/�� the lord of death (��)19, Yama (��/��) (the lord of death = Yama)

1�� 0��/��1�� the supreme vehicle (1�� ), Vajrayāna (0��/��1��)

�� *��=�'�� the inner offering (�� ), nectar (�=�'��)

8�� hell and so forth (8��), the lower realms (��)

→→→→ The (only) other possibility to express an apposition is simply to place the two nominal groups equated next to each other, without any particle between them.

��*�� 9�� the teacher of the Dharma (��*�� ), the fourth Buddha (��

��9��)

�� =�'�� the inner offering (�� ), nectar (�=�'��)

�� Buddha (��) Amitābha (�� )

Concluding remarks for the connective particles:

→→→→ The connective particles connect together entire nominal groups/lists. It is crucial to remember that these connected groups/lists have to be taken together as inseparable units. →→→→ When you encounter a connective particle in a text, identify its usage in the order presented in this lesson: 1) Begin by translating the connective particle as "of", connecting the words on its both sides from right to left. If it doesn't work, 2) the word that precedes the particle might be an adjective. If it still doesn't work, try 3) the apposition.

19

As an example of word abbreviation, �� is a contraction of �� , the lord/owner (��) of

death (��)


21

→→→→ Remember that all the particles can be omitted. Among the case marking particles, the connective particle is the most frequently omitted one. →→→→ Another important function of the connective particles is to connect a relative clause to a noun. This usage will be covered in lesson 6. There are also a few secondary functions that will be introduced later.

THE EMPHASIZING PARTICLE The particle �� is used to emphasize a word or a group of words. It doesn't give any

information concerning the grammatical function of the words it emphasizes. The particle �� merely draws the attention of the reader on the words that precede it by stressing their importance in the sentence. It can be translated by "regarding", "as for", or "concerning" , but it is often better to leave it untranslated.

�� as for him,/ he ...

��) �� 1 ��-�� (regarding) all those bodhisattvas, ...

6�� : ��=��L�� (concerning) the three jewels (6�� : �

) (they) are (L��) the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sa�gha20.

→→→→ The particle �� is also frequently used in poetry to fill up the number of syllables required

in a line. It adds no meaning to the translation and can be ignored.

THE USE OF HONORIFICS Tibetan language has different forms of speech according to the person it addresses or refers to. The ordinary form is used to address or refer to someone of equal or lower status while the honorific form is to address or refer to someone of higher status. The honorific form of speech is very important in Tibetan (especially in the spoken language) and many words (nouns, verbs, pronouns) have both an honorific and an ordinary form. These forms have to be assimilated gradually and it suffices for now to be aware that this distinction exists. Here are a few examples of words together with their honorific forms: 20

Verbs will be introduced next lesson.


22

Ordinary form Honorific form

Pronouns: P�� P�� you

��/ �� he/she Nouns: &� L�� father

� W � mother �� Y�� son U�� 7� body �� :�� speech �� /L�� Z�� mind �� head �� 2�� hand [�� 9�� foot

Verbs: L�� to be �� \�� to stay, abide, live �� ]�� to do �� P�� to know


23

Vocabulary list 2

6�� : � the three jewels (litt. the three "rare" and "supreme")

��)�� bodhisattva �� -�� sentient beings �� emptiness � � �� space, sky ^� cause �F�� effect, fruition 8�� nirvā�a *�� ma��ala 0��/�� vajra �� action, karma �� afflictive emotion �� desire, attachment 9��H�� anger, aversion �I��J�� ignorance, stupidity L��I�� (excellent) quality .��/�� compassion �� wisdom, discriminating knowledge 1�� method, skilful means � �� teaching �&�� noble/noble being (Skt. ārya) 8�� hell being L��_�� hungry ghost (Skt. preta) =��$�� animal �� god, deity


24

��: � the three lower realms 1��: � the three higher realms �� offering �� India ��W�� Nepal


25

EXERCICES

1) Memorize the three main types of relationships that the connective particles indicate, the personal pronouns, and the words of the vocabulary list 2. If you can, memorize also the words and their honorific forms presented in this lesson.

2) Translate into English (focus on the role played by the connective particles by proceeding in the order described in this lesson. Remember that nominal groups are inseparable units that have to be taken together)

��)�� *��O�� *�� L��I�� 4��*��&�� L��I��!��O��`�� -�� &�� 1�� *��F��!�� )�� #�� S�� : �O�� -��1 ��-� ��.��/�� #�� S�� O�� 1�� 1��&�� 2�� I�� 2�� I�� 1��: �


26

��6�� S�a��1 ��-�*��L��I�� #�� S�L��I��O��^� ��O��U�� S�� 6�� : �O��#�� S� �� (�� 6��

Extra vocabulary:

4�� perfect, complete �`�� source, origin ��&�� level 1�� liberation

� �� oral instruction 2�� outer ��I�� flower �� butter lamp a�� monk

��U�� religion ��(�� spiritual accomplishment (siddhi) �� Tsering (personal

name)

3) Write in Tibetan (remember that the spelling of the connectives particles depend on the suffix of the preceding syllable) The qualities of those three gurus The source of great bliss

The unity (b��c��) of method and wisdom

The level of liberation of the greater vehicle (Mahāyāna), Buddhahood

The profound methods of Vajrayāna (0��/��1��) Those many monasteries of India, Tibet, and Nepal All the qualities of the guru of the red monastery His great compassion My great desire


27

LESSON 3

INTRODUCTION TO THE VERBS

Tibetan verbs are called ��S�� "words of action". They are formed by adding the ending

particles �� or ��21 to one or sometimes several syllables indicating an action. The study of the

verbs constitutes, with the study of the case marking particles, the main concern of Tibetan grammar. The verbs determine what the structure of the sentence (the type of particles - or absence of particle - that will be used) will be. For that reason, the verb is always the first thing to look at when translating a sentence from Tibetan. Here are a few important generalities concerning the verbs:

→→→→ The verb is always placed after everything else (subject, objects, adverbs, complements, etc), at the very end of the sentence. Although some arrangements are more common than others22, the order of the words in a sentence is relatively free since the function of the words is clearly indicated by the particles (or the absence of particle) that follow them. Nevertheless, the verb always appears at the end. Moreover, unlike most of the other words, particles, and

the linking verb L��23, verbs are never omitted.

→→→→ In classical Tibetan, a verb does not provide any information concerning the person and the number. The same verb form is used for the 1st, 2d, and 3d person singular and plural. Similarly, verbs are ambiguous regarding the active and passive voice. Verbs can often equally be translated in an active or in a passive voice.

→→→→ A verb ending with the particles �� or �� is the infinitive form of the verb24, the one that

appears, for example, when they are listed in a dictionary. When they are used within a sentence, the verbs lose these particles and appear only in their "root" form .

→→→→ There are three tenses (=��: �) in Tibetan: the past (��), the present (�d��), and

the future ( ��), with the addition of the imperative mood (7��S��). Some verbs have

the same tense form for the three tenses and the imperative mood while others have two, three, or four different forms. There is no complete set of rules to determine systematically all the different tense forms of the verbs, and this topic is very complex and can be 21

�� comes after the suffix letters �� or after a syllable devoid of suffix letter.

22 For example, the order Subject + Objects + Verb is more common, but the subject and objects can exchange

their position without there being any ambiguity in the translation.

23 This will be explained further in this lesson.

24 These particles are also used to nominalize verbs, i.e. to turn verbs into nouns (see lesson 4).


28

overwhelming for beginning (and advanced) students. There are nevertheless some recurring patterns that can gradually be recognized. The idea is to begin by slowly familiarizing oneself with the tenses of the verbs as they are encountered in sentences, then to start memorizing them by focusing on the most important ones. Here are a few examples of verbs having, one, two, three, or four tense forms: One tense form verbs: Present Past Future Imperative To stay, dwell ��

To know ��

To see 1�� 1�� 1��

To understand ��

Two tense forms verbs: Present Past Future Imperative To produce e�� e�� e�� e�� To enter �c�� \�� c�� \�� To teach �� To sit H�� H� �H� H��

Three tense forms verbs: Present Past Future Imperative To offer �� f�� f�� To explain �� To write �F�� F�� F�� F�� To destroy �g��

Four tense forms verbs: Present Past Future Imperative To do �� To fall �� &�� &�� To look at d� �d�� d� d�� To cut �-�� -� �-� ��


29

→→→→ If the form of a verb is the same for different tenses:

1) An auxiliary verb can be joined to the main verb to clarify its tense (see lesson 7).

2) If the tense form of the verb is ambiguous and if no auxiliary verbs are there to clarify it, the tense must be determined from the context.

There are various ways of classifying the verbs into distinct categories. In this course, the verbs are divided into four groups: linking verbs, existential verbs, transitive verbs, and intransitive verbs. It is crucial to keep in mind the sentence structures associated with these four types of verbs.

LINKING VERBS (L��)

A linking verb is a verb25 that "links" a subject to its description. It corresponds to the English

verb "to be" like in the sentence ��L�� "he is Tibetan". Something is equated to

something else. When L�� appears at the end of a sentence, you have to ask yourself: "what

equals what?" →→→→ Neither the subject described (��) nor its description (��) are followed by any case

particle! However, the subject is often followed by the emphasizing particle �� that helps to

distinguish it from its complement. ��L�� "(as for him,) he is Tibetan"

→→→→ As it was mentioned before, the word order is rather free in Tibetan. However, the only

sentences in which the word order is very important are sentences ending with the verb L��, because neither the subject nor the complement has any case particle to indicate their function. Therefore, the subject always comes before its description. For example in the

sentence ��L�� "he is Tibetan", the subject �� "he" is placed before its description

�� "Tibetan". If the subject and complement would exchange their position, the meaning

of the sentence would be different. ��L�� "the Tibetan is him". The emphasis would

shift from "he" to "the Tibetan".

25

The main linking verb is L��. Its honorific form is ��


30

→→→→ L�� is the only verb that is frequently (more often than not) omitted. When there is

no verb at the end of a sentence, you know that the verb L�� must be missing. It is

nevertheless understood to be there and that omission doesn't affect the translation.

→→→→ The negation of L�� is �L�� or ��

A no particle (or ��) + B no particle + (L��) A = B26

��6��L�� this monastery is white

�� #��L�� that excellent guru is a yogin

��1 ��-� �� all Dharmas (phenomena) are impermanent ( ��)

��9��H��I��J�� L�� desire, anger, ignorance, and so

forth are afflictive emotions

6�� : ��=�� the three jewels are the Buddha, the Dharma,

and the Sa�gha P�� L�� you are not a new student

1��)�� 1�� the greater vehicle (1��) is the vehicle (1��) of the

bodhisattvas

P��*��&�W�� your homeland (&�W��) is not Tibet

��^�L�� virtue is the cause of happiness

H��^� �L�� evil deeds are not the cause of happiness

�� those men are Indians (��)

26

A and B can be nominal groups, lists of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or nominal groups connected together by a connective particle. These connected nominal groups also form inseparable units that have to be taken together!


31

� ��L�� this long (��) path is not authentic (L��)

��K��%��O�� Q�� sasāra is a great ocean (�� Q�) of suffering

��*�� $�� the teacher ( ��) of the Dharma is the protector ( ��) of

beings (�$��)

L��L��I��.��/�� >�� the qualities of an authentic (L��)

Dharma practitioner are compassion, devotion ( ��>��), etc.

��@��L�� my benefactor (@��) is him/her

→→→→ The following verse consists of four famous statements, ��*��2��9�� " the four seals

of the Dharma", that distinguish the Buddhist view from other views:

�=��1 ��-� �� All conditioned things (�=��) are impermanent ( ��)

#��-��1 ��-�K��%�� All defiled things (#��-��) are suffering ��1 ��-�� All phenomena are selfless (�� ) 8��9�� Nirvā�a is peace (9��)27

EXISTENTIAL VERBS (L��)

An existential verb is a verb28 that indicates the existence of something/someone. It

corresponds to the verbs "to exist" or "to be" like in the sentence ��L�� "there are

monasteries" or "monasteries exist".

27

The fact that there are no verbs in this verse indicates that the verb L�� is missing (but understood to be

present)

28 The main existential verb is L��. Other verbs used as synonyms are �=��, �� (honorific), and ��

(honorific). It is interesting to note that, strictly speaking, L�� and L�� are not regarded as verbs (��S�� "words of action") by Tibetans, since they don't indicate an action.


32

→→→→ L�� can be used to indicate the plain existence of something/someone, but it often shows

the existence of someone/something somewhere. The place of existence is then marked

(followed) by one of the �� particles29.

→→→→ The word order is not important . The negation of L�� is ��

A no particle + (B ��) + L�� A is (exists) (in/on/at B)30

�� L�� there are many Dharma practitioners

��L�� there are those new monasteries

��W��L�� I am in Nepal

��W��L�� I am in Nepal31

�M�� Tashi and Sonam are not in the temple (��)

a��@��L�� the benefactor (@��) of the monk (a��) is in Tibet

��&� � $��L�� His/her parents (&� �) are in the guesthouse ( $��)

�� the precious (��) ornaments (��) are not in the

red monastery of the guru

�� $��e��1 ��-��*��L�� (as for) all the deities, Dharma protectors (��e��), and dākinīs ( ��$��) (they) are in the ma��ala32

29

The �� particles are a group seven particles, �� and six others (�� i� =� :� j� ��) having the same meaning.

The functions of these particles will be covered in detail in lesson 5. To facilitate the learning process, only the particle �� will be used in the following examples to indicate the place of existence, but keep in mind that the

other six particles can be used for that role too.

30 A and B can be nominal groups, lists, pronouns, or nominal groups connected together by a connective

particle. A is sometimes followed by the emphasizing particle �� 31

The meaning is the same as the one of the previous sentence. Switching the word order in that way can nevertheless put an emphasis on the location. "In Nepal" (not anywhere else), I exist.


33

→→→→ The verb L�� is used to indicate the possession. The possessor (the place of possession)

is indicated (followed) by the particle �� (and none of the other �� particles) and the thing

possessed is in the nominative case (no particle). The word order is not important.

A �� + B no particle + L�� A has (possesses) B33

��9��L�� I have a big house

��9��L�� I have a big house

N��L�� Dawa and Tsering have a new house

��&� ��k�� his/her parents (&� �) do not have a lot of money (k��)

��'�� L��I�� L�� his/her root ('��) guru has a lot of qualities

W�� l�� the king (��) of this land (W��) does not have a big

army ( ��l��)

�� L�� those yogins do not have many possessions (L��)

L��L��I��P��L�� you have authentic (L��) qualities

�Q�� L�� the owner (��) of this shop (�Q��) has a lot of

wealth (��)

��3��9��L�� I have a question (�3��)

32

Remember that it is often better to leave the emphasizing particle �� untranslated.

33 A and B can be nominal groups, lists, pronouns, or nominal groups connected together by a connective

particle. A is a sentient being.


34

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

We have seen that different sentence structures are associated with different types of verbs (four are presented in this course). The key point to determine the structure of a sentence is to

be able to distinguish between transitive verbs (1��S��) and intransitive verbs (1� ��S��). The basic difference is that a transitive verb has an agent that acts on an object

that is different than itself. A transitive verb has an agent as well as a direct object. On the other hand, an intransitive verb has a subject that does not act on an object that is different than itself. There is no direct object. It is crucial to be able to identify these two types of verbs without confusion!

→→→→ Examples of transitive verbs: "to eat", "to do", "to cut", "to say", and "to turn (to cause something else to turn)". These verbs imply that an agent acts on a separate object.

I eat an apple: agent = "I" direct object = "an apple" (the action of eating is transmitted from "I" to the apple)

He does his work: agent = "he" direct object = "his work"

The old man cuts a big tree: agent = "the old man" direct object = "a big tree"

He says something nice: agent = "he" direct object = "something nice"

The monk turns his prayer wheel: agent= "the monk" direct object = "his prayer wheel"

→→→→ Examples of intransitive verbs: "to rise", "to be confused", "to go", "to become", and "to turn (by oneself)". The action of the subject happens on itself.

The sun rises: subject = "the sun" no object (the sun rises itself, it doesn't rise something)

Sentient beings are confused: subject = "sentient beings" no object (they are confused themselves)

He goes to India: subject = "he" no object (he goes himself - "to India" is a locative complement, not a direct object)34

The wheel turns: subject = "the wheel" no object (the wheel turns itself) A transitive verb has an agent marked (followed) by an agentive particle and a direct object

marked by the particle �� or by no particle at all. Most of the transitive verbs do not require

34

Verbs of motion (to go, to come, to get up, to leave, to enter, etc) are intransitive although they are volitional. No action is transmitted to an external object. Try not to confuse the location of motion verbs for a direct object!


35

their direct object to be marked by a ��, but others do35. The agentive particles will be

described in detail in lesson 4, but their main function is already described here: to indicate the agent of a transitive verb. The spelling rules for the agentive particles are similar to those of the connecting particles:

After the suffix letters � �� , the spelling is *�� After the suffix letters �� , the spelling is �� After the suffix letters �� , the spelling is O�� When there is no suffix or the suffix letter ��, the spelling is �� or L��36

Agent *��/��/O��/L��/�� + Direct object ��/no particle + Transitive verb37

��*�� Buddha taught (� ��) the Dharma

��!�m�#� I eat (#�) an apple (!�m�)

$�� this enemy ($�) harms (��) the Dharma practitioner

�� #�� -�� the excellent guru explains (��) those treatises (� ��

�-��)

�� $�� that soldier ( �� ) kills (��) the enemies ($�� )

35

Knowing which transitive verbs require a �� for their direct object and which ones don't is something that

comes from experience. However, it is useful to know that certain types of verbs, like the verbs of benefit/harm always have their direct object followed by the particle ��. A few transitive verbs have their direct objects

sometimes marked by �� and sometimes not.

36 �� is joined directly to the syllable devoid of suffix and L�� forms a new syllable. For example, ��!�m�#� "I

eat an apple" could be written ��L��!�m�#�. If the word ends in ��, �� replaces the suffix letter ��. For example �6�� = �6�� 37

As usual (from now on, this won't be repeated anymore), the agent and objects can be nominal groups, lists, nominal groups connected by a connective particle, and so forth. A is usually a sentient being.


36

��d� he/she looks (d�) at me

��a�� *��.��/��T� � the monks (a�� ) of the monastery cultivate (T� �)

compassion

��,�� Tsering turns (,��) this great wheel (��)

��*��$��!��5�� Buddha liberates (5��) all beings (�$��)

��E��O�� &�� that qualified ( ��E��) guru benefits (&��) the

beginners (��)

P��*��5�.�� you listen (��) to that melodious (.��) sound (5�)

�� 2��O�� the Tibetan guru gives/teaches ( ��) oral instructions

(� ��) of/on Mahāmudrā (2��)

1�� S��!��O��)�� e�� all the Dharma practitioners of the greater

vehicle generate (e��) the mind of enlightenment/bodhicitta (��)�� )

An intransitive verb has a subject in the nominative case and no direct object.

Subject no particle + Intransitive verb 38

�� the sun (�� ) rose (��)

�� -��1 ��-��n�� (as for) all sentient beings, (they) are confused (�n��)

�� the wheels (��) of the chariot (��) turn (��)

�� $�� those yoginīs are liberated ($��)

��`��e�� (as for) renunciation (��`��), (it) arises (e��)

38

A is sometimes followed by the emphasizing particle ��.


37

�� &�� merit (�� ) increases (�&��)

�� Z�� L��3�� the mind (Z��) (h.) of the guru and the mind (L��) of the

disciple mingle together (�3��)

��$�� he goes to Tibet39

�� W�� the new student stays (��) in Nepal

→→→→ Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive form. Here are a few examples of these pairs40: Transitive/active verbs Intransitive/passive verbs

,�� to turn (spin) �� to turn e�� to generate, produce e�� to be born, arise o�� to transform �p�� to become q�� to accomplish �(�� to be accomplished 5�� to liberate $�� to be liberated 5�� to obscure �$�� to be obscured �-�� to cut �� to be cut r�� to cause to increase �&�� to increase �� to cause to fall �� to fall Y�� to mix together �3�� to be mixed together, mingle

→→→→ The negation of transitive and intransitive verbs is expressed by placing the negations � � � � and �� before those verbs. Often, � is used to negate verbs in the past tense or in the

39

Just as it was the case for the existential verbs, the �� particles (here only �� is used) are used to indicate a

location (place of existence, place of living, destination of a motion verb, etc). See lesson 5.

40 Verbs are always listed in their present tense form.


38

imperative mood and �� to negate verbs in the present or future tenses. � and �� also negate

adjectives like in �� "permanent" and �� "impermanent", or �� "pure" and �� "impure".

a�� that monk didn't teach the Dharma

�� d� he/she doesn't look at me

$�� this enemy doesn't harm the Dharma practitioner41

�� (as for) the sun (it) didn't rise

�� -��1 ��-� ��n�� all sentient beings are not confused

�� the wheels of the chariot don't turn

Concluding remarks for the four types of verbs: →→→→ Important elements of the sentences can be missing when you read a Tibetan text. In particular, the subject/agent is frequently omitted if it can be understood from the context (the objects can be missing too). It is common to mention the subject/agent once and not to repeat it in later sentences. As you can see, the context is very important in classical Tibetan! →→→→ We have seen in this lesson the simplest structures of the sentences ending with the four types of verbs. It is extremely important to keep them clearly in mind. New complements (location, instrument, purpose, reason, indirect objects, adverbs, and so forth) will now be added to these basic structures. The functions of these complements will be indicated by the particles that will be studied in the next lessons. Remember that the absence of particle is as important as their presence. We have already seen that the absence of particle can indicate the subject and complement of a linking verb, the subject of a verb of existence, the direct object of a transitive verb, and the subject of an intransitive verb. →→→→ There is no need at this stage to start memorizing the tenses of the verbs, except if you are able and willing to do it…

41

When the verb has the same form for the present and future (as it is the case here), the tense must be determined from the context. For example, this sentence could mean: "he will not harm the Dharma practitioner".


39

TERMINATING PARTICLES Terminating particles indicate the end of a sentence or the end of an idea expressed over several sentences42. They mark a full stop. They are formed by duplicating the final suffix

letter of the preceding word and adding a �� on it. If there is no suffix letter, the terminating

particle �� is joined to the last syllable. After the second suffix letter �, the terminating

particle is I��. The eleven terminating particles are:

�� I�� ^�L�� virtue is the cause of happiness

��1 ��-� �� all phenomena are impermanent43

��W��L�� I am in Nepal

��*�� Buddha taught the Dharma

�� -��1 ��-��n�� all sentient beings are confused

42

Not all sentences end in a terminating particle! As we will see in lesson 7, many sentences (most of them requiring a period in English) can be connected together before ending in a terminating particle. The examples and exercices of this course will sometimes be concluded by a terminating particle and sometimes not. No need be confused about this. Similarly, strokes will be placed at the end of the examples and exercises.

43 L�� is missing so the terminating particle �� is joined to the syllable ��


40

Vocabulary list 3

��$� dākinī

��e�� Dharma protector (Skt. Dharmapāla)

��>�� devotion

+�� aspiration prayer

�� permanent (adj.) / permanence (noun)

�� impermanent (adj.) / impermanence (noun)

L�� authentic, genuine

�� long

�� Q� ocean

�6�� Words (of the Buddha)

� ��-�� treatise (commentary on the Words)

9�� peace

��)��*�� (�� ) awakened mind (Skt. bodhicitta)

�� merit

�=�� conditioned thing, composite

T� �� to meditate, cultivate [T]

�$�� to go [I]

�c�� to enter, engage [I]


41

�� to dwell, live, stay [I]

�\�� to dwell, live, stay [I] (h.)

�-�� to cut [T]

d�� to look at [T]

�� to do [T]

]�� to do, to make [T] (h.)

�]S�� to hold, grasp [T]

�:�� to speak, say, teach [T] (h.)

�� to explain [T]

e�� to generate, produce [T]

e�� to arise, to be born [I]

�� to turn [I]

Note on the verbs:

Verbs on the vocabulary lists are given in their present tense spelling. Verbs are classified as transitive [T] or intransitive [I] according to the Bod rgya tshig mdzod chen mo.

(h.) indicates the honorific form of verbs or nouns.


42

EXERCICES

1) Memorize the structures of the sentences associated with the four types of verbs and the words of the vocabulary list 3.

2) Translate into English

�� 4��L��

e�� L��

�3�� &��=�

�� 6�� -��

��E��

�� L��

e��$�� e��L��

��

��8��L��_��=��$��L��

�� e�

�� L��L��I��

�� >��T�

�� >��L�

*�� $��e��L��


43

�� e�

��*��K��%��e��

��a�� d

��a�� d��

��)�� 1��O�� c��

�=��1 ��-��

��)�� 1�� S��:��

��K��%��O��^��s��

��*��$�� ]��

��K��%��O�� Q��

�M��*��*��

�� $��

��W��

�� W��\��

Extra vocabulary:

�� teacher �� unsurpassed 4�� complete, perfect e�� protector �3�� guide ��E�� qualified e��$�� going for refuge �� e�� generating bodhicitta �� precious �� benefit s�� to examine, investigate


44

3) Write in Tibetan

All phenomena are impermanent

This is our aspiration prayer

Buddha has no afflictive emotions

He has authentic qualities

The Tibetan guru teaches the words (of the Buddha) and the treatises

The Bodhisattvas generate the awakened mind

Compassion and devotion are born


45

LESSON 4

THE AGENTIVE/INSTRUMENTAL PARTICLES (*�� O�� L��)

As the name suggests, when it is used within a sentence, an agentive/instrumental particle

(��5� "agent word") indicates the agent of a transitive verb or the instrument by which an

action is done. The spelling rules were already explained in lesson 3.

1. The agent of a transitive verb:

Marking the agent of a transitive verb44 is the most important function of an agentive particle. Generally speaking, an agentive particle implies the intentionality of the action. For that reason, agentive particles are sometimes used with verbs of motion that are intransitive, but intentional verbs. The agentive particle is usually not translated.

��*�� Buddha taught (� ��) the Dharma45

��d�� he/she looks at the mountains (��)

�� *�� ^�� the scholars ( �� ) explain the sūtras and the tantras

(^�)

�� L��9��7�� the guru bestows (7��) the four empowerments (��)

P��*��,��:�� you said this speech (,�) / these words

�M�� *��&� ��+�� the parents (&� �) of Tashi and Sonam make

(��) aspiration prayers (+�� )

44

Sometimes, agentive particles are used to indicate the subject of verbs of perception (see further in this lesson). Agentive particles are usually not omitted but they can be in some occasions.

45 The agentive particle does not have to be translated. Remember that case particles are used to indicate the

function of what precedes them but that they have no meaning on their own. A common mistake is to systematically translate the agentive particle as "by" like in "the Dharma was taught by the Buddha". This translation is correct (Tibetan verbs do not specify the active or passive voice of a verb), but this way of interpreting the agentive particle has the undesired consequence of having to translate all the sentences in a passive voice.


46

2. The instrument of an action:

The agentive particles are also used to indicate the means, the manner by which the action of the verb (transitive or intransitive) is done ("by", "with", "through", "by means of", etc). When two agentive particles are present within the same sentence, it is often the case that one indicates the agent of the transitive verb and the other its instrument. The agent is a sentient being and the instrument an inanimate object.

��!�m��# I eat (#) an apple (!�m�) with my hands (��)

��t�� *�� the wheel (��) turns (��) through the power ( ��) of

the wind (t��)

�� 4��%��*��r�� the guru increases (r��) the substances (4��) of the ritual (��) through/by means of mantras (%��)

�� $�� $�� the soldier ( �� ) kills (��) the enemies ($�� )

with a sword (��$��)

�� >��*�� *��$�� those yoginīs are liberated ($��) through the

power ( ��) of devotion

�� d�� he/she looks at me with his/her eyes ( ��)

��)�� '��(��*��.��/��T� the bodhisattva cultivates compassion through

efforts/diligence (�'��(��)

��'�� 1�� my root ('��) guru teaches the Dharma by means

of/through many methods

��1 ��-� ��S� all those new houses are consumed (��S�) by fire ( ��)

��.��/��$�� ]�� the Dharma practitioner accomplishes ( ]�) the

benefit (��) of beings (�$��) through great compassion.


47

3. Adverb:

An adverb modifies a verb (transitive or intransitive) by showing how its action is carried out (quickly, nicely, smoothly, gradually, etc.). They can be formed by adding an agentive particle to a noun or an adjective. Adverbs are usually placed right before the verb they modify.

��I�� persistent → ��I��O�� persistently

�� stage, sequence → �� O�� gradually

,�-�� moment, instant → ,�-�� in one moment, instantly

>�� respect → >�� respectfully

��9�� nature → ��9��O�� naturally

��)�� $��I��O�� ]�� the bodhisattvas accomplish ( ]�) the

benefit (��) of beings (�$��) persistently

�� I�� >�� he offers (��) flowers ( ��I��) and butter lamps ( �� )

respectfully

��9��O�� the wheel turns naturally

�� ,�-��S� those houses were instantly consumed (�S�) by fire ( ��)

�� .��/�� O�� the guru teaches the Dharma gradually with great

compassion

→→→→ A "secondary" usage of the agentive particle is to show the absence of something. This

usage occurs with just a few verbs. One of them, �� "to be empty", is important and

common. Associated with this verb, the agentive particle indicates of what something is empty.

f��;�� the five aggregates (f��) are empty of "Self" (��)


48

��1 ��-��9��O�� all phenomena are empty of nature / naturally empty

→→→→ Remember that nominal groups and nouns connected together form inseparable units. An agentive particle indicates the function of the whole unit, not just its last element(s). In the

sentence ��6�� S�� 1 ��-�*�� "all those yogins and

the gurus of the white monastery teach the Dharma" → the agentive particle *�� indicates

that the whole group (all those yogins and the gurus of the white monastery) is the agent of the verb "to teach".

SPECIAL STRUCTURE OF SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Generally speaking, transitive verbs have an agent acting on a separate object and are intentional - the action depends on the volition of the agent. On the other hand, intransitive verbs do not have separate objects and are unintentional - the action happens naturally, by its own power. If it is always true that transitive verbs are volitional and have separate objects, it is not the case that all the intransitive verbs are non volitional and have no separate objects. In short, a transitive verb is volitional and has a direct object. All the other types of verbs are usually considered intransitive.

→→→→ We have already seen that motion verbs (to go, to come, etc.) are intransitive although they can be intentional. These verbs nevertheless follow the general structure of intransitive verbs "Subject (no particle) + Intransitive verb (of motion)" to which a complement of

location46 is added: ��$�� "he goes to Tibet".

→→→→ Some intransitive verbs, the verbs of perception and attitude, have a sentence structure different than the one described in lesson 3. They are unintentional but have an object different than themselves, a fact that made a few Tibetan grammarians classify these verbs as transitive. The verbs of perception usually have their subject marked by an agentive particle (although they are intransitive) and their object in the nominative case. The verbs of attitude

have their subject in the nominative case and their object usually followed by the particle ��.

Verbs of perception: (to see, to hear, to taste, to know, to realize, to understand, etc).

Subject *��/��/O��/L��/�� + Object no particle + Verb of perception

46

Other types of intransitive verbs accompanied by a complement of location are the verbs of living (to stay, to dwell, to live, etc) and the verbs of dependence (to depend on, to be based on, to rely on, etc).


49

��b�� 1�� he/she sees ( 1��) a form (�b��)

��\�� P�� this scholar ( ��) knows ( P��) many scriptures/texts (�\��

) �F�� 1�� the nomad (�F��) heard (1��) the oral instructions

(� ��) of the precious (��) guru

�� *��U�� one realizes (��) the abiding nature (��U��) of mind47 Verbs of attitude: (to be attached, to be afraid, to doubt, to have faith, to love, to hate, etc). These verbs are called in that way because they express a mental attitude (feelings, emotions, etc.)

Subject no particle + Object �� + Verb of attitude

�� I am attached (��) to the happiness of sasāra

��K��%�� g�� one is not afraid (�g��) of the suffering of sasāra

�� $�� Sonam likes (��) [her] friends ($��)

�� he/she has no faith (�) in the teachings of the precious

guru

��e�� ordinary beings (��e��) love (� �) [their] relatives/friends (��

) $��H�� [they] hate (H��) [their] enemies48

�&�� -��1 ��-�� noble beings (�&��) love all sentient beings

47

When the agent/subject is missing in a sentence (it is extremely frequent!), it must be determined based on the context. In the exercises of this course, I systematically use the word "one" when the subject is not mentioned. While reading a text and understanding its context, the word "one" has to be replaced by the adequate word.

48 If these two sentences follow each other, it is evident from the context that the subject is the same (ordinary

beings)


50

→→→→ Another exception is the verb �� "to need". Its subject is marked by the particle �� and its object is in the nominative case.

Subject �� + Object no particle + ��

��I��)�� flowers ( ��I��) need water ()�)

�� I need a new house

a�� the monks (a��) do not need a lot of wealth (��)

→→→→ Finally, the (unintentional) intransitive verb �1�� "to obtain", "to get", "to achieve"

has both its subject and its object in the nominative case.

Subject no particle + Object no particle + �1��

��)�� )��1�� the bodhisattva achieves enlightenment

��1��$��-� ��&��1�� the Śrāvakas (��1��) and Pratyekabuddhas

(��) achieve the level (��&��) of Arhants ($��-� ��)

IMPERATIVE MOOD

The imperative mood (7��S�� "exhortation word") of the verbs is not regarded traditionally

as one of the three tenses. It expresses a command (polite or not). Most (unintentional) intransitive verbs do not have an imperative form. The standard way of forming the

imperative mood is to add one of the imperative particles -�� 9�� -�� to the root verb in its

imperative form (sometimes the verb is in other tense forms). The imperative can also be expressed by the imperative form of the verb alone. The spelling rules for the imperative particle are the following:

After the suffix letters �� , the spelling is -�� After the suffix letters �� (or no suffix), the spelling is 9�� After the suffix letter ��, the spelling is ��


51

H�� Sit!

H��-�� Sit!

�� come (��) inside (��)!

�� go (��) to the temple (��)!

�$�� ]Q accomplish ( ]Q) the benefit of beings (honorific form)

��d�� look (d��) at me!

�� 9�� teach the sacred Dharma49

→→→→ The particle �� is also sometimes seen in classical Tibetan to form the imperative mood,

but it is much less common than it is in the spoken language where it expresses a polite

command, like in �:�� "please speak!"

→→→→ Wishes and aspirations ("May ... happens!") are frequently made in Tibetan literature.

They are formed by adding the auxiliaries p��-�� and �� to the main verb. These

auxiliaries are linked to the main verb by ��/�� (�� particle �� attached to the infinitive

form of the verb)50. p��-�� and �� sometimes function as the main verb.

Root verb + (�� / ��) + p��-�� / �� = May the action of the verb happen

A + p��-�� / �� = May there be A or May A occur

�M�� May there be auspiciousness (�M��)!

�$��!��*��&��1��p��-�� May all beings (�$��) attain (1��) the level (��

�&��) of Buddhahood!

49

All the verbs of the examples are in their imperative form.

50 The auxiliary verbs will be presented in lesson 7. ��/�� can be omitted (especially in poetry!).


52

�� &��p��-�� May the merit (�� ) increase (�&��)

�� &�� May the merit increase

��`��.��/��e�� May renunciation (��`��), compassion, and wisdom

arise

→→→→ The following verse is a verse recited while training in the "four immeasurables" (�� 9��): loving-kindness (� ��), compassion (.��/��), joy (��), and equanimity (�I��.� ��):

�� - �1 ��-��^��E��p��-�� K��%��K��%��O��^��F��p��-�� K��%�� F ��p��-�� H��F��I��.� ��p��-��

-May all sentient beings be endowed with (��E��)51 happiness and the causes of happiness

-May they52 be free from (��F��) suffering and the causes of suffering

-May they not be separated from (�� F ��) the sacred bliss (�� ) which is53 devoid

of suffering (K��%�� )

-May they remain (��) in the great equanimity which is free from attachment (��) and

aversion (H��) for friends (��) and enemies (��)54

51

See footnote 9 in lesson 1 for this usage of the particle ��. 52

The subject "all sentient beings" is not repeated after the first sentence.

53 This usage of the connective particles (connecting a relative clause to a noun) will be presented in lesson 6.

54 It is normal at this stage not to understand the grammar of this verse completely. ��"friends" and ��"enemies"

respectively means "those who are close" and "those who are far" when they are translated literally.


53

NOMINALIZED VERBS

We have seen that verbs lose their infinitive particles ��/�� when they are used as the main

verb, at the end of a sentence. When these particles are added to the root form of a verb within a sentence, the verb is turned into a noun (or an adjective) that can still function like a verb (it can have an agent, objects, etc). Here are a few examples of nominalized verbs that appear within sentences:

�� desire / (the fact of) desiring

� �� teaching

�� realization / realizing

T� �� meditation / meditating

�� knowledge / knowing

1�� liberation / liberating

�� offering

1�� attainment / attaining

��*�� (regarding) the teachings of the Buddha (given by the Buddha)55,

��*��&��1�� (regarding) the attainment / attaining the level of Buddhahood56,

��K��%��O��^�L�� desire / (the fact of) desiring is the cause of suffering

1�� 1��&�� 1��Z��$��-� ��&�� the final ( 1��Z��) level (��

�&��) of liberation (1��) of the Hinayāna is the level of Arhant ($��-� ��)

55

Note that "teaching" is a noun but still functions as a verb ("the Buddha" is its agent). 56

Similarly, "attainment" is a noun but functions as a verb ("the level of Buddhahood" is its direct object).


54

VOCATIVE CASE

The vocative case is found in dialogues, when someone is called by his or her name (or title). The name usually appears at the beginning of the sentence, sometimes emphasized by

the interjections *�� or u�L�� that could be translated by English interjections like "Hey!" or

"Oh!" The name is not followed by any particle.

�� Monks (��)! It is (��) amazing (�� )!

*�� Oh! Precious (��) guru, ...

*��Y�� Hey! Sons (Y��) of the victorious ones (��), ...

�M�� L�� Tashi! This new student is Indian (��).


55

Vocabulary list 4

�� earth

)� water

�� fire

t�� wind

�� ignorance

� �� loving-kindness

�� joy (noun)/to enjoy [I]57

�I��.� �� equanimity

�� obstacle

�� scholar (noun)/to be skilled [I]

$��-� �� Arhant

�n�� confusion (noun)/to be confused [I]

�\�� scripture, text

�� benefit, meaning, object

�9�� other

o�� transformation (noun)/to transform [T]

57

In the same way, the infinitive verbs listed below can be interpreted as nouns when their root form is joined with the ending particles ��/�� within sentences. This is the case for most verbs and it won't be repeated in the

vocabulary lists of the following lessons.


56

�p�� transformation (noun)/to become [I]

s�� analysis (noun)/to analyze, examine [T]

�� knowledge (noun)/to know [I]

P�� knowledge (noun)/to know (h.) [I]

�$�� wandering being (noun)/to go [I]

�� to go (h.) [I]

�`�� arising (noun)/to occur [I]

�� realization (noun)/to realize [I]

1�� vision (noun)/to see [I]

�g�� fear (noun)/to be afraid [I]

�� gift (noun)/to offer [T]

&�� benefit (noun)/to benefit [T]

�� harm (noun)/to harm [T]

�1�� to attain, obtain [I]

"�� to find, get [I]


57

EXERCICES

4) Memorize the three main functions indicated by the agentive particles, the special structures associated with intransitive verbs described in this lesson, and the words of the vocabulary list 4

5) Translate into English (you can always use the word "one" when the agent/subject is missing in a sentence)

��)�� *��&��1��

��)�� 1��O��

��*��*�� O��,��

�� d

� �O��L��I��,��-��(��

��9�� 1��

�� -��!��K��%��

��1 ��-��9��O��

��9��

��-��

��t�� *��

a��$��-� ��&��9��O��1��

�� 1��


58

��

�� -��1 ��-��E��p��-��

K��%��F��p��-��

��g��`��'��L��

'��

P��*�� *��1��

L��I��1 ��-��9��O��4��

�� *��U��

� �O��n��,�-��#��

��K��%��O��v��w�� O��o� ��3��L��

�� 1�� &��

��#��>��

*��=��: �O��'��

�� I��O��T� � �

��*��.��/��$��!��&��

0��/�� T� ��&��`��

��'�� .��/��)��*�� I��O��e��

�M��


59

Extra vocabulary: �� wheel �� stage ,�� to turn [T] �9�� others �(�� to be

accomplished [I] �� desire (noun)/to desire [I] �� power, strength �� faith (noun)/to have faith in [I] � �� oral instruction ��9�� nature ��U�� abiding mode 4�� complete, perfect (adj.)/ to be complete [I] �� advice 1�� to hear [I] �� life ��E�� to be endowed with [I] ��F�� to be free from

[I] ��3�� to be similar to [I] �'�� love 0��/�� Vajrasattva v�� appearance (noun)/to appear [I] w�� dream o� � illusion ��`�� renunciation #�� exhaustion (noun)/to be exhausted [I] ��I�� persistence >�� respect �M�� auspiciousness �� imperative form of �� to listen to [T] �� imperative form

of �� to kill [T]


60

LESSON 5

In the first four lessons, we have seen that:

→→→→ Particles (and the absence of particles) are used to indicate the functions of the different elements of the sentence (case particles) as well as other grammatical information (non-case particles).

→→→→ Nominal groups, lists, and words joined together by a connective particle form inseparable units. A case particle placed in front of them indicates the function of the entire group.

→→→→ The final verb of a sentence determines its structure, i.e. the particles that will be used in it. In this course, all the verbs are classified into four types, determining four main sentence structures. On top of the basic sentence structures previously explained, various complements are usually added to form longer, complex sentences. These complements can be associated with any type of verb and their role in sentences is shown by the particles that follow them58. The next lessons will introduce the usages of these particles. Some of the following complements were already explained or mentioned in the previous lessons: location: where/when is the action happening → La don particles

manner: by means of what is the action happening → agentive particles

purpose: for the sake of what is the action happening → La don particles, purpose particle

beneficiary: for whom is the action happening → La don particles

reason: why is the action happening → agentive particles, reason particle, source particles

source: from where is the action happening → source particles

adverb: how is the action happening → La don particles, agentive particles, source particles

�� PARTICLES (:� j� i� =� �� )

The �� particles (the particles that have "the meaning of ��") are a group of seven

particles having the same meaning but different spellings. Among these seven particles, �� and �� are independent and always keep the same spelling. The spelling rules for the five

other particles are the following:

58

Since the function of these complements is made clear by the presence (or absence) of the particles that follow them, the word order is not important.


61

After the suffix letters �� , the spelling is i� After the suffix letter ��, the spelling is :� After the suffix letters �� , the spelling is =� When there is no suffix, the spelling is �� or j�59

The �� particles are the most complex particles to study since they can be used in different

kinds of contexts to indicate a wide range of functions. According to the traditional presentation, these particles are used to mark three of the eight cases. This traditional approach can be troublesome for beginners since these categories tend to overlap and it is sometimes difficult to determine with certainty to which one of these categories they belong. It is sufficient for now to understand the main functions indicated by these particles60:

1. The direct object of some transitive verbs: (��) As we have seen previously, the direct object of some transitive verbs (most of them are in

the nominative case) is followed by a �� (but none of the six other ��).

��d I look at him/her

$�� the enemy ($) harms (��) me

��K��%��O��^��s�� those scholars ( ��) investigate (s��) the

cause of suffering

�� &� the guru helps (&�) the new students

�� if (��)61 one divides (��) that, ...

59

�� is joined to the syllable devoid of suffix while j� forms a separate syllable. For example, �� "bird" followed

by a �� particle can be written �� (one syllable) or ��j� (two syllables). Since �� and �� are independent

particles that can follow any letter, �� and �� are also possible combinations. If the word ends in ��, �� replaces the suffix letter ��. For example �6�� = �6�� 60

The study of the case particles according to the traditional presentation in eight cases is nevertheless important if one wants to grasp the subtleties of the language. It should therefore only temporarily be put aside.

61 The conditional particle �� "if" will be explained in lesson 7


62

→→→→ The particle �� also indicates the object of most of the (intransitive) verbs of attitude (see

lesson 4)

��K��%�� g�� this man is not afraid (�g��) of sasāra's suffering

��*�� one has faith (�) in the teachings of the Buddha

�� one is attached (��) to the happiness of this life (��)

2. Location: (:� j� i� =� �� ) The seven �� particles62 are used to indicate different kinds of location in place or in

time: location where an action takes place, location of "static" verbs ("to exist", "to live", "to stay", etc), destination of verbs of motion ("to go", "to come", etc), and place of dependence

("to depend on"). The �� particles are then translated by "in", "on", "at", "to",

"during", etc.

��*�� Buddha taught the Dharma in India63

��*��=�� " " "

�� -�� the scholars explain the treatises in the monastery

�� -�� " " "

��j�� -�� " " "

��$� �� [he/she] killed (��) his/her enemy during the night ( �� )

=�� 1 ��-�=� ��T� � � in all times (=��) and circumstances (� ��), one

meditates on impermanence64

62

A location is the only function that the particle � ever indicates.

63 �� and � can be used everywhere. The five remaining particles are dependent particles and their usage is

restrained by the spelling rules.


63

9��: �� the queen died (��) on the third day (9��)

��Q�� v�� the host (�Q��) of deities appears (v��) in the sky (� � ��)

��Q�� v�� the host (�Q��) of deities appears (v��) in the sky (� � ��)

��\�� he/she stays at/in the monastery

��W��L� I am in Nepal

��a�� L� there are many monks (a��) in this monastery

�� the guru of the monastery goes to Tibet

�� =�2�� his daughter (�� ) went (2��) to India

��)�� =��c� one enters/engages (�c�) in the path of the bodhisattvas

N��*��F��9�� draw (F��9��)65 the ma��ala at the full moon (N��)!

�F��^�� the result depends (��) on the cause

��W�� he/she stays in India for a long (��) time (W��)

��-��;��=� �� one makes offerings ( ��) in the temple (��) on

the 15th day (��-��;�)

��N��=��=� � ��\�� this yogin stayed in retreat ( � ��) for seven

months (N��=��)

�M��=��V��{��$�� Tashi goes to America ({��) this week (�=��V��)

64

"Impermanence" is the direct object of the verb "to meditate" and should not to be mistaken for a location even if the English translation uses the preposition "on".

65 Imperative particle �� added to the verb F��"to draw".


64

→→→→ In possessive constructions, the particle �� is used to indicate the place of possession (only

�� is used. See lesson 3).

��L� I have a big house (a big house exist in me)

��L��I�� L��he/she has a lot of qualities (a lot of qualities exist in him/her)

→→→→ The seven �� particles (�� and �� are less frequent in this usage) are sometimes joined

with a word indicating a location (in place or in time), itself usually preceded by a connective particle.

��=� inside → ��=� inside the monastery

2��=� outside → ��2��=� outside the monastery

��=� on top of → �� =� on top of that

��i� below → � ��i� below the vase (� ��)

��i� behind → ��i� behind the house

=��=� in front of → �� =��=� in front of him/her

=��:� at the time of → ��=��:� at the time of death (��)

,��:� at the occasion of → ��,��:� on that occasion

/��:� after → ��/��:� after that

%��=� before → ��%��=� before that

3. Purpose / Benefit: (:� j� i� =� �� ) The �� particles (except for ��) are used to indicate the aim / purpose of an action as well

as the indirect object receiving the benefit of an action. →→→→ Purpose: the six particles can be used. However, the most common way of indicating a

purpose is to place the particle �� after the infinitive form of a verb (verb + ��/�� + + + + ��). The

particles are translated by "in order to", "to", "for", etc.


65

6�� : ��e��:� �� one goes ( ��) for refuge (e��) in the three jewels66

��9�� in order to abandon (��) the worldly activities (��9��) of this life

(��), ...

��`��^��e�� in order to generate (�e��) renunciation (��`��) in the mind

stream (̂ �), ...

��)��*�� e��=�� .��/��I��.� �� in order to give rise (�e��)

to the awakened mind, one needs (��) loving-kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity

��)��*�� e�� .��/��I��.� �� in order to give rise

(�e��) to the awakened mind, one needs (��) loving-kindness, compassion, joy, and

equanimity

��*��&��1��1��O�� =��c�� to attain (1��) the level of Buddhahood,

one engages (�c��) on the path of the greater vehicle (1��)

��*�� -��1 ��-��&�� Buddha taught the Dharma in

India to benefit (&��) all sentient beings67

→→→→ Benefit: the particles indicating the indirect object that benefits from an action are translated by "for the benefit of", "for the sake of", "for", "to ", etc.68

�� -��1 ��-�� e�� one generates the awakened mind (�� ) for the

sake of all sentient beings

+��+�� the doctor (+��) gives ( ��) medicine (+��) to the sick person (��) 66

The particle �� indicates the destination of the motion verb "to go" (in the three jewels) while the particle :� indicates the aim of the action (for refuge).

67 The first �� indicates a location (in India), the second �� indicates the direct object (all sentient beings) of the

transitive verb "to benefit", and the third �� indicates the purpose of the action (to benefit all sentient beings).

68 The sense of benefit that the indirect object receives is not always obvious, like in the sentence "he speaks to

them". It is sometimes better to think that the �� particles indicate an indirect object in a general sense, even

if there is no clear benefit for it.


66

�� the guru taught the Dharma to many disciples

��&�� benefit (&��) and happiness for them

��:�� he/she said this to me

��Q�� f�� he made offerings ( ��f��) to the host (�Q��) of deities

��P�� I explained (��) [it] to you69

��I��)�� flowers ( ��I��) need water70

→→→→ To indicate a purpose or a benefit, the �� particles (except for ��) are frequently

associated with words meaning themselves "benefit" or "purpose". These words are usually (when not omitted) preceded by a connective particle.

�� benefit, purpose → ��=� for the sake of, in order to, for the benefit of, for, etc. ��=� for the purpose of, on behalf of, on account of, for, etc. 2��=� in order to, for the sake of, etc.

��2��=� for that purpose, ...

��=� for that, for the purpose of that, ...

=��: �O�� -��1 ��-�*��=��%�� one dedicates (�%��) the virtue of the three

times (=��) for the sake of all sentient beings

4. Adverb: (:� j� i� =� ��)

69 This is a case where the direct object (of the verb "to explain") is omitted.

70 The subject of the verb "to need" is marked by the particle �� (see lesson 4).


67

Adverbs (modifying the verbs by showing how their action is carried out) can be formed by

adding a �� particle to a noun or an adjective. They are usually placed right before the

verb they modify. �� and �� are not used in this way.

�� clear → �� clearly

}�� quick, swift → }��=� quickly, swiftly

�� truth, true → �� truly

'��-�� one-pointedness → '��-��i� one-pointedly

^�� continuum, flow → ^��=� continuously

�� -�� the guru explains the treatises clearly

��}��=��$�� he goes to Tibet quickly

2�� (�� outer (2��) objects (��) are not truly established ((��)

��'��-��i�9�� rest (9��) one-pointedly within that state (��)

�� L��*��Q��^��=�� he/she continuously gathers (��) the

accumulations (�Q��) of merit (�� ) and wisdom (L��)

→→→→ There is a particular type of adverbs translating prefixes frequently used in Sanskrit to form compound verbs and nouns. To provide precise translations, Tibetans created these adverbs to mirror perfectly the different parts of the Sanskrit words. These adverbs often indicate a degree of intensity and are placed before the word (verb, noun, adjective) they modify. The effect of these Sanskrit prefixes on the words they modify is not always clear and a literal translation of their Tibetan equivalent does not always reflect the original meaning. Sometimes, these prefixes must be translated literally and sometimes not71. Here are a few examples of the main Sanskrit prefixes and their Tibetan equivalents:

Ati- ��i� very, extremely → atyutsāda ��i�� very abundant

71

It may sometimes be useful to consult a Tibetan-Sanskrit dictionary.


68

Anu- /��:� subsequent, after → anubuddhi /��:�� subsequent understanding

Abhi- �� towards, above, supreme → abhijñā �� supreme knowing /

clairvoyance

Ā- !��i� completely, totally → ānanda !��i�� complete joy / bliss

Upa- �� close, related to → upabhoga ��~�� close experience / enjoyment

Nir- �� certainly, definitely → ��`�� definite arising / renunciation

Pari- L��:� completely, wholly → parināma L��:��p�� transformation

Pra- ��i� completely, excellently, extremely → prabhava ��i�e�� strongly arising

Vi- � �� completely, distinctly → vij ñāna � �� distinctly knowing /

consciousness

Sam- L�� truly, authentically → samudācāra L��~�� to correctly

apply

Other functions of the �� particles:

The most important functions have been described above. Some important "secondary" functions include the followings:

→→→→ When something is equated to something else (treating A as B), a �� particle (except

for �� and ��) is used. It has the meaning of "as".

�� -��1 ��-�&� �� one knows all sentient beings as [one's] parents (&� �)

��K��%�� 1�� one sees sasāra's suffering as happiness

1��=��]S�� one takes (�]S��) a rope (1��) as/to be a snake (��)


69

→→→→ The particle �� (only) often indicates the topic that is being discussed by emphasizing it

(like the emphasizing particle �� does). It can be translated by a semi colon, "as for",

"regarding", etc. This usage is commonly seen in the outline sections of texts.

�� as for that, �� as for the first / the first [is the following]: �� d�r��9�� give up (r��) wrong view (��d�) regarding the guru! %��$��Z�� Z�� L��%��$�� as for the preliminary practices (%��$��),

there are (two): the common (Z�� ) and the uncommon (Z�� L��) preliminary practices

→→→→ Compound verbs can be formed by connecting a noun to a verb with a �� particle.

These particles are also often placed between two verbs or between a verb and an adjective, in a way that is often translated as an infinitive72.

� ��:�� to practice = to take (��) into one's experience (� ��)

e��:��$�� to go for refuge (e��)

��=�)�� to comprehend = to be inserted ()�) within (��)

��*��,��=�� [I] ask (��) [you] to turn (,��) the wheel of Dharma

��U��"��6�� a precious human body ( ��U��) is hard (6��) to

find ("��)

��L�� this sūtra is easy (��) to understand (��)

THE CONCESSIVE PARTICLES (*�� L�� )

72 See for example the formation of auxiliary verbs in lesson 7.


70

When they are used within a sentence, after a nominal group, the concessive particles are translated by "even", "also", "too", "as well", etc. They also appear occasionally after another particle. The spelling rules are the following:

After the suffix letters �� , the spelling is *�� After the suffix letters �� , the spelling is L�� When there is no suffix or the suffix letter ��, the spelling is �� -��*�� there does not exists even one

2��?��#�*�� outer (2��) objects (��) do not exist even a little bit (?��#�) / at all

��L��L�� he is Tibetan too

� ��-�� *�� (as for) this treatise, even the scholars ( ��) did not

understand (it) �9��L�� others also want happiness

�� '��(�� the students need (��) dilligence (�'��(��) as well73

THE "AND/OR" PARTICLES The eleven ��K� "separating and joining" particles are formed by duplicating the final

suffix letter of the preceding word and adding the suffix letter � to it. If there is no suffix

letter, the particle is � �. After the second suffix letter �, the particle is I �

� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � I � →→→→ Within a sentence, these particles can be translated by "or" and sometimes "and" 74

73

the concessive particle is placed after the particle �� that indicates the subject of the verb "to need"

74 It is often better to translate this particle by "or", but this has to be determined from the context.


71

�� permanent or impermanent

�M�� ]S�� Tashi or/and Tenzin

<�� =�� six or seven

L�� existing or not existing

→→→→ After the main verb, at the end of a sentence, they function as a question mark. The other way to form a question is to use an interrogative pronoun (see lesson 6)

��L�� he is Tibetan → ��L�� is he Tibetan?

�=��1 ��-� �� L�� are all conditioned things (�=��) not impermanent?

��*�� did the Buddha teach the Dharma?

�� *��L�� is the essence (��) of mind existent or non-existent?

� ��9��7�� did one realize (��) the nature (��9��) of thoughts

(� ��) as/to be the Dharmakāya (��7�)?

��L��$�� is he/she also going to Tibet?

��8��L�� am I crazy (8��)?


72

VOCABULARY LIST 5

=�� time �� life, time ��9�� nature �� essence � �� retreat e�� refuge $�� enemy �Q�� collection, group, accumulation, host a�� monk

^� (continuum of) mind, mind-stream / tantra ?��#� a little, a bit, a few 6�� hard, difficult �� easy �� meaning, benefit, object L�� (primordial) wisdom ��`�� renunciation 1�� liberation (noun) / to be liberated [I] �� a wish (noun) / to wish, desire [I] &�� benefit (noun) / to help, benefit [T] �� harm (noun) / to harm [T] �� faith (noun) / to have faith, to trust [I]

�� to need [I]

�c�� to enter, engage in [I]

�� to gather, accumulate [T] r�� to give up, abandon [T]


73

2�� to prostrate, pay homage [T] �� to depend on, to be based on [I] �� to supplicate, to ask [T]


74

EXERCICES

1) Memorize the four main functions indicated by the La don particles, the location words (inside, outside, etc), and the words of the vocabulary list 5.

2) Translate into English (try to identify clearly the function indicated by the �� particles)

6�� : ��e��:� �� =�� L�� ^�� s�� L�� L��]S� �� b��d ��)�� #�� S�� =��c�� !��&�� K��%��g�� \�� `��L��^��e�� =� �� K��%��=� � 1�� a�� -��1 ��-�� !�� O�� *��*��6��9��O�� }��=�� *��6��L��


75

��*��&��1��Q�� +��+�� -��1 ��-�*��=��%�� -��1 ��-��%�� L�� )�� \�� i��Q�� L� a��=��\�� #�� =��c��`�� W��W�� *��=��=��=�� F��^�� *�� Extra vocabulary:

�� to go, to come [I] �b�� form �� clear }�� quick +�� medicine +�� doctor �� ill, patient %�� to dedicate [T] �� ground, bhūmi W�� long time �� Indian


76

LESSON 6

THE SOURCE PARTICLES (�� )

The �`�� "source of arising" particles indicate the starting point/source of an action.

They also have a few other secondary usages. �� and �� are independent particles that can

be placed after any words, regardless of their suffix letter.

1. Source / origin: (�� ) The most important function of the source particles is to indicate the source, origin, or starting point of something. This source can be a place, time, or a text. The source particles are then translated by "from" or "since".

G��`�� rain (��) arises from the clouds (G��)

��2�� the sun rises (��) from the eastern (��) direction (2��)

Y�� Q��1�� one is liberated (1��) from the ocean of cyclic existence (Y��)

��L�� 1�� he/she also obtained this teaching from the guru

��*�� -��1 ��-� ��J��5�� does the Buddha free (5��) all

sentient beings from the darkness (J��) of ignorance?

N�� \�� one stayed in retreat since the first month (N��)

��1�� =��P �� childish beings (��) wander (�P �) in

sasāra since beginningless (1�� ) times (=��)

P��W��=�� you stayed in Tibet since a long time (W��)


77

��W��O��=� from Tibet to Nepal75

��*��N��N��<��=��W�� I also stay in Nepal from the

second month until the sixth month

→→→→ The source particle �� is used to indicate the source of quotes (scripture). The quote

starts after the source particle76 and ends with one of the quote closing particles -�� 9�� 77. If a person is quoted, that person is marked by an agentive particle. The quote is then followed by the verb "to say", "to teach", etc78. When the source particle indicates the source of a quote, it is better translated by "in".

Text name + �� + Quote79 + -�� 9�� + �:�� "to say", "to teach"

Person + *�� O�� L�� + Quote + -�� 9�� + �:�� "to say"

�� ...... -��:�� it is said in the Ornament (��) of the Middle Way (�� ):

"......"

�\��1 ��-� ��L��9��:�� it is said in this scripture (�\��): "all

phenomena are impermanent"

�� *��9��9��:�� it is said in the [Prajñāpāramitā

in] eight thousand verses (�� ): "the nature of mind is luminosity (��)"

75 A �� B ��=� = "from A until B", or "starting with A up to B". ��=� "until" is usually connected to the word

it follows by a connective particle.

76 Sometimes, a �� particle is used instead of ��

77 These particles correspond to the closing quotation marks (") used in English to conclude a quote. The spelling rules are the following:

after the suffix letters �� → -�� after the suffix letters �� or when there is no suffix letter → 9�� 78 The verb is sometimes omitted and the quote then ends by 9�� 79 Quotes are usually complete sentences.


78

��*��!�� L��9��:�� the Buddha said: "all phenomena are

selfless (�� )"

��`��0��/�� 9��7��9��:�� Rangjung Dorje (��`��0��/��) said: "the

nature of thoughts (� ��) is Dharmakāya (��7�)"

2. Comparison: (�� + �� ) To express a comparison, Tibetans use the particle �� and ��/�� (�� cannot be used).

These particles indicate the place of comparison and are translated by "than". Word order is not important.

A + B �� + adjective80 + (L��) = A is more (adjective) than B

�� this monastery is bigger than that house

�� " " "

�� " " "

��!�� 1��L�� Mount Meru (��) is higher ( 1��) than all the mountains

(��)

��1��)�� &�� the bodhisattvas are more noble (�&��) than the

Śrāvakas (��1��)

P��9��L�� I am younger (�9��) than you

��6�� [it] is whiter (6��) than that

�� that horse is redder ( ��) than fire

8080 Some adjectives have a comparative form. For example, �� "big" → �� "bigger", )��k� "small" → )�� "smaller", etc.


79

3. Exclusion and inclusion/isolation: →→→→ Exclusion: The particle �� (only) is used in that way and is translated by "except for" ,

"other than " , or "apart from" . The verb is always negated.

'�� there is no place (��) of hope (��) apart from the root ('��) guru

�� 9��-��*�� there is not even a single Dharma other than mind

��9�� 2�� except for him, others didn't go (2��) to Tibet

6�� : ��e�� there is no refuge other than the three jewels

→→→→ Inclusion/isolation: The source particles can indicate the inclusion of something into a larger group or something that is singled out from a larger group. The particles are translated

by "amongst", "from among", "within", etc. �� is often associated with the word �� "inside", to form the phrase �� ("within", "from within"). �� is usually (when not

omitted) preceded by a connective particle.

��: �� amongst the three lower realms, ...

��: �� " " "

6�� : �O�� from among the three jewels, ...

�� bliss arose (��) from within

��<�� among the six chapters (��), the first [is as follows]: ...

��<�� L�� from among the six classes of beings (��), the humans

are the most supreme ( ��) / best81

��U��1 ��-�*�� L�� from within all the religions (��U��), that one is

the best 81 �� is used for superlative constructions. A �� + B + adjective = B is the most (adjective) among A.

The ending �� is sometimes added to the adjectives to indicate the superlative: �#�� → �#��


80

Secondary functions of the source particles: →→→→ After the �� and the agentive particles, the source particles are sometimes used to form

adverbs82. This usage is often similar to their basic "source usage".

�� primordial, beginning = �� primordially, from the beginning .��1�� sincerely, from the bottom of one's heart →→→→ By extension of their basic meaning ("from"), the source particles are sometimes used to indicate the instrument ("by", "with", "through", "by means of", etc) or the reason ("because", "since", etc) by which an action occurs. In Tibetan, a reason is usually shown by an agentive particle (see lesson 7), but the source particles can be used to show a reason in texts translated from Sanskrit (where a reason is commonly indicated by a source particle)

��1��1��1�� I attained liberation (1��) through this method83

$��-� ��&��'��(��1�� one attains the level of an Arhant through diligence

(�'��(��)

=�� 1�� L�� one knows that there is fire due to seeing smoke (=��)

RELATIVE CLAUSES Relative clauses are clauses that, like adjectives, qualify nouns in a sentence. For example, in the sentence “The bodhisattva who desires to attain the level of Buddhahood practices on the path.”, “who desires to attain the level of Buddhahood” is a relative clause qualifying the agent of the sentence, "the bodhisattva".

→→→→ Relative clauses always end with the infinitive form of a verb (verb + �� ). They

qualify nouns in the same way as an adjective does: they are either placed right after the noun (without any particle in between), or before (joined to it by a connective particle). Although it is slightly more common for an adjective to follow the noun it qualifies, relative clauses are more frequently preceding the noun: 82 These are the three ways to form adverbs in Tibetan. The �� particles, followed by the agentive particles,

are the most commonly used particles.

83 Note that this usage is very similar to the basic source usage ("from") of this particle.


81

� (adjective) 6�� "white" + (noun) �� "Dharma"

6�� S�� or ��6�� = white Dharma � (relative clause) �� "taught the Dharma" + (noun) �� "the Buddha"

�� or �� 84 = the Buddha who taught the Dharma

→→→→ A modified noun can have different roles regarding the relative clause: the noun can be the agent, subject, object, location, etc. The nouns are related to the relative clauses by relative pronouns: "who", "that", "which", "where", "when", "whose", etc 85. The following examples highlight various relationships possible between the noun modified by the relative clause and the infinitive verb within the clause itself. Agent of a transitive verb

�� the Buddha who taught the Dharma86 �� " " " H�� the man who commits evil deeds ��H�� " " " Subject of intransitive verb

=��: �=��\�� the Buddhas who abide in the three times ��=��: �=��\�� " " " ��2�� the sun that rises (��) from the eastern (��) direction (2��)

�� 2�� " " " Object of a transitive verb

��*�� the Dharma that the Buddha taught / the Dharma that was taught

by the Buddha87 84 Both clauses are identical in meaning.

85 The appropriate relative pronoun has to be determined from the context. When the relative clause is joined to the noun it modifies by a connective particle (it is the case most of the times), it is easy to translate the connective particle as one of those relative pronouns (instead of "of"), following this model: noun qualified + "who", "that", etc + relative clause (translation from right to left).

86 Note that no agentive particles are used after Buddha to indicate its role of agent with respect to the relative clause. An agentive particle placed after "the Buddha" would indicate its role of agent with respect to the final verb of the sentence. Relative clauses are underlined in Tibetan and in italique in English.


82

��*�� " " " ��H�� the evil deed that the man commits / the evil deed that is committed by the

man. H�� " " " Subject of a linking verb

��L�� phenomena which are impermanent

�� L�� " " " Location (space and time)

�� the monastery where the guru taught the Dharma �� " " " �� W�� the place (W��) where there is no Dharma W�� " " " �� ,�� an era (,��) when Buddhas didn't come (��)

,�� " " "

→→→→ Relative clauses are describing nouns within larger sentences. Every noun can be modified by a relative clause, sometimes creating long and complex sentences. Just like a noun and an adjective that modifies it, a noun and its relative clause form an inseparable unit that must be taken together. How to translate sentences containing one or more relative clauses? 1) Identify relative clauses. Unlike the final verb of a sentence, relative clauses always end with an infinitive verb. Oftentimes, the relative clause precedes the noun it modifies and is joined to it by a connective particle.

2) Translate the relative clause(s) and the noun(s) modified by it. When the relative clause precedes the noun, follow this model:

Clause ending in verb + ��/�� + �� + noun = noun + "who", "that", etc + relative clause

87 The agent of the transitive verb within the relative clause is marked by an agentive particle. When the noun modified by a relative clause is the object of that relative clause's verb, the translation can be done either in the active or in the passive voice.


83

Ex: ��*�� → the Dharma (��) + that (��) + the Buddha taught (��*�� ) = "the Dharma that the Buddha taught"

�� → the Buddha (��) + who (��) + taught the Dharma (�� ) = "the Buddha who taught the Dharma"

3) Identify the grammatical function of the nouns modified by relative clauses (forming inseparable units) within the larger sentence. The nouns modified will be followed by a particle (or no particle) according to their grammatical function (agent, subject, object, etc) within the larger sentence. In this way the same nouns can have two different grammatical functions, one within the relative clause and one within the larger sentence.

Ex: ��*��H�� 1) Identify the relative clause: �� is a verb in the infinitive form connected to the noun �� by the connective particle �� → H�� is the relative clause modifying the noun �� 2) Translate the noun and its relative clause: H�� → the man who commits evil

deeds 3) Identify the grammatical function of the noun modified within the larger sentence: the

noun is followed by the particle ��. In this case, �� indicates the indirect object of the verb

� �� "to teach (past tense)" → the Buddha taught the Dharma to the man who commits evil

deeds ("the man who commits evil deeds" is the indirect object)

H�� L�� the man who commits evil deeds is a king

H�� the man who commits evil deeds has no merit

H�� d�� the man who commits evil deeds looks at me

��H�� the king killed (��) the man who commits evil deeds

��H�� 1�� was this wealth (��) obtained from the man who commits

evil deeds?


84

�� W�� \�� the guru who comes from Tibet

stayed in retreat for a long (��) time (W��)

� � ��$�� L�� the rain (��) that falls (��) from the sky is cold

($�� )

��)��*�� =��c��#��6�� : ��2�� this person (��#��) who

enters the path of awakening pays homage (2��) to the three jewels

��)��*�� =��c�� -�� the scholar explains treatises to

this man who enters the path of awakening ��-��"�� U�� L�� the precious (��) human body ( ��U��)

that is achieved ("��) by us is impermanent

�� *�� this guru who comes from Tibet

explains the Dharma that the Buddha taught

��L�� W��=��$�� he also goes to a place (W��) where there are no humans

=��: �=��\��!��2�� one pays homage (2��) to all the

victorious ones (��) who abide in the three times

��)�� Y�� Q��P �� -��.��/��e�� the bodhisattva

generates compassion for the sentient beings who wander (�P ��) in the ocean of cyclic

existence (Y��)

�� does the wisdom that realizes emptiness arise

(��) from within?

��*�� W�� &��W��L�� the place (W��) where the

Buddha taught the Dharma is India or (in other words) the Noble land (�&��W��)

�'��(��*��1�� U��L��g��L�� this precious human body ( ��U��

��) that is achieved through diligence (�'��(��) is also easy to be destroyed (�g��)


85

W��Q��*��)��1�� one attains enlightenment through the two

accumulations that were gathered (��) for a long time (W��)

�� r��a��*��U�� : �=�� that monk who abandoned

afflictive emotions realizes directly ( ��: �=�) the abiding nature (��U��) of phenomena

INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

There are traditionally four main interrogative pronouns in Tibetan88. They are usually placed right before the verb.

�� what, who (for things and persons) → ^� ��L�� what is the reason (̂� ��)? -��/g�� what, how (for things)89 → ��^��-��L�� what is the cause of happiness? :� who (for persons) → �� :�L�� who is this guru?

→→→→ These four interrogative pronouns are often associated with the different case particles according to the role they play in the sentence.

�� of what? whose? :�� whose? -�� of what? �� by what? :�� by whom? -�� by what? �� whence? from what? :�� from whom? -�� -�� from what? �� to what? where? :�� to whom? -�� -�� to what? why?

��:��L� who has great wisdom?

��L�� where do these men come (L��) from?

��:��L�� whose house is that?

�� where does happiness arose (��) from?

88

We can also add -�� "how much/how many" and � � "when" to these four.

89 -�� and g�� have similar meanings.


86

��$� where is he/she going?

→→→→ Tibetans use these interrogative pronouns as the basis for the relative pronouns that are needed to maintain the sentence structure of Sanskrit texts. These four interrogative

pronouns (�� is the most common) are therefore also used as relative pronouns ("that",

"who", "which", etc) without being question words . This usage will be covered later. →→→→ Indefinite pronouns are formed by adding the indefinite particle 9�� or the concessive

particle L�� to one of the four interrogative pronouns. When the verb of the sentence is

negated, the indefinite pronouns are translated by "nothing", "no one", "nothing", etc.

��9�� something, someone, that which, the one who :�9�� someone, the one who -��9�� something, that which is ��L�� whatever, whoever, anything, anyone -��L�� whatever, anything :�L�� whoever, anyone

��B��=�:�L�� there is no one in the mountain hermitage (��B��)

��L�� apart from that, there is nothing


87

Vocabulary list 6

5� sound, word

��#�� person, individual

�� family, class

Y�� cyclic existence (syn. sasāra)

� �� (discursive) thoughts, concepts

�� truth

�� ultimate

!��4�� relative, conventional

�� luminosity, clear light

��U�� religious tradition

^� �� reason

�� condition, circumstance

W�� place, region, country

�� blessing

2�� direction

�� east

�� south

�� west


88

�� north

N�� moon, month

�� year

��=� until, up to

L�� primordially

1�� =�� (1�� ) from beginningless (1�� ) times

v�� appearance (noun) / to appear [I]

�P �� to roam, wander [I]

1�� to hear [I]

�� to come [I] (h.)

q�� to accomplish [T]

�(�� to be accomplished, established [I]


89

EXERCICES

1) Memorize the three main functions indicated by the source particles, the four interrogative pronouns, and the words of the vocabulary list 6.

2222)))) Translate into English (proceed in the order described in this lesson)

�� -��O�� ]�� -��O�� ]�� v��b��-��L�� -��O��K��%�� `�� :�L�� 2��$��-� ��1��1�� *��E��)�� 1�� =��c�� L� ��B��=��\�� a�� !��4��i��!��^��e�� (��L�� M��L�� `�� *�� :�L�� W�� W��=��$�� '�� 6��3�� (�� 1��!��O�� 1��p�� L�� =�� *��8��9��9��:�� P��N��:�L��


90

�� \��a�� :�� -��*�� 1�� Z��/��-��L�� N��N��=� � ��\��6�� : �� O��=��$�� ~��c��9��:�� *�� 1�� P �� -��I��O��

Extra vocabulary:

�� to make offerings �� ]�� to accomplish the benefit of �b�� form �� place of hope ��E�� to be endowed with/ possessing 1�� liberation ��B�� mountain hermitage �6��3�� kindness (h.) '�� root (�� 1�� philosophical system �� 1��p�� Madhyamaka Prasa�gika 9�� peace � �� oral instruction

~��c�� Entering the Way of the Bodhisattva (Skt. bodhicaryāvattāra) �� superior Z��/�� compassion (h.) �� Lhassa ��I�� earnest, persistent


91

LESSON 7

THE AUXILIARY VERBS

Auxiliary verbs (��S��&��) are secondary verbs that follow the main verbs (��S��Q��) to

clarify their tense or extend their verbal expression. They are linked by ��/��. When a verb

with an auxiliary is negated, the negation is placed right before the auxiliary verb:

→→→→ Main verb + (��/��)90909090 + ( �/ ��) + Auxiliary verb

We have seen in lesson 3 that many verbs do not have distinct forms for the three tenses and the imperative mood, but only one, two, or three of them. A very important function of the auxiliary verbs is to specify the tense of the main verbs91. The two main verbs used in that

way are �p�� "to become" and �� "to do".

�p��p��p��p�� →→→→ p�� = past tense �p�� = present and future tenses

→→→→ When �p�� is the main verb, its present/future form (�p��) means "to become", "to

change into", but its past tense (p��) often has the same meaning as the linking verb L�� "to

be". This verb must be connected to the preceding noun by a �� particle.

��=��p�� iron (��) changes into gold (��)

$��p�� afflictive emotions that are the enemies ($�)

��^��p�� ignorance that is the cause (̂�) of sasāra

→→→→ When �p�� is used as an auxiliary verb, it only indicates the tense of the main verb

it is associated with (it expresses the "becoming" of the main verb). The present/future form 90 �� are sometimes omitted. 91 Note that auxiliary verbs can be placed after any verb, even those having distinct forms for all the tenses. On the other hand, auxiliary verbs are not always used, even when the tense of a verb is ambiguous. Sometimes, the tense has to be determined from the context.


92

(�p��) just indicates that the main verb is in the future tense while the past form (p��) indicates that the main verb is in the past tense.

��*��&��1�� p�� one will not attain the level of Buddhahood in

this life

��*��&��1�� p�� one has not attained the level of Buddhahood

�� -��1 ��-�� Q��$��p�� will all sentient beings be freed

(�$��) from the ocean of sasāra?

�� -��1 ��-�� Q��$��p�� have all sentient beings been freed ($��

) from the ocean of sasāra?

��)��*�� =��c��p� one will engage on the path to enlightenment

�$��!��p�� all beings (�$��) will die (��)

P�� 1 ��-��g��p�� you will all be frightened (�g��)

��#��1� ��p�� those great light rays (��#��) will dissolve (1� �)

into me

�� → �� = past tense �� = present tense �� = future tense When �� is used as an auxiliary verb92, it also indicates the tense of the main verb.

��*�� Buddha taught the Dharma ��*�� Buddha teaches the Dharma ��*�� Buddha will teach the Dharma

92 Always start by checking if �� and �p�� are the main verbs or auxiliary verbs!


93

→→→→ Most of the times, the future auxiliary �� must be translated by "must", "should", "have

to", etc.

�� one should teach the Dharma (or less frequently: "one will teach the

Dharma")

��^��=��T� �� one must meditate continuously (̂��=�) on impermanence

�&��9�� one should know the four nobles truths

K��%��O��^�r�� one has to abandon (r��) the cause of suffering

→→→→ The auxiliary verb �� is also used to give a causative sense to the main verb,

especially to unintentional verbs. It often transforms intransitive verbs into transitive ones. When it is used with transitive verbs, it doesn't add any meaning or places an emphasis on the agent of the action.

1�� to be liberated [I] 1�� to cause to be liberated = to liberate [T] �� to realize [I] �� to cause to realize, to make one realize

v�� to be illuminated [I]93 v�� to cause to be illuminated = to illuminate [T] 9�� to be pacified [I] 9�� to cause to be pacified = to pacify [T]

�� to teach [T] �� to teach (same meaning) �� to kill [T] �� to kill (same meaning)

�� 1 ��-�9�� the guru pacifies all the obstructing spirits (��)

2��1�� >��L�� the supreme method that makes one

realize Mahāmudra (2��) is devotion

��1��^�� one should understand the causes that liberate (one)

from sasāra

93 The verb v�� has several meanings ("to appear", etc). One of them is "to be illuminated".


94

� ��: �v��#��*��=�1� � � the light rays (��#��) that illuminate

(v��) the three realms (� ��) dissolve (1� �) into the ma��ala

�� $�� the soldier ( �� ) kills the enemy ($�)

�� the guru does not explain that sūtra

→→→→ The future form �� is also used to nominalize verbs. When placed right after the root form

of the verb (without ��/�� in between)94, it is translated by "the object of (verb)", or "that

which is/the one who is to be (verb)". The difference with the nominalizing particles �� is

that �� emphasizes the object and not the action of the verb.

�� knowing (noun)/to know → �� that which is to be known/the object of

knowledge

T� �� meditation (noun)/to meditate → �T� �� that which is to be meditated upon/the

object of meditation

�� realization (noun)/to realize → �� that which is to be realized/the object of

realization

r�� to abandon → r�� that which is to be abandoned/the object of abandonment

�=�� to tame → �=�� the one who is to be tamed/the object of taming

�T� ��L�� what is the object of meditation?

��1 ��-��Y�� is it possible (Y��) to know all the objects of knowledge?

��)��*�� =�r��1 ��-�� O��r�� on the path to enlightenment, one has to

abandon gradually (�� O��) all that is to be abandoned

94 Try not to confuse verb + �� and verb + ��!!! For example, �� and �� respectively mean

"object of knowing" (noun) and "one should know" (verb)


95

��*��=�� Buddha taught the Dharma to those who are to be tamed

(syn. "disciples")

Other auxiliary verbs

Apart from specifying the tense of the main verb, auxiliary verbs are also used to extend the verbal expression of the main verb. Here are a few examples:

�� to be able to → ��W�� he/she is not able to

stay for a long time (W��) in retreat

�� to need → ��)��1�� one needs to realize

emptiness in order to attain enlightenment95

�� to want → ��$�� one wants to go to Tibet96

j�� to be suitable, ok → H�� j�� it is not ok to commit evil deeds

Y�� to be possible → ��J��Y�� is it possible to dispel (��) the

darkness (J��) of ignorance?

É

95 Note that �� and �� have a similar meaning. The particle �� indicates a purpose.

96 Keep in mind that ��/�� are regularly omitted (especially in poetry).


96

VERBAL USES OF PARTICLES In Tibetan, it is common to see several sentences joined together before being concluded by a terminating particle. The terminating particles therefore not only indicate the end of single sentences but also the end of series of connected sentences that could be compared to paragraphs. These "paragraphs" often need to be broken into distinct sentences (ending with periods) when they are translated into English.

In the lessons 2 to 6, we have covered mainly the usages of the particles when they are used within sentences. We will now focus on the main usages of these particles (the indication of different types of relationships between two sentences) when they are placed after final verbs, to connect sentences together.

When several sentences are connected in that way, 1) each sentence has to be translated individually before being 2) joined together according to the usages of the particles used for that purpose.

1. The connective particles: (*�� O�� L��) When they are used after the final verb of a sentence, the main function of the connective particles is to indicate a contradiction between the previous sentence and the following one. The sense conveyed by the connective particle is that, "the action of the first verb occurs, nevertheless, the action of the second verb takes place". The connective particles can be translated by "but", "however", "nevertheless", "although", "even if", "even though", "nonetheless", "rather", etc.

�S�� *�� although one knows the words (�S��), one does not understand (��)

the meaning

��*�� :��*�� :�� this was not spoken by the Buddha

but was spoken by this scholar

��P��1��1�� O��1�� even though I taught you the method of

liberation, liberation depends (��)97 on yourself (��)98

97 �� in the verb �� "to depend on" should not be confused with the source particle.

98 �� can mean "oneself", "myself", yourself", "himself", themselves", etc, according to the context in wich it is

used.


97

��L��O��5��r�� he/she is lazy (��) but he/she must abandon the two

obscurations (5��)

�g�� L�� L��*��A��B� ��'��-��i�� there are many

distractions (� ��L��) in this world (�g��), nevertheless, one must guard (��) one's

discipline (A��B� ��) one-pointedly ('��-��i�)

��!�� L��O��]S� all phenomena are impermanent but one takes (�]S�) them

as being permanent

2. The concessive particles: (*�� L�� ) Like the connective particles, the concessive particles indicate a contradiction, often meaning that the action of the previous sentence is not sufficient for the action of the following one to happen: "Although the action of the first verb occurs, the action of the second verb (does not) take place". These particles can also be translated by "but", "however", "nevertheless", "although", "even if", "even though", etc.

��*�� 1�� *�� r�� even though he heard

many teachings of the Buddha, he was not able to abandon (r��) his afflictive emotions

��K��%�� 8��L�� although one experiences (8��) a lot

of suffering in sasāra, one is attached (��) to the mundane activities (��) of this life

�Q�� L��*��^�� e�� that merchant (�Q��) has a lot of wealth

(��) but contentment (��) has not arisen in his mind (^��)

�� \��*�� p�� although one stayed for many years

in retreat, on has not eliminated (��) one's afflictive emotions

P��L��*��W��=�e�� p� even if you have hopes (��), you won't be reborn

in the god realms (��W��)

��L��I�� *�� I have no qualities but I have faith (�) in the

spiritual guide (��)


98

3. The Agentive/instrumental particles: (*�� O�� L��)

After a final verb, agentive particles indicate that the action of the previous sentence is the reason (or the support) for the action of the following sentence: "because the action of the first verb occurs, the action of the second verb takes place". The agentive particles sometimes

directly follow the root form of the verb, but most of the times the particle �� follows the

infinitive form of the verb: Verb + ��/��. The connective particles can be translated by "because", "therefore", "since", "by" , etc.

� �� *�� '��-��i��-�� I shall explain (��) this teaching,

therefore listen (��) one-pointedly ('��-��i�)!

��!��^��e�� w�� 3�� since all phenomena arise from causes and

conditions, they are like (��3�) a dream (w�� )

��g�� L��6�� : ��2�� because that western (��g�)

student is a Buddhist (��), he prostrates to the three jewels

��L�� since he/she is lazy (��), he doesn't listen (��)

to the oral instructions (� ��) of the guru

'�� 6��3��3�� >��3��^��e�� one remembers (3��) the kindness (�6��

3��) of one's root guru, therefore, fervent (3��) devotion arises in one's mind

��`��^�� e��L��I��#�� 9��O��&�� p�� because renunciation

has not arisen in one's mind, profound qualities will not increase (�&��) naturally

4. The reason/purpose particle: (2��) This particle placed after a verb indicates that the previous sentence is the "reason for" or the "purpose of" the following sentence. It is usually connected to the previous verb (in its

infinitive form) by a connective particle → Verb + ��/�� + 2��


99

The meaning of the particle 2�� (reason or purpose) has to be determined from the context.

The particles �� and =� sometimes following the particle 2�� do not add any meaning but 2�� always indicates a reason while 2��=� always indicates a purpose. When it shows a reason,

the particle 2�� can be translated by "because", "therefore" , etc (same usage as the

agentive/instrumental particle). When it shows a purpose, it can be translated by "in order to", "for the sake of", etc.

��L�� 2�� since he is lazy (��) he doesn't listen

(��) to the oral instructions (� ��) of the guru

�� -��&��2��1�� in order to benefit sentient beings, one

needs method and wisdom

� ��L��r��2��=�� in order to abandon distractions (� ��L��), one

must stay in a solitary place (��)

1��&��1��2��5��r�� in order to attain the level of liberation, one

must abandon the two obscurations (5��)

��1 ��-� ��L��I��=��L��2�� all phenomena are impermanent because

they are conditioned (�=��)99

��L��=��L��2�� there is fire because there is smoke (=��)

��U��"��6��2��A��B� �� because this precious human

body ( ��U��) is hard to find ("��), one must guard (��) one's discipline (A��B� ��)

5. The particle ��:

The particle �� placed after a verb connects two sentences together, often suggesting that

the actions of the two verbs are simultaneous or in a relation of causality. The action of the first verb sets up the conditions for the action of the following verbs: "the action of the first

99 The continuative particles �� I�� will be explained at the end of this lesson.


100

verb occurs and the action of the second verb takes place", or "as the action of the first verb occurs, the action of the second verb takes place". This particle often follows the infinitive form of the verb and can be translated by "and", "as", "upon", a participle ("...ing") , etc.

'�� 3�� >��e�� as one remembered (3��) the root guru, devotion was

born

�� 9��2��/��:�L�� one prostrated to the feet (9��) of the guru and

rejoiced (/��:�L��)

�� -��%��N�� the yogin established (�-�) the boundary

( � ��) and recited mantras

��'��%��+�� I�� the Dharma practitioner dedicated (�%��) the

roots ('��) of virtue and made (�I��) aspiration prayers

%��N��*��#��`�� upon reciting (�N��) mantras (%��), light rays

emerged (̀��) from the ma��ala

6. The particles -��9��-��9��-��9��-��9��:

Like ��, these particles connect two sentences together and can often be translated by

"and" or sometimes by a participle ("...ing"). 100 They usually suggest a sense of simultaneity or a close relationship between the actions of the two verbs. They can also connect two related adjectives together.

�� 9�� 2�� he makes offerings ( ��) to the guru

and prostrates [to him]

100

The spelling rules are the foollowing: after the suffix letters �� → -�� after the suffix letters �� or when there is no suffix letter → 9�� after the suffix letter �� → ��


101

�� -��!��O��A��B� ��9��#��T� �� all sentient beings should guard

(��) their discipline (A��B� ��) and cultivate patience (�#��)101

��)�� \��8�� \�� that bodhisattva

does not remain in sasāra and does not remain in nirvā�a

K��%��O��#��$��!�� %�� one visualizes ( ��) all beings who

are tormented (�#��) by suffering and dedicates (%��) the merit / visualizing all beings who

are tormented by suffering, one dedicates the merit

�� 9�� Z�� his mind is stable (��) and very powerful ( Z��) 7. The source particles: (�� ) After a verb, the source particles indicate a temporal sequence between the actions of two

sentences. �� is much more common and is placed after the root form of the verb while �� follows the infinitive form of the verb (verb + �� ). →→→→ The source particles usually show a temporal succession between the actions of two verbs that can be translated by "after having done ..., then ..."

��`��^��e�� e�� after renunciation has arisen in the mind

(^�), one must generate the mind of enlightenment

��`��^��e�� e�� " " "

�� 2�� 2�� Tsering and Sonam went (2��)

to the temple (��) and (then) prostrated to the precious guru

�$��n�� : �=� 1��)��*�� =��c�� having seen directly ( ��: �=�)

the confusion (�n��) of beings, one engages on the path to enlightenment

101 An auxilliary verb placed after the last verb of a list of verbs usually distributes back to all the verbs. In this case, the auxilliary �� is understood to apply to both verbs: �� "should guard" and �T� �� "should

cultivate".


102

*��O��=�\��1� the deities of the ma��ala melt (\�) into light (��) and

(then) dissolve (1� ) into oneself

�Q��$�� ,��: �=�� )��1��p�� (after)

having gathered (��) the two accumulations for three uncountable ($�� ) eons (,��), one will attain unsurpassable (�� ) enlightenment

→→→→ Sometimes, they indicate that the actions of the two verbs are simultaneous. In that case, they can be translated by a participle ("... ing"), "while", etc &� ��K��%��3��.��/��e�� (while) remembering (3��) the suffering of [one's] parents

(&� �), compasion was born

'�� ~�� I�� (while) visualizing ( ��) the root guru on the

crown of one's head (~��), one made a supplication (��I��)

8. The �� particles:

→→→→ Verb + �� The particle �� placed after the root form of a verb102 simply connects two sentences together

in a way that could be translated by "and", "a coma" , or even a period. It is also found between two imperative verbs.

��K��%��L�� )�� in sasāra, there is only (��) suffering,

there is no enlightenment

��W��=�� e��-�� go (��) to Nepal and generate bodhicitta!

!��4��i��!��v�� (�� in the relative, all phenomena appear and (or but)

in the ultimate, they are not established (truly existent) 102 Remember that the particle �� placed after the infinitive form of the verb (verb + ��) can indicate a purpose

(see lesson 5)


103

��<�� -��!��K��%��g�� all sentient beings of the six

classes (��) want happiness and are afraid of suffering.

→→→→ Verb + �� This particle indicates that the actions of the two verbs are simultaneous and can be translated by a participle ("... ing"), "while", "as", etc. The verb is usually negated.

�&��9�� 1�� P � without understanding the

four noble truths, one wanders in sasāra since beginingless times.

��*�� 1��O��c� one receives (�c��

)103 the blessings (��) of the spiritual friend (��) without having listened to

the teachings of the Buddha for many years

�� *��U�� : �=� ��:��$��p� without realizing

directly ( ��: �=�) the nature (��U��) of mind, who will be liberated from samsara?

�� as there is no virtue, there is no happiness

9. The conditional particle ��:

The conditional particle indicates a temporal or conditional relation (the action of the first sentence is the condition for the action of the following one) between two sentences that can

be translated by "when" and "if" . �� is placed after the root form of the verb or after its

infinitive form104. When it expresses a conditional relation, it is sometimes accompanied by

the words ��I�� or ��Y�� that are placed at the beginning of the sentence.

��I�� L�� =��`��p�� if there is fire, smoke (=��) will appear (�`��)

103

Litt. "entering into the blessings" 104 In most cases, �� can be equally translated by "if" and "when". After the infinitive form of a verb, it tends to

indicate a temporal relation and should maybe better be translated by "when". When the sentence begins by the word ��I��, �� should be translated by "if"


104

��Y��L��9�� if one is Buddhist (��), one should not harm

others

�� =�\�� when the sun rose, one engaged (\��) on the path

P��L�� T� �� if/when you are lazy (��), you should meditate

on death (��) and impermanence

�� W��=��\��6�� p�� if

the guru who comes from Tibet stays in Nepal, he will teach the Dharma to the students of the white monastery �� W�� 9��O��E��p� if one reflects (�� ) for a long time (W��) about the impermanance of life (�� )

and the deffects (�� ) of sasāra, one's mind (��) will naturally turn away (E��) from the

activities (��) of this life

THE CONTINUATIVE PARTICLES ( �� I�� ) The continuative particles can be placed after verbs or nominal groups. Generally speaking, they indicate that something remains to be said about what was just expressed. The spelling rules for the continuative particles are the following:

After the suffix letters �� or when there is no suffix letter → �� After the suffix letters �� → I�� After the suffix letter � → ��105

→→→→ The continuative particles can indicate a temporal sequence of simultaneity ("while", participle "...ing" ) or succession ("after having ..., then ..."). This usage can be compared to the verbal use of the source particles.

105 Don't confuse this continuative particle with the similar demonstrative pronoun. If there is confusion, look at the suffix letter of the previous word. If the suffix letter is �, the ambiguity remains and has to be solved by

relying on the context. If the suffix letter is not �, �� must be a demonstrative pronoun.


105

a��T� ��I��@��2�� while the monk (a��) was meditating, the

benefactor went to the monastery

�Q��*��9�� I�� one visualizes ( ��) the field (9��) of accumulation

and makes offerings

�� e��$�� ]�� having generated bodhicitta, one accomplishes the

benefit of beings

→→→→ The continuative particles are also used to introduce a further clarification about what was just said, in the form of a definition, a quote, a list, an explanation, etc. In this usage, these particles function often like a colon, a semi-colon, brackets, etc., and can be compared to the emphasizing particle.

%��$��I��Z�� Z�� L��%��$�� regarding preliminaries (%��$��), there

are two [types]: the common (Z�� ) and the extraordinary (Z�� L��) preliminaries

�&��9�� K��%��!��`�� O�� the four noble

truths [are]: the truths of suffering, origin (!��`��), cessation (��) and path

��I�� $�� Buddha [is]: the clearing away

(��) of the sleep (��) of ignorance and the expansion (��) of wisdom (��$��) regarding the objects of knowledge (��)

→→→→ Continuative particles are also used in logical reasonings between the probandum (the statement made) and the reason. In the traditional structure of a syllogism, a continuative

particle is placed after the probandum while the particle 2�� is placed at the end of the

following reason.

��1 ��-� ��L��I��=��L��2�� all phenomena are impermanent because

they are conditioned (�=��)106

�� L��=��L��2�� there is fire on the mountain (��) because there is smoke (=��)

106

In this syllogism, the probandum is ��1 ��-� ��L�� "all phenomena are impermanent" and the

reason for such a statement is �=��L�� "(they) are conditioned"


106

Vocabulary list 7

o� � illusion !�� motivation !��~�� conduct e�� fault, defect �� virtuous friend, spiritual guide �� thing, entity Y�� life-force 5�� obscuration (noun)/to obscure [T] �9�� basis, ground .�� essence, heart, core 1�� limit, end, extreme �g�� world T��: � the three doors: U��/��/L�� body, speech, and mind 7�/�:��/Z�� body, speech, and mind (h.) &��2��<�� the six Paramitās: @�� generosity A��B� �� discipline �#�� patience �'��(�� diligence �� I�� meditative concentration

�� wisdom � �� consciousness

�7�� to encourage, exhort, urge [T] %�� to dedicate [T]


107

EXERCICES

1) Memorize the words of the vocabulary list 7.

2) Translate into English

r�� 1 ��-�� ^��`��

a��9��~��

9��H��^��L��K��%��8��p��

��K��%��O�� Q�L��1��1��

��U��1��*�� T� ��1��1�� p�

��1 ��-��

N��N��;��=�a��

��T� ��L��

�� N�� T� ��-�� >��9��O��e��p��

�� *��9��1��-��L��

��*�� 1��*�� :� �� J�� p��

��,�-��i��$�� :��

�� *��O��

��)�� =��c��2��!��!��~��#��

5��1 ��-�r��L��I��9��O��

&��2��<�� @��A��B� ��


108

��L��O�� 2��

��J��2��=�1��

��1 ��-� ��L��I��^��e��e��2��

'�� ~�� %��N��

� ��.��/��e��#��@��I��9��A��B� ��

��'�� -��1 ��-�*��=��%��

��2��6�� : ��2��

a��~��*��

�� -��1 ��-�&� �� 9��

H��F�� ^��=��

�� 1��*�� *��U�� 5��r�� p��

Extra vocabulary:

�� obstructing spirits �� ritual ~�� to perform [T] 8�� to experience �� to strive�[T] ��U�� precious human body �-�� uncontrived, unfabricated J�� darkness �� to dispel, eliminate [T] � ��:�� to

practice [T] � �� oral instruction ,�-�� instant �� to have faith in [I] �� advice (the object of training) �� to increase [I] �� to train in [T] �� lazy(ness) ��U�� abiding nature ~�� the crown of the head �� to

visualize [T] @��I�� to be generous [T] %��N�� to recite mantras [T]

A��B� �� to guard one's discipline [T] �� to gather [T] �%�� to

dedicate [T] &� � parents �� temple �� to think, reflect about [T] ^�� continuity


0

HOW TO APPROACH A TIBETAN SENTENCE?

1) Look at the main verb. The final verb tells you what the structure of the sentence will be, i.e. the type of particles (or absence of particles) that will be used. Remember that verbs of relative clauses are in the infinitive form while the main verbs are most of the times (some exceptions were described in lesson 7) in their root form.

2) Group the sentence's building blocks together: nominal groups, lists, words joined together by connective particles, and nouns qualified by a relative clause. 3) Go through every particle of the sentence and identify the function (of the building blocks that immediately precede them) they indicate. Be sure to have in mind all the different options! 4) Once the main verb, the nominal groups, and the functions indicated by the particles are identified, translate the sentence. 5) If several sentences are connected to each other, translate them individually, then join them together according to the verbal use of the particles used for that purpose.

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TLAN 101 Grammar Handbook