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Quaternary Research 6

Short Paper

Lake-level changes during the past 100,000 years at Lake Baikal,

southern Siberia

Atsushi Urabea,*, Masaaki Tateishib, Yoshio Inouchic, Hirokazu Matsuokad,

Takahiko Inouee, Alexsander Dmytrievf, Oleg M. Khlystovg

aResearch Institute for Hazards in Snowy Areas, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, JapanbFaculty of Science, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan

cCenter for Marine Environmental Studies, Ehime University, Matsuyama 790-8577, JapandKowa Consulting Office, Tokyo 202-0022, Japan

eGraduate School of Science and Engineering, Ehime University, Matsuyama 790-8577, JapanfFaculty of Geology, Geological Data Processing and Geological Ecology, State Technical University, Irkutsk 664074, Russia

gLimnological Institute, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Science, Irkutsk 664033, Russia

Received 4 June 2003

Available online 3 August 2004

Abstract

Lake-level changes inferred from seismic surveying and core sampling of the floor of Lake Baikal near the Selenga River delta can be

used to constrain regional climatic history and appear to be correlated to global climate changes represented by marine oxygen isotope stages

(MIS). The reflection pattern and correlation to the isotope stages indicate that the topset and progradational foreset sediments of the deltas

formed during periods of stable lake levels and warm climatic conditions. During warm stages, the lake level was high, and during cold

stages it was low. The drop in the lake level due to cooling from MIS 5 through MIS 4 is estimated to be 33–38 m; from MIS 3 through MIS

2, it fell an additional 11–15 m. Because the lake level is chiefly controlled by evaporation and river input, we infer that more water was

supplied to Lake Baikal during warm stages.

D 2004 University of Washington. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Seismic survey; Selenga Delta; Marine oxygen isotope stage; Lake-level change; Lake Baikal

Introduction

Lake Baikal is a large lake in southern Siberia, where

grass steppes to the south give way to Boreal forests.

Recently, deep-water sediment cores have been extracted and

analyzed to propose an interpretation of the late Pleistocene

climate in the Baikal region. Colman et al. (1995) and

Grachev et al. (1998) have analyzed variations of climati-

cally sensitive diatom assemblages and biogenic silica from

0033-5894/$ - see front matter D 2004 University of Washington. All rights rese

doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2004.06.002

* Corresponding author. Research Institute for Hazards in Snowy

Areas, Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi 2-cho Niigata 950-2181, Japan.

Fax: +81 25 261 1699.

E-mail address: urabe@gs.niigata-u.ac.jp (A. Urabe).

the Lake Baikal cores and inferred correspondence to marine

oxygen isotope stages (MIS).

Lake levels also respond to climatic and other factors

(e.g., Harrison, 1989, 1993; Harrison and Digerfeldt, 1993;

Harrison and Tarasov, 1996; Kutzubach and Street-Perrott,

1985; Street and Grove, 1979). Dated sequences of lake

levels can therefore be interpreted to constrain the timing

and amplitude of effective precipitation and temperature

fluctuations in the watershed (Street-Perrott and Harrison,

1985), provided other factors such as tectonic subsidence

can be accounted for. Published estimates of water balance

and the concentration of dissolved matter have disregarded

lake-level fluctuation (Colman, 1998; Colman et al., 2003),

and changes of 200 m inferred from the elevations of

terraces around the lake (Mats, 1993; Mats et al., 2000) lack

2 (2004) 214–222

rved.

Figure 1. Maps of Lake Baikal and the Selenga delta. (a) Index map. Lake Baikal is located at the boundary of the Eurasian and Amurian plates. (b) The Selenga delta with seismic lines, coring sites, and lake

bathymetry. The Selenga River is the largest river feeding Lake Baikal. Distribution and displacement of faults observed in the study area. The area is divided into northwestern and southeastern blocks by the faults

AF7, AF8, and AF9. Seismic lines are indicated by bL.Q

A.Urabeet

al./Quatern

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Resea

rch62(2004)214–222

215

Table 1

Equipment and recording conditions

Positioning GPS Receiver

Seismic survey EG&G Uniboom System

Energy source Seismic Energy Source

MODEL 234

Transducer Uniboom MODEL 230

Receiver EG&G Hydrophones

MODEL 265

Recorder Seismic Recorder MODEL 255

Tape recorder SONY DAT

MODEL TCD–D8

Recording condition

A. Urabe et al. / Quaternary Research 62 (2004) 214–222216

chronological constraints. Consequently, the relationship

between fluctuations in the lake level and variations in

regional climate has not been well defined.

We have carried out a seismic survey and extracted

sediment cores from the Selenga River delta in Lake

Baikal (Fig. 1). This paper discusses the correlation

between the seismic records and sediment samples, and

provides age estimates for the buried sediment packets

recorded by seismic reflectors. We used sequence strati-

graphic analysis of the seismic record to estimate the

lake-level changes in the Selenga delta during the last

100,000-yr glacial cycle.

Source: Uniboom

Energy 200 or 300 J

Shot interval 0.6 s

Distance from the stern 30 m

Receiver: single-channel

streamer

Elements 8

Length 4.6 m

Depth 0.2 m

Distance from

source to receiver

5 m

Assumed speed

of sound using

depth conversions

1500 ms�1

Study area

The Selenga delta lies between the Southern and Central

basins in the southeastern part of Lake Baikal (Fig. 1a). The

Selenga River, which originates in central Mongolia,

provides about 50% of the water input into Lake Baikal,

or ~30 km3 yr�1 (Shimaraev et al., 1994).

Figure 1b shows the surveyed lake area, with bathymetry

from depth records obtained during our seismic survey.

There is a distinct depression in the northwestern part of the

surveyed area, several kilometers from the coast of the

delta. The depression is aligned northeast–southwest,

parallel to the shoreline of the delta. Topographic highs

with 30–80 m of relief border the depression. Posoliskaya

Bank, which lies southwest of the delta, is an extension of

one of these highs. The slope from the delta front to the

depression averages b0.58; in contrast, the slope of the

highs is ~38.

Approach

Seismic survey

Table 1 describes the equipment employed for the survey.

Seismic profiles totaled ~500-km long and consisted of 33

lines oriented north–south or east–west lines (Fig. 1b).

Bathymetry

Water depths were measured by sounding as well as from

the seismic profiles. These were used to generate the

bathymetric contour map shown in Figure 1b.

Sediment cores

Gravity and piston sediment cores were extracted from

two stations in water depths of 195 m (st31) and 125 m

(st33) and analyzed for grain size, sediment bedding, and

diatom content. Detailed lithofacies description was based

on X-ray photographs. In estimating thicknesses of sedi-

ment packets, we accounted for sediment compaction by

comparing core lengths and seismic records. Diatom

analysis was performed by relative counting of Aulaco-

seira sp. and Cyclotella sp. at intervals of 10 cm in each

core. Organic-rich sediment layers from depths of 300 cm

in the st31 core and 200 cm in st33 were sampled for 14C

dating (Table 2). Corrections for reservoir age were not

attempted.

Results

Seismic profiles and stratigraphic interpretation

Figure 2 shows a typical seismic section of the study

area at profile L56, and identifies the distinct seismic

reflectors that are traceable in the study area. We recognize

three units in the seismic profiles, each subdivided into

two or zones: baQ and bb.Q Zone a has a distinctive dense

parallel reflected pattern, whereas Zone b has a sparse

reflected pattern on seismic records. Figure 3 shows the

interpretation of all the seismic records along the east–west

track lines.

Active faults

In the frontal parts of the delta, escarpments were observed

on the seismic profiles. Because they offset the recent lake

sediments, we interpret these as scarps of active faults. The

largest displacement observed for a normal fault at the delta

Table 2

Radiocarbon ages of core samples

Sample No. Conventional radiocarbon

age (14C yr B.P.)

d13C (x) Intercept of radiocarbon

age (cal yr B.P.)

Calibrated age, 1r range: cal yr

B.P. (probability)

St31 (Bata-116650) 13,160 F 110 �27.3 15,820 16,225–15,410 (68%)

St33 (Bata-116649) 13,060 F 120 �27.8 15,705 16,085–15,175 (68%)

Age calibration are carried out by INTCAL98 (Stuiver et al., 1998).

A. Urabe et al. / Quaternary Research 62 (2004) 214–222 217

front was 135 m, cutting east–west profile L57 in 207 m of

water (fault AF7 in Fig. 1b). The fault dips east at an apparent

angle of 338. It also crosses the profiles L3 and L55, from

which its northeast–southwest strike and true dip angle of 488

Figure 2. Seismic section (offshore side of L56) and division of the units. Classif

(AF6–8) are identified in Figure 1b.

at L57 can be estimated. Displacements along the fault

rapidly decrease toward both northeast and southwest.

A total of 12 subparallel faults (AF1–12) are arranged in

an echelon pattern (Fig. 1b). Most of them are southeast-

ication of seismic stratigraphy of the Selenga delta. The blocks referred to

Figure 3. Division and distribution of each unit on the seismic sections of the northwestern and southeastern block in an east–west direction (refer to Fig. 1b).

A. Urabe et al. / Quaternary Research 62 (2004) 214–222218

A. Urabe et al. / Quaternary Research 62 (2004) 214–222 219

dipping normal faults forming the northwestern wall of the

topographic depression. In general, the southeastern block

dips northwest.

From the correlation of seismic reflectors across the fault,

we suggest that fault AF7 already had moved when Unit IIIa

was deposited, and remains active today. Figure 1b shows

the inferred initiation age of each fault. The age of initiation

increases toward the southwest.

Core sediments

Lithofacies of st31 and st33 are shown in Figure 4 and

are summarized as follows (from top to bottom): clay with

thinly laminated organic sediments, alternations of silt and

clay, clay with thinly laminated organic sediments, clay, and

clay with thinly laminated organic sediments. This lami-

nated organic sediment consists of alternating thin layers of

clay and silt, colored black to blackish gray, with high

concentration of organic matter. Clay layers in the cores

contain thin laminations of very fine to fine sand (Fig. 4).

Sediments of st33 contain thicker silt layers and a greater

number of thin sand layers of very fine to fine sand than

sediments at st31, because the former is closer to delta front

and at shallower depths. Judging from the record, cored

sediment of st31 is correlated with Unit Ia and those of st33

correspond to Unit Ia and upper part of Unit Ib. Cored

sediments of st33 are subdivided into Unit Ia, in which both

Figure 4. The stratigraphy of the surface area at coring stations 31 and 33.

Aulacoseira sp. and Cyclotella sp. are abundant, and Unit

Ib, in which both are absent (Fig. 4).

Radiocarbon ages of organic sediments were 13,160 F110 14C yr B.P. (~15,820 cal yr B.P.) 300 cm below the lake

bottom at st31, and 13,060 F 120 14C yr B.P. (~15,710 cal

yr B.P.) 200 cm below the lake bottom at st33. Both dated

samples were taken from Unit Ia, but at st33 the transition to

Unit Ib was only ~60 cm lower in the core (Fig. 4). At both

st 31 and st33, the dated sediments were below the diatom-

barren zone.

Discussion

Chronology of cores at stations

In Lake Baikal, the productivity of diatoms is closely

related to climate: high diatom productivities occur during

warm stages, and low or barren productivities in cold

stages (Grachev et al., 1998; Khursevich et al., 2001;

Prokopenko et al., 2001b). The sediments from st33 show

a drastic change from the lower diatom-barren zone (in

Unit Ib) to an upper zone (in Unit Ia) in which both

species, but especially Cyclotella sp., are abundant (Fig.

4). The recovery at st31 is less pronounced. The 14C

dates from st31 and st33 indicate that deposition of Unit

Ia began before ~15,700 cal yr B.P. and continued well

after the diatom population recovered, during the Hol-

ocene (Grachev et al., 1998).

The sediments from Unit Ia at both stations contain a

25–55 cm diatom-barren zone (Fig. 4), which resulted

from a decrease in primary productivity. Although direct

numerical dating of this zone was not done, the 14C ages

did define a maximum age. This limiting age and the

distinctive decrease of diatom productivity suggest that

this barren zone is correlated to the Younger Dryas

cooling period, which is well represented in Europe and

is also recognized elsewhere in the world (e.g., Peteet,

1995), including Lake Baikal, where it has been recog-

nized from profiles of biogenic silica content (Colman et

al., 1995, 1999; Prokopenko et al., 2001a; Williams et al.,

1997).

The sediments of Unit Ia include numerous thin

intercalations of very fine to fine sand in the clay and

silt layers, suggesting that coarse materials were supplied

into the lake during warm periods in the Holocene. The

densely layered fine reflectors of Unit Ia (Fig. 2) imply the

existence of thinly laminated coarse materials. On the

other hand, the transparent reflecting horizons of Unit Ib

and the direct evidence from the sediment core at st33

show it to be clay rich, lacking in intercalated thin sand

layers. Unit Ib was most likely deposited during the cold

period of MIS 2, before 15,700 cal yr B.P. Seismic records

of Unit Ia and Unit Ib around the Selenga Delta have

similar patterns, so the difference in seismic pattern is not

simply due to changes in clastic supply routes (Fig. 3).

Figure 5. Correlation of the d18O from the North Atlantic, biogenic silica

content from Lake Baikal, and relative lake-level changes. (a) d18O record

is after Martinson et al. (1987). (b) Diatom content used by Grachev et al.

(1997) (original data from Prof. M. Grachev, personal communication,

2003). (c) The relative lake-level fluctuations determined from the depth of

seismic unit. Lake-level changes occur when the climate changes,

approximately at MIS boundaries.

A. Urabe et al. / Quaternary Research 62 (2004) 214–222220

Therefore, we interpret the densely layered pattern of

seismic Units Ia, IIa, and IIIa as corresponding to warm

periods.

Age of units from sedimentation rates

Average sedimentation rates at st31 and st33 of ~0.23

and ~0.15 mm/yr can be estimated from thickness and core

shortening above the 14C-dated samples (300 and 200 cm,

respectively; Fig. 4). Stations 31 and 33 are in water depths

of 195 and 125 m, respectively. The sedimentation rate is

greater at st31, where the water is deeper. Sedimentation

rates at the surface of the Buguldeika saddle, away from the

Selenga delta (Fig. 1b) and in 350 m of water, have been

reported to be similar: 0.18–0.20 mm/yr (Colman et al.,

1996, 1999).

Station 33 was not suitable for age determination because

it is located on the slope of delta front and may have been

subjected to slumping and erosion (Fig. 2; L56). The age of

each unit was therefore calculated from sedimentation rate

at st31, where the seismic record shows the most stable

patterns. At st31, the bases of Units Ia, Ib, IIa, IIb, and IIIa

are 3.6, 8.6, 13.6, 20.0, and 30.0 m below the lake bottom,

respectively. The corresponding age estimates were calcu-

lated assuming the sedimentation rate has been constant,

which is probably not the case. The calculated ages for the

bases of Units Ia, Ib, IIa, IIb, and IIIa were ~16,000, 38,000,

60,000, 88,000, and 132,000 yr, respectively. It is useful to

note that these limiting age estimates do not exactly

correspond to MIS boundaries.

Comparison between the calculated unit ages and the

biogenic silica profile shows a good correlation for densely

laminated Units Ia, IIa, and IIIa and sediment layers with

high silica content (Fig. 5), consistent with the inferred

deposition of Units Ia, IIa, and IIIa under warm climatic

conditions. The changes in the biogenic silica content

correlate with the SPECMAP profile of d18O (Colman et

al., 1995; Prokopenko et al., 2001a). Hence, Units Ia, IIa,

and IIIa may correspond in age to MIS 1, 3, and 5a (Fig. 5).

Development of the delta

Delta systems of Unit IIIa and Unit IIa show a pattern of

aggradational conformities (Fig. 6). However, in the south-

ern part of southeastern block (Fig. 1b; L57–L59), these

units show a back-step pattern, which indicates a wave-cut

terrace, developed over a considerable period of time.

Subsidence along each fault has created topographic

depressions, but it has not had a major effect on the delta

system.

Relative lake-level change

The shallow sediment around the delta records the

fluctuation of the lake level. Below, we discuss lake-level

changes on the basis of the distribution patterns and depths

of Unit Ia through Unit IIIa. Because fault movements of the

northwest block and the southeast block have been different

(AF7, AF8, AF9: Fig. 1b), the depth of each reflector is

described independently.

From the reflection patterns, Units IIa and IIIa appear to

comprise the topset and the foreset beds of the delta. They

form progradational delta during stable lake level, and the

elevations of the topset beds approximate the paleo-levels

of the lake. In some areas, however, the seismic profiles

show that the topset beds dip toward deeper water, and

they appear to have been eroded. Consequently, the true

lake level at the time of delta formation was probably a

few meters higher than the level delineated from seismic

records, although the discrepancy is difficult to quantify.

Average values for the upper limits of Unit IIa and Unit

IIIa in the northwestern block are determined to be �30

and �35 m, respectively, relative to the modern lake level

(456 amsl), and �22 and �25 m, respectively, in the

southeastern block.

Erosional surfaces on Unit IIa inferred from the

seismic records suggest that lake levels were stable during

cold periods, and therefore the fluctuations must have

occurred during climatic transitions. Unit Ib and Unit IIb

appear to onlap the underlying units, and we consider

them to have been deposited during such transitions from

cold to warm periods. Lake levels then probably

Unit IIa

Unit IIIaUnit IIb

Unit IIa

Unit Ib

Unit IIIaUnit IIb

Unit IIa

Unit Ib

Figure 6. Events in the delta development. MIS 5a: Formation of Unit IIIa. MIS 4: Lowering of the lake level and deposition of Unit IIb. MIS 3: Rise of the lake-

level and deposition of Unit IIa, which is aggradated to Unit IIIa. MIS 2: Lowering of the lake-level and deposition of Unit Ib. Formation of a back step or riser

and a flat plane by wave cutting indicates that the lake-level was stabilized during the cold stage. The sediments of transgressive stage are not recognized. MIS 1:

Deposition of Unit Ia, corresponding to the modern prograding delta.

A. Urabe et al. / Quaternary Research 62 (2004) 214–222 221

corresponded to the upper limit of each unit plus the

water depth. However, the upper limits of the units are

commonly erosional surfaces, so the recovered levels may

be minima (Fig. 3; L60).

Average levels for the upper limits of Unit Ib and Unit IIb

were determined at �45 and �73 m, respectively, in the

northwestern block, and�33 and�58 m, respectively, in the

southeastern block. Thus, the difference between the upper

limits of Unit IIIa and Unit IIb in the northwestern block is 38

m in the northwestern block and 15 m in the southeastern

block, and the respective differences between the upper limits

of Unit IIa and Unit Ib are 33 and 11 m. These differences

reflect the drop of lake level between Unit IIIa and IIb time.

The present depths of the upper limits of the units (Fig. 5c)

do not record absolute lake level because these depths have

been affected by tectonic subsidence. However, the tectonic

subsidence of 0.02 mm yr�1 in the northwestern block and

0.03 mm yr�1 in the southeastern block (assuming similar

hydrological conditions during MIS1 and 5) accounts for

only a small fraction (~2%) of the total inferred fluctuations

in lake level, and we regard climatic change as the main

cause of the lake-level changes. This is consistent with our

correlation of sedimentation patterns and the marine climate

record. If the warm and cold periods inferred from the

sedimentary record do correspond to marine oxygen isotope

stages, the lake level fell 33–38 m between MIS 5 and MIS 4

and 11–15 m between MIS 3 and MIS 2.

Climatic inferences

Temperature and precipitation in glacial periods at Lake

Baikal have not been accurately estimated. However,

precipitation during the Last Glacial Maximum can be

inferred to have decreased sharply, because pollen analysis

shows that the region was cold and dry (tundra or barren

arctic desert) then (Oda et al., 2000). Similar pollen records

from France suggest that precipitation during glacial periods

there decreased by 30% (Guiot et al., 1989). Significant

lowering of temperature and decrease in precipitation are

indicated in high-latitude regions. Present river influx at

Lake Baikal is ~60 km3 yr�1, and evaporation is ~10 km3

yr�1 (Afanasyev, 1960; Shimaraev et al., 1994). The

changing imbalance of river inflow and evaporation, and

overflow down the Angara River, causes the observed lake-

level fluctuations. Although evaporation decreases in glacial

periods, river inflow and precipitation on the lake surface

also decrease, by about 15%, and lake level gradually falls

then. Therefore, decreasing precipitation seems to be the

phenomenon that controls lake level at Lake Baikal.

Summary

This study analyzed of high-resolution seismic data in

the shallow part of Selenga delta, calibrated by two 14C

dates and correlated with analysis of sediment cores. It

demonstrated that the water level in Lake Baikal decreased

during the cold stages MIS 4 and 2. Lake level appears to

respond to regional variations in temperature and precip-

itation, rising during warm periods and falling during cold

periods, correlative with global climate changes. The fall in

the lake level near the Selenga delta from MIS 5 through

MIS 4 is estimated at 33–38 m, and from MIS 3 through

MIS 2 at 11–15 m.

A. Urabe et al. / Quaternary Research 62 (2004) 214–222222

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Professors Grachev and Mats of the

Limnological Institute, Captains of the R/V Titov and R/V

Vereshchagin, as well as the crews of the Titov and

Vereshchagin for their assistance during the cruise. We

thank Mrs. Yasukevich, and Mr. Reshetov, Mr. Kirill

(translator) and Mrs. Naja (secretary of BICER), all of

whom helped us in this study.

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