Korieh, Chima J. „Women and Peasant Movement in Colonial Eastern Nigeria“. Shaping our struggles : Nigerian women in history, culture and development. Hg. von Obioma Nnaemeka

7/29/2019 Korieh, Chima J. „Women and Peasant Movement in Colonial Eastern Nigeria“. Shaping our struggles : Nigerian w…

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1.\ tc D c nl be r 1929 an d ear1 J 1 uar - 1930 rhe B r c 11 Gr \·r •

o m n 1 i s s i o n (1930 orher\\·ise kno\\·n as rhe .\ba Con1rr1i- ·io;1

of Inquiry collected evidence and recommended collecti\-e pun

ishment fo-r the con1muniries invol\'red. The nlO\Tement \\-as an

expression of the tensions t.hat had been bre\ving since the intro

duction of co1onial admin isrration in the re,gion.

It is my endeavor in this paper to explore the emergence of"popular consciousness" among peasant women focusing on the

1929 women's revolt. The paper explains how they drew upon

cultural traditions and norms for framing their protest rather

than the development of formal ideologies. The central argument.

is that movement leaders drew from a strong moral imperative ottheir society a feminine and ethical one . to frame their r e s i s ~tance. Their consciousness was permeated by t r a d i t i o n a l . n o t i ~ ~ sof their position in rural life and the moral claim to certall1 pnvlleges that derived from their femininity and roles as subsistence

producers and providers.

BACKGROUND AND SETTING

Before the colonial period, the societies of ~ s t e r n Nigeria

Were nor highly stratified along class and gender hnes. The .IgboPol· · a1 · . '' 1 " nd htghl)rlttc structure has also been descrtbed as state ess a . _

segment d 1h c f tht.s system ts thee · e most important reature o · · . ·

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tLttlitic>ual cJjscc.)Urscs c)f cl1icfs, l1ealcrs aJ1<1 d.ivintrs were drawrl

into the services of colonial authorities anJ modern politiciam. ) .

through the intcrmctliary of the educated ditc. 1H c . . : i c r m a ~ ~ ~ v t t \ 1 ' ,

l ~ e . > w c v e r , is fundamentally JiffCrcnt in one major respect. Johm i;

pcasants arc capable of «creating their own counter-discourse

- ·I · 1· · I f ..j · · i... · l absence· l l ~ l po t l ~ a movements o ong-tcrm :stgl11 cancc m t.1' . ·. e

of c..:entraiJZcd party institutions.19 Fcicrman's p c r s p c c t i V ~ has rh.

added attraction of engagjng the emergence of peasant w r e l l e i ~tuab.' _movement leaders and their organizational framework

spcGhc cultural ~ m d historic.:al contexts. .l ·. • , f e A f r l t : a ~

len, wh.lt forms of dtscoursc emerged among t1 . , t:tiP e ~ t s · t n t · I · .1 I .b d . anon1aJY• " ry, w 1K 1 some sc 1olars have descn e · as •111 ' · ,Jl11 Cl)lot ··l · ... 1 . . l . . t · derJV

· Ha nc.1, t 1c tmpetus for socta movemcn .corfro 111 a 1 · t· , f c . 1· · 1and ·

.nlu trp tctty o ractors including the po tttca . .ot

- · .. - , (lOlln o ~ u c transformation of rural societies. The incorpor; ,.5

ch'

Afncan economies into the western c- pitalist systelll \ ~ < 1 .

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1Jr 111 •111 d·. i1wl11dcd lr,rhlrlcl111g rlw l l '>f' rd l ',l l l ' l l i ) ( ' ; I J l 1 qiw, ;111d\'olll l).; g rI o r y 1 1 11 g I l l ;11"1 i ' d w f H II f ' II .,IH 11 dd i'/ 1 ;1ho 11 11 :1 ('d , ,

in d1cold d:1y·, II!Jiil rlwy were witl1 tl1cir fir'>! t l1ild. ' JlJc IIIC'> '.:tgr·

In( Jt 1dcd r x J ~ o r t ; l t if>H c>f' ()Id ctP. t f l f l l \ ~ 1 r u l f()rhtdding t n rn f'rrn·1t

~ ~ r r 1\V iI I gra ;S: Iva ' wh d I t h ' y rc ~ m lcd a\ :1 f(·In a Ic p rcrov:J ivc·. ' llw

\.V q r 1 cJl -d c I l la Jl dcd t J a [ rh ' I) r jccs ()r r h ck n ' t: av a cgg ) a ndndtcr cqlnJnoditics 1-lc f1xc<i certain rate\ d l ·Jc t(> the high CO(.)t

ofscqdc1. In S(>JJlc parts c)f' ( )k-igwc I )i\trict, the dancing W<Hnc:n

\t·atrd that prosritutcs sh,>td<f n<>t charge t(>(> rnuch fr1r their \cr-

v i c c ~ and 'narri cd w< > 11c n sh (>t d tl l)c a fl f)WC({ t(> have in tc rc< Ju r)c

:vith or her rncn without being prosecuted in the Native ( ( J I J r t s .llwrc were com pia in ts ahou t moral laxity that the women attri h

u t ~ : d to Christian iry with its new moral idcologyY1 '1 he i c i ~ u c o ;r:llsd itldudcd high hridc-wcalth, which prevented or Jdayed

lllarriaw: filr many young mcn.:v> 'J he demands o f the women

can hr rationalized in CC(>fl<>nlic and. S()Cial rcrn1s, l)ut wereaJ.c.;<>

a h "gr1 • 1 • · J I ·1. . · .· lHHllc <.ltSC<lursc in sut'lJJ<>rt r>f tratfitt(>Jla · va ues an( aJ t : j < . ~ t f I rtl L

1011 0 · w lat was seen as f{.>rcign and European. 1<> women,H: colon i·1l · I · · · · · J L' .. · der'-r· ' ,H rnrnrstrators, mrss10narres ana 1:.uropean tra · (presen tc<f · ._ . · J f"' · h . · · - Wa'-'r- .· ·. · <1nc cnr1ty t 1c <>rc1gner w c>se Jntcrvcntt(Jn . c . ,

o ' t ~ . ~ economic and social upheaval. It was also an e x p r e s ~ J o nfcnl,llc --1g,. , l , . A h. ·- I t 1n a

rapid I ' c n c ~ ~ n c . women s an ucncc as !stonca ac. ors

the t Ytnodern1zmg society. It is against thts background that

one

ofth 1929 h h ,t

l'h e , ' movement, tow ic I now turn, was se ·:\ d . .c Women s protest broke out on 23 November 1929 when

lstrJct offi . ., . . h . ...

· cer, Captain John Cook, began recotin tng ol se

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r o count?)) H..: \aJlL 1 1 1 " 1 ' 1 ( Jll Jy \}./(Jrnan' I (t_J1) f ) (J [ d ·H: (JV/JH: r

0 ( rh co 111po u nd j \·1y hu ,j ) ar d j \ in \v h ) ( '\V n s t h : h J 11 c and y 'u

.J1ould have gone t<J hjiTL 'X' J1y do y(HJ cr>rne t<J n-<.: ?, 'd

\XIon1cn received rl·1c enun1erarit"JI1 e x e r c i ~ e with a \tnt.,t r1f

un cc.r ta in ry be caLt th cen ) u ) c.xerc C j n 19 27 \Va) fr>1 J \V td by

the taXation of 111tn. rfl1e \VCJ111Cll reSJ1fJndeJ. trJ ~ h ( J \ V tfttir ~ r J J i Jarit)' \Vi[h her becaLtse a If (Jnc hears rl1at another going t f ) be

killed? \ve sho uJd take S()tl1C sre1Js ab() u it , ar1d try t (J S[up iriH _-}

Ikonnia told tl1e Aba Con1n1ission of Inquiry& On 25 N<Jven1btr,

\von1en began to "sit C)I1,) () ktig<)) den1and ir1g l1is resig·narion a)

\varran t cl1ief. For l1 is rcJle in fe tr11entir1g the crisis, ()kugo \ V a ~ sfined and imprisoned for two years."3 The imprisonment of

Okugo did not bring an end to the crisis as the protests culmi

~ 1 a t e d in massive revolts called Ogu Umunwanyi (Women\ War)

tn the Igbo and Ibibio territories. The incident at Oioko becan1e

a peasantprotest

inwhich

won1enused the

acr of "sittingon

aman," a traditional method of protest, on a larger scale.

The rhetoric of the won1en's n1oven1enc had cerrain condi

tions of the Society that it attempted to convert inro power

the movement. This form of collective organization and mili

tancy has its roots in long-established forms of consciousness

among women, bur this particular incident was defined by a sense

~ f powerlessness and the economic crisis in the local economy.f .cononll. · h d h . · f · rax led tod , . c c anges an t e 1mplementatton o tncome . . ·eep discontent in the region. The telegram from the Governor

63

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1.' ·cllrn' ;1 r c ~ t d t () f rite J( ).I\ \ ' iH J( (' <Ji JH.(JdtJcc or (I· .. .. , ''JJ.o t t ;-.. t . t t l u · ~ ~ ·

import cd goods .. w >r l1ad r Iw I I" her ·11 ; t i l y general protc\L : , ) ''1

lt·lll'J svstcl1n ()(lntyinP l>v \-vcigltt,)).,.t I n d e e d ~ the govcn111

. ~ i , · l l ! l; j . . j • • t") J - I ' ' It I tt ( Id

not read the wntlllg 011 tlw wall: or wl_1at the ( .ovt:rnor dc,crilH;;

.1s un<Icrl \.ling c a u ~ c s , tl la t I·>r( )VI(icll f-avt)ral>Ic gr<.)und h> 1 j·' · I · . . · < I ' )( JJ'-

dtr namely: "dislike of tax:l:ioll only recently introd!Ktd 111

these p r ~ v i n c c s , conditions of· trade_, Iow price: of produce, ]1igi,

prices ot imported goods, change o!· method of· buying by Wt:igl1t

instead of by measure, cessation of· presents to vendors by fin111

and it is alleged, dissatisf-:tction with some conditions ofprodu(t

inspection."45 TI1e arrest and subsequent conviction of Okugn,

tlle GovcrJlOr COilclullell, u:May llaVe CllCOll[aged belief that the

n1ob n1etl1od l1ad acl1icvcd.victc>ry wJ1icl1 could be repeated ehe·

wl1ere:' a11d tl1e ''successfu.I looti11g of A'ba ct1couraged disorder

elsewl1ere "46• •

TI1e discontent surrounding the women's movement falls

into three main categories. First, the government was caught

in a problematic situation defined by the unpopularity ofrhe

~ a t i v e R ~ v e n u e (Amendment) Ordin.ance and the i n t r o d a ~ c jnon of dtrect tax. The prospect of a dtrect tax on w o ~ l e n d

their response provided political opportunity that wasd t s c e . r n ~ f

l d d 11 , . 1· .s Jkodtaa ong gen er, econot11y an co ecttve actton 1ne ·

Oloko summarized the prevailing feeling among women:

We heard that women were being counted by their chiefs.

Women became annoyed at this and decided to ask who

gave the order, as they did not. wish to accept it , Aswe went· h h theyte v a r ~ o u s n1arke.ts we asked other wornen w et er

too had heard the rumour about the counting of o J n c n ~Th 1. d.h . ..:C erefor'

. ey rep 1e t at they had heard it ..We,o m e n ~

w · .1wel1eld a large meeting at which we decided to wait unn

() ( thet • _

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Jll<l h i afftct">. al rc _. t< Y .

11l ·• ' I • j . . . { t axI

_.>Jl{J(CfC( ·(\ .) ( ) (, { ' )

t}-1 •f WO JTl !'vi J 1 ( )

. ,, We aret( > pay t(tX.

Whrre can we get

ance and we made

feel that wt were

.Ekweli, ()lok.<> a ~rhemcsclve.., t(> btty1\won Ukt1, Oloko

upon our husban(

how shaH we get

of the women's rn

we women done t

trees, which bear

bear seeds should

Women were i

For them, taxatio

d_hlat Afigbo descrJ emma 1h· e

on certain ~ t h . Ifact hat lea. t . women0Wornen and fj .r ~ rult-~ t of 0

ph .. ~ r t a i n ~h

y, Whtch e . ·urnan 11 o"'l

on betngs d-•eCOuld ~llotpia



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; - _ f . , , ~ ~ · c : 11 . . )1) krj a ~ . J · c t d H(i\1•• crJ .u 1 ' 1 . \ ~ 0 m e r ~ " . , , ~ h rJ h. a no rr:.ea:-

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11 L' d 1 1 . _,., . 1 l,.l. b -

t:rtrrts·r :es tr ) ouy· f ( J ( ) f)f c otn1ng pay t a x ~ ..:\n.d rg () r.)t

/ ~ l · . ~ . r C..yku; C)lrJkrJ querjed: H(J \ l / C(Juld v.re pay tax? \\"e depend

urJrJn our h u ) b a n d ~ ; \ve cannot buv food or clothe ou.rse1Yes.,

hrj 'N shall 'N t get money to pay t a x ? ~ s : Enyitlia, another leaderr;f the v . ~ r J m e n ) s movement from Oloko, demanded: ~ ' \ \ r h a t have

v:e wrJmtn done to warrant our being taxed? \\ 'e women are like

tree)) \vhich bear fruit. You should tell us the reason , , ~ h , .. \\"'e ,,·ho

bear ~ t : e d s should be counted.,.,54

W'omen were infuriated by the prospects of their beingcaxed.

1-or them, taxation raised not only economic concerns, bur also

w.hat A f i ~ , ~ o describes as a uvery strong moral and psychologicalddemma Js Th B ... h "d f I . hed, : . e r1t1s 1 eas o persona 1ncome tax roue •

~ n cenam ethical elements in the local society, particularJy theract that w - h d · b. 0n1e·n aug t not to be taxe .. The comparison et\\·'een\Von1en and fi · b - · d.. Afigb '"]· he.. · ru1t- earlng trees, accor tng to o, tes at tn)()t of c · · · d h · I h "]

t , ~ r t a t n aspects of indigenous social an . et tea P 1 oso-Pny) whtch · 1 h "· · h · fhuman b . supu a t ~ t at J_usr as one ~ a n n o t , 1 ~ r e t ~ t e r e s r o. etngs deal l1gh,rly With the survtval of fru1t-bear1ng trees,one could not play with the fate of women."56

65



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~ . . · . : · " ~ t , , ~ m t . . : P'"'bkm'>. i n d u ~ . l i n s knv pri(C' fl dn1 11r 'llu -c, :

: hc i "tns (' 'c l l • in1 f", ? r c .1 s ) ._¥1tl . -Tl1 c 1 ( r )d \ f t hc "f .: r\ r( " · ·

\v 1.' by t-,lr rh ' \I,;P r'> c l ' ( t) nP 111 iL lu rJ..,hip rur J I f.mnc -., bhl ·· l ' ' (

r i ~ - ? 1 1 1 . . - : c d . Dcpcndcn(c nn tht.' export nf p.llm nil .md p.dn k.: ·1: · ;

ktl: rur.-1! p\.'.1.'\.lnt' vulncr,1bk when rhc: p r i c ~ - of prndu.:c dr•lf ,,- :

tn cht: ir l m v c ~ r: kvcL. \\.h ilc ru r.d f.umc rs cxpaicnccd .l "11b ·• .- ·

ti(1l \.-ic ( redse i 1 i 11 Ll1 111c. th cv lacked the ki nlf' r1 f \(1\.. i.d pn ." i: l )t

rh.u: amdior.ued rhc ctlecrs of thed c p r ~ . : : s : i o n

in Europe •. ; :

l! 1 ired State'\ .1

Rural pea:ant.· made -;om . etlOrts to prot ·c t tht: ir l n t ( ~ ..

from the growing insecurity in the local ccnnoll Y· L.lU'' ., .

h- . . \....: I · - - .-u r t, h

t e tall tn prices and in- ·cure iru::ome,, lo-a: t.w 1·r_ L . . •

dJ ,Jn..:'t

pr;o uction ro induce price incrca. ·es or adult rate · pn ; ... n l .- . h . l t- 1 l k ~ , · · r n e l · pn ' l .1 crease vo u111e. 10 lt1crca e c c \ ~ ' " e t g 1r o f1a n · " · . 1 •

. 11 k d k l d 1 - " t .h I1 l r rers part a y crac -e . ...ernc · c.111 ctt fJ .1 r r ) rn · -

cracked kernels wit · uncracked o n ~ . - to im:r asc th · . .As a result of these adulterations and h · n · d r ir

1pn ' .

66

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We w i \h t.o d \' n \ \ rJ 1< · p it c o f'.p n H fH c . We 1. v(- IJ t , d{• n·

or i l l t ~ J t t i O J I of 1oaking ;1ny trotti>J(· IHu We J1avc fixc·d a

( crt;l in price f ~ H · pa Jru o iJ a 11d J< r·fJJ cJ \ ;JJ Jd i I'we ge-t t1 J ;H wt·

willlning rl•c•n in. We want JO ~ l . i l l i • • g ' a tin lit gaJlqmlf ~ > r oil and') \hiJJ n g " ~ a hu\hcJ f ~ J r kcn1cJ\.fd

In Owcrri Province, the pricc o fpalm oiJ had dropped hy fJVt:r {)(J

p c ~ n : n t of irs value to as low as £1 k per ton in 1927.u A dhtrilr

offJCcr in the Owcrri Province reported in December J929 that

women demanded the abolition of axation on male'>, an i 1 1 c r c a ~ c111

p r i c c ~ o f produce (palm oil and kernel')) and a dccrca'le in thep n c c ~ c.)f imported gnods.Cn In Aba District the price ha.d gonedown fr(}f l 7 · ] · J J )k · -- 1) · ·

sear 1cr 1n t 1c year to 5'>. ln t 1c ( tgwc JYI\Ion,

Worncn c > 1 . d h h f J - . -· c

01 P amc a out t c interference o. pro ucc 1mpccconJn local tradc.M

A.tten1p ts by th- l - _J h · · - 1 ··dt.ngcon . -- · e )Uyrng agents anu r e lnttrnactona era

. . b1

J1.antes to control prices forced prcJduccr · to intr(lducL pricestlt J lZatio "C,.. .. - . . . -Ch n. an you please tnfclrm the grcneraJ agent'-' or nler·ants th · · fJaJ ·. L at we have to sell a tin ofpalm oil at lOs and a bushd 01 ~ r n e l 7 · - c. · d

·5

at s ..no products to be sold to them tf rhey rerusc

67



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~ - \ ~ 1 " " " t t 1 , ; . . · r ~ ( ' l 1 r " ' " ~ \ . . "'f l i ~ ( " ' ' t l t ~ · t l t , , .1s the l . , " ' ' ' " " ~ r t u l l l l ' ~ t l u ' · · :.

( ... v m m.: m t0lll 11.l in L b tcrn N cr i.t in t q 2 ) .uh l th. -.: :" :.

: ' · .l t t i l l i ' \. f t l1 c \.-l ' l-) 11 i .\1 l l l t I t_1r i Y t t ' t 1,c i np h: t l' t ' ·

mcnt p ~ . . . " " ~ l i . : y .n thl.' k, ... k·v ·L 'lht- .\lt'min,\ t('.'t \lt' 2l' .\1:-'' '

1-} ll .h.:kih.'W kd ( d dut .\11\.)t hcr implH t lll t ~ . . - l m r i b u l l ' ~ 11' ••.

w.1s rhe ~ c n ~ r . 1 l ftilun: ,Jf British dvil s c n . u H ~ tl l k q• 111til

. 1 .._ l .. oJ 11 · .. 'l · 1 . I, I ,,ry du'\ \ r l t 1 l'lC0F' e . ~ l lS t"ll l i re g,lYt" rtsc tt 1 t ll ' h. C\' .. . .

l.. 1 . i I . ,..ll . . . .dk I .ttt

' '" 1 \ \ . ( ) l l let l trat l lCl t 1eL r t " l f < . ) t c ~ t . tc prtl t t t l t . l. . . .. r . I . l . 1 J{l h

non to the widespread corruption t lu t c x t s r ~ . - · , 111 1l l .

1I n ~ ·

·'d .. . .. d -'l l i l . t. I ,. l'tll t.t "-· l4.""\. n1U11StratlOtl ar1 1 1 a r ~ u c.:: C l t \C rtsc l l - t \C

1t<..' _ :, ,t\1.

" · ·h l .. _ l J 1 . · ! , ·nrc uJ x'' l t t 1e er11erge.11Le t1t r t l t 1 r ~ u L c(ay a t l l l t 1c ' ' ll t: 'r . ic .n\'t. ... l l _I . . . . . . - I ( \ ( t l lHHl .

tlOI1 o tt 1e o c ~ u pollttlattor. TI1ctr ttti<JilS , \1\l ( , .. . . n d ,

l· . · 1 1 · I tnult.t·H

on 'i' ga\ e vo1ce to '\Vllat 111a11Y d.escrtbcu as t1

l t r ·hi:·,. . l . rr tnreceived at the hands of native court memb _. ~ ~ - ~ v h . t r 1 h c ~but they also allow historians to engage thc•r vtmt: . :.bilid ·:

1'

b l. d h . .bu· . d t ll r s <-> ns I Ie teve \Vere t etr respons1 1t1es all · ' · -.. i · sfl't. .

h 1·at J ... .. ·tS 1\l ·Ul

t e co on1 governn1e11t to tl1e111. l11c (.lC!'Itte ' ' ·

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n ~ w sw . .that . eptb ·tscd t

c:liev·d ht ·

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\ \ C r.lkr ~ p . H ' , nr :.un\ t\ l 111.1 r- kcr· t · ~ , c ~ ! . qtin !l d ,,cn 1:_:cr'•

\\ · ]1p \ \ ·c.1r .1 n n i ( ~ ) n l 1 r.1kc .1ll rhc"c dnn:-:" !'i-<ln: II'- .

\\ -nn 1cn in (),,·crr1 I)rr)Yincc t l C n l ~ l l l t l c d t h ~ 1 r L l l r r (n t n ~ 1 r i \L - ~ ~ u r t n 1 c n 1 h c r ~ be r h a n ~ c d and s u g h c ~ r c d r c f o r n 1 in rhe p(lhti

d 'Y t (' 111 . c:0 r r11p iC)J l a J1 ll a ) llSC b:- '\- rra 1 t C. h C J. I1 d Tl at jY C

.H1nl1nistLltinn o t 1 1 c i ~ d s ,,-;Is. cnticn1ic 'cYcral of r.hcn1 used

th(1r p.nsitions tn enrich rhcn1sclYcs. ; ( \ , · a n y c r U \ \ a of ()loko, tor

l X . t l ' n p l c ~ told the c·:on1nlissi<1Il ( ) f Tnlllliry that. (Jk1Jgo ·-\'\.';!'\ aT1

n rd n ry 111 ann bc <) re hc l1 e c an1c the ch ic t o f ( l 11 ko. -: .. cc ) r 1 ing. "

to her. ()kugo bccan1c a rich n1an fron1 c x t o r t i n ~ his people.-- :'\..- ,

()kugo like n1;\n\- ot11er ,,-arr:Int c l 1 i e f ~ illcgall\- lc,-ied Yillagcrs• "-- -

in the nan1c of the gc1,·crnn1cnt. ~ , , - a t 1 v e r t l \ \ t<)ld the C o n 1 n 1 i ~ -.. '

~ ~ o n ~ h ; l t on one occasion Okugo collected £20 from the \·illag·

cr.' attcr he told rhen1 that the l)istrict ()fficer ha,,i ordered that

l1lnnc.y shottld l1c collected for h in1 to l1u ild a h(111se. l)n another

occ;1;•don, he told the villagers that the District Officer wanred

y n u n ~ wife and r c q u c s c ~ d both men and women to pay the

t0 ~ ~ r y Tl1e villagers C<)ntribtJted £2() as d o \ \ - r \ for the Distri-ct

()ft, ·-c ,_1 ;Th l_ L r. · esc J"lracrices \\-ere \\·idesprcad, but the local peop e

\\ e c po\\F · l . . . .- - h . ·er ess to qucstton the \\1arrant ch1ets becatJse ot t e1r

ne,v S\\-c . . ... . . Ththat raisccptng. P ~ ' ~ ' e r s under the nattve a ~ m m t s t r a t t o n .. .. ?seh

1 d thctnotces faced more persecutton. The Commtsston

e. leved th. d. a • • . dco . at tscontent O'\"er the persecurton. e:x"tortton an ·

rrupt1on b h h . . Jcon 'b · 'Y t . e native court members -as anot er · nne patrt Utory cause."-;•

69

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. _ l up iJr.dfl 'P.I{ i( <)r(( r t1 }'d l 1r1bcr y, t H . ( < ) l l l l l 1 i r lt ·, .i ,1, :

" :>l J I I· l' l) . . l t ; "' f [ • l t t1' l t· l ) . "{.,' . . . l J I ) (_ ( J) ld I \I · I\\ · · 1C . I r l \ .J t ll < < ) <. · • u • " ' l t L J C C lJ t l<J l ) ) y . _. i:

h - . . n d. t l V<<rn b c r . ~ tll1 l l t (>rruntt<>It j i l lhc llatJvc...: C < ) L J r t ~ ar,- ·\" -·Ji jpr '-- t t .)OlJrc . f

. l I f. - - ·l . 1 t ()<.. { )1L"- 1 Ic L 1 } c '- 1s . <> 1 rc n t 111 ' () 11g t 1c jJc (J p c , ' ) , . :

U lr 111.1rcly, t hc dcmands f( >r po1i tical chang <: . ... . i . . Cftd te-d

("t l l l l l t l ' r h L ~ < : l l l l > l l l C t l iS(()Ursc ;tn l Ct)l1SCl<lUSness anl()t l .

I " I 1 · I I l f.... i ] · J gJH:a\1·

\\ 'Oilll"ll r 1r<.)Ug' 1 \V 11c 1 t 1ey c e 111e'- t 1e1r rc ationsl1· . ·• l.- , • • _ • •

1P) wnJ:urh<.T segments of coloma! souety, especially with n1 . ,-

- ... . - . . . ,. . . . cn1 trt ) f rhc n ~ \ t t v c atlJllllltStratit>I1. TI1<..1se wl1o artictilated W<

)flltn ·

demands were inseparable from the issue of their own i d e n t ipcas;uHs, but their identity was also couched around their or'he;

identity as women. 111is enabled remale peasant leaders to ga"r

lcgitin1acy a111011g \V0-111e11 as \Vell as tl1e colo11ial authority.

FRAMING IDEOLOGY AND

LEADERSHIP

1he discourse on the women's protest was based on deep !:·

embedded reproduction of cultural ideologies and power relo·_

tionships and drew on what Mayer Zald calls "cultural srocbci

images of what is justice, for what is violation of what oughr_o

be."n David A. Snow et al. point out that "the language a n : l f ' ~provides a valuable tool for addressing the dynamic of r g a n ~ t ~-hall . d · · - "' ·. n1eaJ1

111•

c · enge an msntutionalized change."'78 Frames assign th<

to and interpret relevant events and conditions in wa_ys ·:.

are . ntended to mobilize political a d h e r e n t ~ .. nd c o n ~ ~ : ·to garner bystander support, and to demobihze anrag . ·0!1·F · . . . . " enc acnr ~ m e s ,

m turn,e n ~ r a t e

collecttvec t z o n a ~ u s , . e m ~ J e g i c i J 1 1 ~ 'o n ~ n t e d sets of behefs and meanmgs that msp1re and ....

social movement activities and campaigns."80

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petitions 83.. .Nzogbu,obstac'- _

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w:nr:oll diid\, or marched rc, rhc Ui.,trkt ( >fiit:cr to prc'>tnr their

~ , ; t : t H i t ~ f J . i . ~ W()JJlt :fl aJ\(J <.JJalltt:J tradiricJnaJ n1aJc war c,rJngc,,

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Wr 1111 tn c,trippc:d naked and sarw war s o n g ~ mcd for " i n d t ~U t ~ , d u ~ i r l . . n .

· llu:n t ( ; H i t t l e . ~ ~ ()thcr't Janced n' kc{J, t£ J ctng n1cn tcJ

u11I t'c: 11 r1 t 1- f. l " · h h d, ·n. ·t.c r. lt:Jll I t ley were "r ·; J n1cn lJy plac1ng t c1r · n sJfJ tl1r1r · · Jf . . - p r i v a t e J'>iirt\. A ( )pf>b'> W{>nlcn wcJre Y(Jung pa.n1''Hul,q·f 1, . . . . , . •. . , ,. " · . fPL 111 cavt:s rc> Jfld tllcJr necks an.(l watsts. a.s , tgn tJ

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1 :JLi n ip l i d.tcd hv t} 1 -:

hgo ra t1 >1 . . 1- . . i ts \V'lS 1lllJ) ( rr-H I .rJ.-/' lH c ()r r d c intt"l-,va.rranr c . , . ' 1 .

_ .. 1 •1ho reHected llll ·n ;n .r :J · t J·Cl dat "(1 c 1:1J g1nv (JJ c .. 11 _lcc ttl ,l s ,.v . . _ . . . - n. . ' . I')0\¥Cr relatl<1nS. 1 11c n ~ \ r) )Ittlc.d e nVJf() l l l11ent that

rtons o · - . . .emergeJ in 1929 br. ught popular a d e ! ~ h 1 p to an Important

rurning point, signalmg the emergence of fen I peasant leaJcrs

and more organized rural insurgency.

11m , organizing the 1929 protest required considerable

oruanization and leadersl1ip. It was not enougl1 to Illobilize t1lOL1-s a ~ d s ofwomen to sit on warrant chiefs, disrupt the activities of

European firms and the colonial administration or block high

ways; sustaining the movement depended on well-organized and

coordinated articulation of the concerns of rural peasant won1en

and n1en. Unlike n1any social n1ovements) the won1en's revolt in

1929 cannot be described in tern1s of the careers, beliefs, ideolo

gtes anc1 critical events surrottnding moven1ent leaders. Rather

the idea of collective bel1avior ,as advanced by C.hicago sociologist Robert Park, and subsequently by Herbert Blumer, explains

~ o w responses to social change can occur outside formal institu

tions and well-institutionalized processes that are advanced in

the study of social movements.92 Just as a collective ideology was

the bedrock of local political and social process, so did women

rely on pre-existing orgaruzations that transformed in a unique

way for the mobilization of the women. The Morning Post of 26

August 1930 wrote: "The most interesting feature of the riot

was the fact that they had been organized entirely by women in

~ ~ ~ i m u n i t y , which was a n y t h i n ~ bu.t a m a t r i a r c ~ y . " Simllarlr,_ mes ofLondon \vrote that: Thts "vas essentially a womens

~ o v e n l e n t , organized, developed, and carried out by women of

~ o ~ d country, without either the help or perm on of their men

though probably with their tacit support."94

G?vernor Thomson acknowled(Ted that the "existence ofwellorgantzed - ,. . 0 . . . "95

1h . - won1en s society n1ade spreadtng of the news easy.

ere was som . f. R 1 d h. fth · · e continuity o pre-con ic t ea ers tp as most oe \Von1en 1· d . · 1ea ers were people whe had played 1n1porrant roes

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h''-'- •,r. .

cn1br-1ccd o/; .zJ?cli iii '0J7t (all \VC)Jl1cn). ··

Ohrzndi inyom could have been nothing but: a >h<nr Ji.,, ::

action i f not for the emergence < fa fCw women \\ hCJ -trti uJ :,

the concerns of women and fram ·d them in 'llanguagc tJ11r

1•. • :

it look like a moral crusade for women and peasants in •.

Or1e of the 111ost i111portan t vVOT11CI1 to ct11crgc \vho anioJ ;, ;t

\\.'Oinell,S cor1cerns was N\vatlyeretl\Va, wl1c) instigated the d; \

itsel£ It was Nwanyereuwa who took the women to Emrnr.\- ;

house to si t on him to protest the extension of tax to women.· : I

led the charge to den1and tl1e resigr1atiot1 of Okugo as warra:-·

1chief before he was tried and imprisoned.96 As an older I · o n , ~ . ..

she was also the voice of reason when tempers were high. be:

though Okugo had assaulted the women who c a m ~ , to anw .c

- h d d I ot tO Jo rkthe alarn1 she raised s ·e a vise t 1e won1en n "

d . ·k , ' d "97 N , played. amaj'an1a-ge tn 0 ugos compoun . wanyereuw("1 c • . -.J ·· ·t

· b h ·1 en1ergcrole not only in precipitating the revolt, ut s e a 50 ., .\

. . . . j -r n1arc1L·leadmg advocate of non-vtolence dunng t 1e prores · d nr.r>

· kn · 1..

rin1ony an!

a tactt ac owledgement of her arttcu ate tcs - . T n o r ( ~1. . · .. '· heanngtgence, the Crown Counsel at the conu1usswns ·n·ot:

. . . I - is not ncofNwanyereuwa: "You are talking like a man w 10

You are talking like a lawyer."98 f )rocc,r ::··

I d d d h · tcrn o ! ··n ee Nwanyeruwa influence t c pa , T'd r h o t i 5 ; ~ n u -

many parts of the Eastern region. She cncour,lgc. c \von;c -•

f l . f: lJ9 Q VCr t Ul l ' ro won1en to 'sit, on their warra11t c 11c s. . . ro rcgJ·

in the Oloko area and other parts of IgboLu:J c ~ l m c r o p r o r ~ ~ 'Nwanyeruwa as a c-ourageous leader who toug 1t. lr sprl'J".- . . . 1 rc vo f ') ,

wotnen.s interest regarding the tax issue. When tNr r·t!lYcrti'1·J' '. · ,, · tO \\ " J

women from vanous parts of the reg10n amc

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officer of Bende they traveled to Yariom parts r;[ : i - : ~ ·d d d r e ~ s \ \ - O n 1 e 1 1 . i r ? \ r \ V a i 1 \ e r e u v ~ Ikonnia ~ . , " ' r ;-_ .. _.-

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and :\\\-ada and other women leaders traveled d . r r J u ~ ~ i .>· _.

ince ro r11eet \\·irh colonial officials on the tax issue. -· · ···

In addition to the use of culrural elerr1enrs of d-.'"· · - - ; . ~ : . . ..\. , -. - .: ""

socie't"\-, \\T0n1en leaders consciousl,- used nt\\" b u r t d . : . : ~ .. _· _ . . ...... , ............ '

tutions such as the courts to articulate their goals. ( d : ; : ~ ..

Hills, who paid tribute to their leadership quali t ·es: ,::.:::.· /'-the ITl t 0 "h 0 t Sp0 t S f dUring the r e "01 t t 0 en SUre tt at : .._ - -

did not lead to \·iolence. In Oloko, for ·example, tempe:-s : ~ : - :

an1ong\\-omen onO \ ~ e m b e r

30, 1929, \\.hen the Disr::::

~ = = = ·refused to rhe inunediate trial of Okugo. Captain H ~ - . ; . - ~ ~ - . : prised that the \\ '"Omen leaders could e_.sily disperse rne - : ~ y · : : : . : : .soon as he announced that Okugo would be tried cf.e :-.e:r:

The District Officer also sent the Oloko ,,-omen leace:-: :_: _ ~ . - ~co stop widespread looting when women in rhar d ; s _ : ~ . : ~ - - - ~ ~ : - :some European factories. In Cmuahia, women nad ; - : ~ ~ - - : : . . ~ :the ro·wn to begin ro protest against the w a r r a n r ; ~ ~ ~ e ~ : . ; ~trio addressed the \\"omen, and to the amazement · i-""' .. -T • .-

officer, the prorest march did not take place.··· <·.: .

Other \vomen leaders emerged in orher p a ~ ?: - ' · ~ ~ - ; : - : : = - ~In r ki ik · h 0 · D · · · Ih J· emeo •1 ..... - ·

\..., muo .... r a m r e . \t.'"errl tvrs1on, ·· 4.. ... .:; C . ~ - . : -

as a heroine of rhe \\-omen's re,·olr. Like some _ ~ : - . . . : : . : ...;,. . l in .... 'We .,>-'.

N·omen. Ihejilemebi played a signilicant ro e ; ; - , . ~ , i : . ~ ·before the protest emerged. She had s e n - e ~ . · ~ c : : : ' ,- ::

.•:omen's spy team during local \Vars and ~ d :-":-:: _ : - ~ ~ ~ ; , . . . ,v.ar council. Her leadership role ·v.-as calle ..

: : . . . : ; : : ~ : ; :-....>re ~ a l t . She led ~ - o m e n to "sir on me ' ·-arra;r : : ~ ~ ~ . . : :.: -

.- • 0 .. ""' .c o m m u n i t i e s ~ burning the houses ot tno .. e

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:-, :14 U ; v i ~ i r ; n that outlintd the wr.)mt:n'., concern'> In 4 p<::ritjlj

·,;."Ltr; Vtry f e ~ " ' ' \lt(JnJtn "'A'tr<: educated, h.er educatj(Jfl CfJnfcrred ad i . f t r - ( ~ r t k. d f j d } h ' .; ; ·· ; ...

1\.J n () · <:a. ers .1 i I) t<) t · (: 'V-/(JI11en in gv.'a tc-rrltfJff . ·- ...

- . ~ ~ - < H l ; ; . r n Okezit clearl :' emtrged a<> the most famous leader fJf. ,, )! ·Va ft f. , ~ ' ( J r n e n d er the:: n : ~ v o h . She became a leading exponent o ·J,'rjn tn · h. .l c • · ·, .

1ng t') anu mundcd the • 1gwa Women-> Assonanon rn

1J.()rnC;te the education and wdfare ofwomen in 1948.J l f

, 1 ' I h ~ ~ t r u c t u r e of an aU-male narive court chang ed afrer theVd;n i t n r - 1 , - .and t:Vc) t. Some women entered the colonial bureaucrac:,. l YJTJ1t

of rhL -- - -

b f h._

.A ,

h .Ir J'\ __ . _ .em LJ.Ccanle mem er·s o · c e 'a t lV(t n..ut QCit, ..

guru Mbalse • ative Court, a woman. Chinwe. became -

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. _ (Jfll ci; tf ( ' c ' } f l , 11 r l ' · · · · ' · I ,: ·· ~ f i l / l > t · l ~ t i r J r . ' {L I J',.

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Jtlhlic ordn. 'J)Ji \ l l l t ' r ) l , id t,; f; :J i i : ; ,g the ','/IJIIWII\ l l ) ( ) '/t.: I I H'I i l

:nvokcd pnp 11 br opin i f l l l ;1).!,:tll1', i lw pr iJtnr ;tnd U Hl '· tfiJC. tu l ti 1c

i )) : g ' ()r I II n r llly grr Jl Ip ( )f \'/( l 11 ( I l Lu H () II _d \ r l Jp ing p L (

order. f fowcvn, prcJtc<,t<.. proved to he n<,cntl;tl 111 l1clpir 1g WOlilCn

cnvi'>iotl rlrcJII'>clvc<: a<. i1nponant hcr()r<; in colonial politic.; and

rhe local <;ocial ' i t rLICt l f rc >. h >r th c hn gu agc of right<, wa.., incKap

;1biv ]inked to the W(HJ1cn\ C()ncc.prjon <Jf their right a) pr()Ju c-,

'and reprodu cer-;, accollntahility on the part of the colonial

authority and other issues they saw as essential tcJ th t creation

of new 1noraJ and ethical <Jrder. '"fhc C(Jic>nial g(JV<:rnn1ent n1ay

have intcrJ1rcted t11t: \V()IllCn,s J11<">VCnlei1t as the tiisturbancc of

pu bJ ic order, but wl1at l1c)tl1 })attics failed t f ) un derstanJ \Vas that

rhc transfornlatic)J1 taking f 1 l a c ~ , especial!y the low prices f<)f

produce, was a sign C)f changing rin1es rJ1at bred ·social conflict

\vith in the co1<)n ial scJciety. W(J111en, for their part, failed tf ) rec

ognize that their strategies were l)ci ng applied to a society ncJw

governed by a very different set of rules fron1 the kind of society

they had cnvisic)ncd.

CONCLUSION

Political opportunities are often deeply embedded in social

~ > v c m e m s . Political opportUnity in this period is not a m a t t ~ rcontention, although it is deeply rooted in the e c o n ~ ~ l l C

~ t r u ~ t u ~ c s of the colonial economy rather than the poLncal

' l l S t l ~ ~ t J o ~ s . The economic problematic was at the heart of the

~ ~ ~ : b : h z a n ~ n effort and the framin.g of the m o v e ~ e n t , a ! ~ h o u g h. ~ r a t e g t e s were elaborated to mcorporate wtder soctal and

phohtKal concerns. While there are clear disjunctions betweent e rural ,. · · . d · -h 1en'speasant consctousness represente tn t e wonll1oven d . . . . 1 . . . J ·aJ

Ni .

1

ent an the formal nattonahst strugg. e .m co0 ~

gerta, the wamen's movement exhibited extenstve tntersectton

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n·;p,zratil·e .S'ttulie:.--.- in ..s·l)( ·-it"ty .znt/1-/L,"fo!_"Y. 37, 1 ( 199..;;). l 7-l.

Irving l\ L Zc-iclin \vith Robert T. l ~ r y n 1 ~ Tbr ~ \ " a c i . z l c-:ontlition uf· l u t n , J n i ~ y- . .

·\ l ~ m a d i a n Edition\ Crhronto: l )xtt)rd lJniversiry P r e s s ~ l 9 ~ } 1). 232.

- [ e r ~ n c e Ranger, D,rnce ~ z n d S o ~ : . - i e t y in t ~ z s t n 7 t 4-/fi·-ioz, 1 8 ' - ) ( l - / 9 (11<.-rkck·y,

C ~ \ : lrniversiry of ~ a l i t ( ) m i a P r e ~ s , 1975 ); P e r ~ r (;esc!1icrc . lhe i\.-lotln7til:'l

J! . t c h c r , ~ f t . · l)olitits ~ . l n d i f , ~ ()ccult in l'osttofonilli .. j.lfiLll ( harlottcsvilk:,

VA, l997);Jcan ComarofLmd]ohn Comarof{ e<l....,J\fodmtity.md its J£,1-

c ~ n ~ e n t : Rit:ztill > f r t t f Z J o z c e r in l ) o s t c o l o r l i ~ , z l . . t 1 f t · i c i l ( C ~ h i c a g o ~ IL: University of

Chtcago Pms, 199")-

~ t e v e ~ Feiem1an, Peas,znt lnteUectu,lls:AnthropologyandHistory in lim:ldni.l

~ M a d t s o n : University of\Visconsin Press, 1990). 3.

Ibid

Mayer N Zald,"Culrure, Ideology, and Strategic r a m i n g ~ in DougMt;Adam~ al. . C o . , r p a r a t i t ~ e Perspectives on Social fl.fovmJmts: Politic.tl Oppqrtunitks.

" o ~ i l i z i n g Stroctures, and CulturalFramingr (Cambridge: Carnbridge Uni-verstty Press, 1996), 261. .

~ e n wornen si t on a man, they gathered at his compoWid. sang songs of

gnevances and pcrlGnned other raucous behavior nnril the man repented and

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tjjJ , . ./ ' ..

·f LJfiJtlrllJ•tl t i t t l ( lt J JglHJ \ (JC_jctycan he UnJupccl into [( u .·I . , . . , J J r main c ; ; _ t c· IJ ·./Jldi'Jllf ud(-', ()r dl() '-lt t!nanating frqrn a.cqui)ition of \Vtalth · · ·') ·.:

J J J 1 ( - · H;1·/ : ; , J (W( l t 11c tr> }J<.:n,ic a( c,icvcrnc.:nt) ii i ) hrHlurar" a \ \ . ~ a r d and /:,

1

• •

J 1 / ! a ; , · - " ' ,f }J t ttlc· j qf iJ ''Jt itlft.iqn:dizcd ~ o c i ; d fore<: qrjgJin. 'The [)uru ar"'d () I x . ~ . u

I Z() tttic)

r ; . : ; H l l J ~ J c ~ (J t ·.tall I \ \yrnlH,l) arnon[[thc IgbfJ. '"Their lcgitinlacv\va.s ·u ; ennanceo I

t otdnr cd Ly tk Nri \inu: dtcy a!c the Ji rcct descendants ofEri (alegenda; '

f , ~ ~ ~ • n 1 n i c d a\ tl1c cn.:ator of the earth). An ozo tide h o l d e r \ v a . s r e v e r t ~;1ild pf ))··)c')t)cd ;t HTI1 ordipJonlatic jJlUT1UJ1ity that WaS respected throughout

lglH,lalltL

\cc A( I clc f . Afigl >< ), '/he ¥Varrant Chiefs: Indirect Rule in South-Eastern

N ~ f ~ r r i 1 1 , I 8f ) I <J2l) (I Jondon: l .ongn1an, 1972).ICtpl t;H ·I ( :. Njoku, tlA n Endless ( y c l c ofSccessionisn1. Intellectuals andSepa·

rat MovcJncnts in Nigeria;' in l ~ r u n o Coppietcrs and Michel Huysseunel

<'(Is. Sra·ssion} 1/istory tlnd the .Social 8'ciences (Brussels: Brussels U n i v e r s i ~P r r . ~ s . 2002). 2)) .

Bill hcund, "/h(' , 1 k i r ~ e : ,!{Contemporary Africa: The Developmentof fricaJ1

S o r i t · ~ y Sintt' /800 (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998), 9S.

'fhf' A1orn ~ f ! ; IoJI, 26 August 1930.

A · ( , · t, 1 · , . p . 7\ r 1 L diced and Trans,nton1o ,ranlscl, ~ > t ~ t t c t J o n1 ront tne nson .1 v.otevooKJ, e . al pub,

( ~ i n t i n Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (NewYork: Intemauon

lishcrs, 1':)71), S-9.

l t·icnnan, l)t',zs,tnt lntellectruzls, 18.

lbid. tCf'ft. . Afri an Peasa.n ;

Sec for example, ( T ~ f a . I 1 Hyden, "1hc Anomaly of the c cdfidd.DN'f'I(Jpmmt and 0Jange 17, 4 ( 1986): 677 705; Robert R aL p,.z.fJIIJ

Africa.I\ Cultivators to be Called 'Peasants'?" in JackM. P

9

o:;)r, J ~. S o c i l ' t y ~ · A R t ~ u k r (lloston: Little Browtl & Cornpany, 1

1· _d t l ~

S. ·aul and Roger Wooc.ls, "Afi:i<..--ai\ Peasantries; in PfdSdTZIS :<tJ1cth: Bb•:k

Soc:kties: Selected Readings, ed. Teodor Shanin (Harmondswo ·

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273-82.

2i. James S. Coleman,

versityofCalifomia

28.Nina Mba, Nigeria

~ N i g e r i a , 1900-1Heroines of theW

Penpeaiue(Lagos/U

29. Nkiru Nzegwu "CIdentified Co , .(1994) . nsclou

30 :15-33.. Feierrnan R

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l:unak ).tratcgy Hccont.,idcred, '' 1 r"reJies 9, 3 (] CJkO): 22-25.

2S. )\'lu()/;itl ftJ lircralJy n 1 e a n ~ \trangcr/vic.,itur lcavc.Il-1is JS known .as the "l)ancc

.tv-1 )vuncn t .n J·or another irnc rpn:ration see ''I)ancing \\l(nllt:n and ( ~ o l o n i a l;'-1cn: '1he Nv.'aohiala of l 925:) in ((vVickecl'' vfiOrnen tlnti the l?.econfiguration

o/(/t:nderin /1Jri[a, cd. ])orothy L. Hotlgson and Sherry A. c ( ~ u r d y (Ports

J ~ H H J r h , J\{j-f: Hcinen)ann, 2001 ), 109 . 129. See also Hanna Judith Lynne,

ul )ann.:, P r o t c ~ t , and Won1cn\ Wars: C ~ a s c s fron1 Nigeria and the United

State.;;' in l111rnen ancl Socidl ) r o t e s t ~ ed. c;uida West and I<.hoda Lois Ulunl

hcrg (New Y<)rk: ()xfi.>rd University Press, 1990), 333-45.26.

27 .

2X.

2l).

U. ( ( )nwutcaka, '4

'll1c Aha H.iot of 1929 and Its Relation to the System of

tJndir(:ct IZ.ttle:,, N ~ g e r i a n journal t!f'Econornic and SociaL 5"tudies 7 (1965):273-H2.

Junes S. ( :oleJnan) Nige·ria: l ~ a c k l ? : r o u n d to Nationalism (Berkeley, CA: Uni

versity of( al ifornia P r t : s ~ , 1960).

Nina Mba, N{.r;lritln I#J1nen Mobilised; l#Jmens }JofiticaL Activity in South-

~ . " ~ N J : ~ r r i t l , !Y00-/96S (Berkeley: University ofCalifornja Press, I982) and

: c r o m ~ s of the Wtlmcn's Wu:' in Awe, B. ed.Nigerian U/omen inHistorical1tr,7>rYtttJe (Lagos/ Ibadan: Sankore Publishcrs/Bookcraft, 1992).

Nkiru N •Jt•rrwl \ t' · Jl ...1-. d -L F · f F al. . · ·n I, . ..on ronttng ,aciSlll: owar . u 1e orn1aoon o a ern e-

(ldcntthcd ConsciousnesS:' Gmadiatl}ou.rnalfor U/omenand the Law7, no. 1

l ~ t J i t ts-:,1.

I I •

't"l<:rn }':> .lan. ftl.l1l'flf lntellectttttls, 27.

~ : ~ , r ~ _ o r c f C ~ n i n i s t perspectives and analysis of the 1929 womenS protest, see

st·nl) tne, lfcka-Moller. * ~ l : c n 1 a l e Militancy and Colonial Revolt,, 127-57;· Hr t:.y Arden "S 1 L 1 - , 1 " ' 8 (1973)422-4 , ·, . . · cxua u1su t and Fen1ale Militancy, .iY.Illn · :

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n m i s s i o n of Inquiry _\ppendix III (1\ 37. Figure" obrJ.ined fron1 the

Supervising agent of the L1nired .i\frican c=onlpany, Liillitcd \()pobo \ .

Con1n1ission of Inquiry, 103

f b a J J \ ~ g e r i . : t Jfo1nenJ 75.

62. NAE O ~ ' D I S T . 4/13/70 File no. 9 1 / ~ 7 ~ s s e s s n 1 e n r Report" District

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Notes ofEvidence, 82

11JeMorning Post, 26 August 1930.

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Notes ofEvidence, 27.

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930. tgena, to e Secretary of Stare for the CoLon1es on anuaty

Comrn· ·lSSion oflnquiry, 57.

Za.l.d, "Culture, Ideology, and Strategic Framing," 266.

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1he 1imes, 25 August . 1930.

Public Record Office (PRC)) ( ~ ( ) 583 / 169

ofcolonial Nigeria c.o the Secretary of Scare

1930.

NotesofF,vidence, 25.

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