Knowledge Theories Supporting CLIL

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Knowledge theories supporting CLIL

Content and language integrated learning (CLIL)is a term created in 1994

by David Marsh and Anne Maljers as a methodology similar to but distinct from

language immersion and content-based instruction. It's an approach for

learning content through an additional language (foreign or second), thus

teaching both the subject and the language. The idea of its proponents was to

create an "umbrella term" which encompasses different forms of using

language as medium of instruction.

CLIL is fundamentally based on methodological principles established by

research on "language immersion". This kind of approach has been identified

as very important by the European Commission because it can provide effective

opportunities for pupils to use their new language skills now, rather than learn

them now for use later. It opens doors on languages for a broader range of

learners, nurturing self-confidence in young learners and those who have not

responded well to formal language instruction in general education. It provides

exposure to the language without requiring extra time in the curriculum, which

can be of particular interest in vocational settings. The European Commission

has therefore decided to promote the training of teachers to enhance the


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language competences in general, in order to promote the teaching of

non-linguistic subjects in foreign languages.

In this unit we are going to revise some of the general linguistic and

psycholinguistic theories, which underlie the implementation of CLIL; and learn

from the experts why this new approach to learning can be successful.

Furthermore, we will also be putting them into practice with examples and

activities immediately after each section.


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1. Introduction

In CLIL lessons the cognitive challenges of language learning are great; much of the

content lies outside children's direct experience and is often more abstract. For example,

in science lessons learners may struggle to describe and compare the properties of

materials, may find it impossible to hypothesize about why particular materials are used

for particular purposes. They may be able to write up the procedural part of a report

after testing materials but not how to write conclusions. By being taught specific

thinking skills and the associated language, learners are better equipped to deal with the

complex academic and cognitive demands of learning school subjects in a foreign

language.

Typical language and thinking tasks could be experimenting with different colour

combinations in an art class, trying out magnets in the science class or investigating thelines of symmetry of 2D shapes in maths lessons, what kinds of skill, aside from basic

language skills, will they need to draw on or develop? Learners may be encouraged

to predict what will happen,

to carry out simple investigations or experiments,

to describe and record what they observe,

to find patterns, notice similarities and differences,

to compare results, to draw conclusions and so on.

If we take the example of predicting, learners may know the use of will/ going toforan easy, everyday situation. However, with little knowledge of the concept of

magnetism, for example, learners may not be able to think very clearly about their

intended meaning and may not know the subject-specific words of attractor repel.Some children find it difficult enough to draw on these more academic kinds of

interaction in their first language, never mind a foreign language. As John Clegg wrote in


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an earlier article: The truth is that schools don't often teach these skills explicitly.Instead, teachers hope that their learners will pick them up.In this section we are going to learn the theory and possible applications of the following

linguistic and psycholinguistic tenets:

Bloom's taxonomy of learning domains.1.

Learning styles and Gardner's multiple intelligences.2.

Vigotsky's scaffolding theory.3.

Jim Cummins' common underlying linguistic competence4.

Krashen's theory of learning .v. acquisition.5.

Advantages of plurilingualism in creativity.6.(Much of the content on this page was taken from 0NE STOP ENGLISH at http://onestopenglish.com)


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2. Bloom's and Marzano's taxonomy of learning domains

Today there is international recognition that education is more than just learning knowledge and thinking, it

also involves learners' feelings, beliefs and the cultural environment of the classroom. Nevertheless, the

importance of teaching thinking and creativity is an important element in modern education. Benjamin

Bloom was the first to develop a highly popularized hierarchy of six thinking skills placed on a continuum

from lower to higher order skills: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and

evaluation. According to this system, lower orderskills included recalling knowledge to identify, label, name

or describe things. Higher order skills called on the application, analysis or synthesis of knowledge,

needed when learners use new information or a concept in a new situation, break information or concepts

into parts to understand it more fully, or put ideas together to form something new. Bloom's structure was a

useful starting point and triggered many applications to school activities and curricula.

Bloom's revised taxonomy of thinking skills

In 2001 a former student of Bloom, Lorin Anderson, published a revised classification of thinking skills

which is actually rather similar to the original but focuses more on verbs than nouns and renames some of

the levels.

Fig. 1 Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Higher order thinking skills

Creating making, designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing,

Evaluating checking, hypothesizing, experimenting, judging, testing, monitoring,Analyzing comparing, organizing, outlining, finding, structuring, integrating

Applying implementing, carrying out, using

Understanding comparing, explaining, classifying, exemplifying, summarizing


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Higher order thinking skills

Remembering recognizing, listing, describing, identifying, retrieving, naming, finding, defining

Lower order thinking skills

We can see that these levels have an intuitive appeal to many teachers; however it can also be difficult to

implement some of these ideas.For example, comparingfalls both under analyzingand understanding,

which is confusing. Here analyzing the level of comparison depends on context, for example: how complex

is the concept or knowledge being compared?

Linking thinking and language

The figure below is an example of how publications on thinking skills began to start linking some common

thinking and process skills with the typical language required. For reasons of space, only three levels are

exemplified.

Fig. 2 Typical thinking and language skills

Thinking skill Possible language

Remembering/ Recall

recognizing, listing, describing,

identifying, retrieving, naming, finding,

defining

Questions using who, what, where, when, which how, how

much?

Tasksusing describe, choose, define, find, label, colour, match,

underline key vocabulary in different colours (e.g. parts of a

system and functions)

Language:

That's a (because it has and )

This is a and this is what it does.

This has

This is a kind of . which/that

A is a kind of which/that

This goes with this.

Understanding/ Interpreting

comparing, explaining, exemplifying,

classifying, understanding cause and

effect, generalizing, summarizing,

Questions using is this the same as? What's the difference

between? Which part doesn't fit or match the others? Why?

Tasksusing classify, explain, show what would happen if give

an example, show in a graph or table, use a Venn diagram or

chart to show

Language:

This is ..( a kind of) but that one isn't (because)

This has ( a type of)but that one doesn't/hasn't (because).

These are all types of because

This belongs/ goes here because

If we do this then

This leads to..

This causes

Applying to new situations

Planning, implementing, carrying out,

drawing conclusions, reporting back

Questions using what would happen if..? What would result in

? How much change is there if you ?

Tasksusing Explain what would happen if, Show the results

of,

Using investigations and experimental i nquiry e.g. surveys, web

quests etc. choosing how to record and represent information

Language:

A variety of language functions for planning, hypothesizing,

asking questions, reporting, drawing conclusions e.g.

What shall we try/ do fi rst?

if we try this then ...that could beFirst we thought about then weThis must be .. because

It can't be because

Marzano's taxonomy of skills in education


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In 2000 Marzano published a different way of looking at skills. His classification is based on the Knowledge

Domainand three systems - theCognitive, the Selfand the Metacognitive. The self system involves a

learner's attitudes, beliefs and feelings that determine his/her motivation. The metacognitive system relates

to learning to learn: it helps the learner to set goals, make decisions about and monitor which information

is necessary and which cognitive processes are the best fit for the task in hand.

Fig. 3 Marzano's New Educational Taxonomy

KNOWLEDGE DOMAIN

Information

Mental procedures

Physical procedures

COGNITIVE SYSTEM

Knowledge

retrieval

Comprehension Analysis

Knowledge use

Recall: Recalling

information, facts,

sequences and

processes.

Synthesis:identifying

what is important to

remember.

Representation: puttingthis information into

categories.

Graphic organizers

encourage this process.

Matching, classifying, error

analysis, general izing and

specifiying: by engaging in these

cognitive processes learners usewhat they learn to create insights

and invent ways of using learned

information in new situations.

Decision-making,

problem-solving,

experimental inquiry,

investigations. These arealso especially useful in

project-type work.

The knowledge domain, consists of three categories of knowledge: information, mental procedures and

physical procedures. A child at primary level may learn about quadrilaterals and the key vocabulary and

characteristics to describe them. This is the whatof knowledge. She will also learn howto draw different

kinds of quadrilateral (physical procedures) and how to compare or classify them (mental procedures). The

cognitive system is made up of four components:

knowledge retrieval,

comprehension,

analysis, and

knowledge use.

Marzano's cognitive system is similar to the six levels of Bloom and Anderson. In knowledge retrieval (cf.

Remembering and Understanding) the child needs to be able to identify and put a name to new

information; for example, the topic might be mammalsand the names of different types of big cat, such as

tiger, lion, cheetahand so on. Facts about mammals will involve statements and generalizations using the

simple present tense, such as:

mammals have a covering of fur, hair, or skin,

mammals give birth to live young,

mammals are warm -blooded,

mammals feed their young with milk from the mother,

tigers have stripes but cheetahs and leopards have spots, etc.

tigers can swim

These language functions can be linked to all four basic language skills using activities based on oracy

(speaking and listening) and literacy tasks (reading and writing). For example, learners can listen to

descriptions of animals and choose the correct picture, use a tick chart to listen to comparisons of big cats

and then use this as a speaking frame to produce simple sentences. Learners might read simple

descriptions of big cats and transfer key informationonto a chart, then use this chart to writesimple

sentences. This basic knowledge can be extended to compare and classify types of big cat in different

ways according to features such as habitat, characteristics, appearance etc.

Under comprehensionthe learners sort out which information is important or relevant for a task and ignore

other information. Graphicorganizerssuch as charts, grids, Venn diagrams and flow charts are especially


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important here for learners as they organize information in a way that reduces the language load. Thus

they help the learner to focus on the key language and thinking required.

In analysis the learners need to draw on more complex thinking processes - matching, classifying,

generalizing and specifying - in order to create and invent new insights or new ways of using learned

information. These skills are likely to be highlighted when carrying out investigations. Knowledge useis the

highest form of thinking process under Marzano's system and is used particularly in the creation of

investigations, projects and web quests, where application and the creation of new ideas are particularly

useful.

ConclusionThese attempts to analyze and classify thinking processes move from a foundation of simpler, lower order

skills to more complex higher order skills. However, there is still no consensus about the exact number of

skills or levels, the interaction between them nor is it easy to analyse the level of difficulty of a particular

task or the precise thinking skills required. All we can do for now is draw on insights that have been made

and see which ones seem to fit in with our views. The next article focuses on process skills and

data-handling, referring particularly to the use of graphic organizers to record and interpret data. The

importance and benefits of graphic organizers for both learners and teachers will be described and how

teachers can plan for them. Different types of organizer will be outlined and one type called glyphs will beillustrated in some detail.

References

Anderson, L.W. and D. Krathwohl (eds.) (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: a

Revision of Bloom's EducationalObjectives.Longman. New York.

Biber, D. (1986). 'Spoken and wri tten textual dimensions in English: Resolving the contradictory findings.'

Language62, 384-414.

Corson, D. (1995). Using English words.New York: Kluwer.

Cummins, J. (1979). 'Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum

age question and some othermatters.' Working Papers on Bilingualism.19, 121-129.Harlen, W. And A. Qualter, (2007). The Teaching of Science in Primary Schools. 3rdedn. Abingdon, Oxon:

Routledge.

Marzano, R. J. (2000). Designing a new taxonomy of educational objectives. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Corwin

Press.


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2.1 Practice

Practice

Activity 1

Activity 2


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2.2 Further reading

Situaci

How to Use Bloom's Taxonomy in Class


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2.3 Task

1. Think of an exercise for your students related to the subject you currently teach. When you ask the

questions, problems or whatever you have in mind, take into account the table we have provided. Tag the

questions, activities... with the colours we have inserted in Table1 beside the categories, and bear in mind

at all times to move up from lower order thinking skills to higher order thinking skills when asking those

questions, which, in itself, will make a more sensible way of progressing through the exercise.

Table1Table2

Example1


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3. Multiple Intelligences and learning styles

Howard Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences

An intelligence is the ability to solve problems,

or to create products, that are valued within

one or more cultural settings.

-- Howard Gardner

FRAMES OF MIND (1983)

1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence(word smart or book smart)

This intelligence involves the knowing which comes through language; throughreading, writing, and speaking. It involves understanding the order and meaning ofwords in both speech and writing and how to properly use the language. It involvesunderstanding the sociocultural nuances of a language, including idioms, plays on

words, and linguistically-based humor.If this is a strong intelligence for you, you have highly developed skills for reading,

speaking, and writing and you tend to think in words. You probably like variouskinds of literature, playing word games, making up poetry and stories, engaging ininvolved discussions with other people, debating, formal speaking, creative writing,and telling jokes. You are likely precise in expressing yourself and irritated when

others are not! You love learning new words, you do well with written assignments,and your comprehension of anything you read is high.

2. Mathematical-Logical Intelligence(math smart or logic smart)

This intelligence uses numbers, math, and logic to find and understand the various

patterns that occur in our lives: thought patterns, number patterns, visual patterns,color patters, and so on. It begins with concrete patterns in the real world but gets

increasingly abstract as we try to understand relationships of the patterns we haveseen.If you happen to be a logical-mathematically inclined person you tend to thinkmore conceptually and abstractly and are often able to see patterns and

relationships that others miss. You probably like to conduct experiments, to solvepuzzles and other problems, to ask cosmic questions, and analyze circumstances

and peoples behavior. You most likely enjoy working with numbers and

mathematical formulas and operations, and you love the challenge of a complexproblem to solve.You are probably systematic and organized, and you likely always have a logical

rationale or argument for what you are doing or thinking at any given time.


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3. Visual-Spatial Intelligence(art smart or picture smart)

We often say A picture is worth a thousand words! or Seeing is believing! This

intelligence represents the knowing that occurs through the shapes, images,patterns, designs, and textures we see with our external eyes, but also includes all

of the images we are able to conjure inside our heads.If you are strong in this intelligence you tend to think in images and pictures. You

are likely very aware of object, shapes, colors, textures, and patterns in theenvironment around you. You probably like to draw, paint, and make interesting

designs and patterns, and work with clay,colored markers, construction paper, and fabric. Many who are strong in visual-

spatial intelligence love to work jigsaw puzzles, read maps and find their wayaround new places. You probably have definite opinions about colors that go

together well, textures that are appropriate and pleasing, and how a room shouldbe decorated. And, you are likely excellent at performing tasks that require seeing

with the minds eyes, such as visualizing, pretending, imagining, and formingmental images.

4. Intrapersonal Intelligence(self smart or introspection smart).

At the heart of this intelligence are our human self-reflective abilities by which wecan step outside of ourselves and think about our own lives. This is the introspective

intelligence. It involves our uniquely human propensity to want to know themeaning, purpose, and significance of things. It involves our awareness of the inner

world of the self, emotions, values, beliefs, and our various quests for genuinespirituality.

If this intelligence is one of your strong points you may like to work alone and

sometimes you may shy away from others. You are probably self-reflective andself-aware and thus you tend to be in tune with your inner feelings, values, beliefs,and thinking processes. You are frequently bearers of creative wisdom and insight,

are highly intuitive, and you are inwardly motivated rather than needing externalrewards to keep you going. You are often strong willed, self-confident, and have

definite, well-thought out opinions on almost any issue. Other people will oftencome to you for advice and counsel.

5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence("body smart" or "movement smart")

We often talk about learning by doing. This way of knowing happens throughphysical movement and through the knowing of our physical body. The body

knows many things that are not necessarily known by the conscious, logicalmind, such as how to ride a bike, how to parallel park a car, dance the waltz, catch

a thrown object, maintain balance while walking, and where thekeys are on a computer keyboard.

If you have strength in this intelligence area you tend to have a keen sense of bodyawareness.

You like physical movement, dancing, making and inventing things with yourhands, and roleplaying.

You probably communicate well through body language and other physical

gestures. You can often perform a task much better after seeing someone else do itfirst and then mimicking their actions. You probably like physical games of allkinds and you like to demonstrate how to do something for someone else. You may

find it difficult to sit still for long periods of time and are easily bored or distractedif you are not actively involved in what is going on around you.


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6. Interpersonal

(people smart or group smart)

This is the person-to-person way of knowing. It is the knowing that happens whenwe work with and relate to other people, often as part of a team. This way ofknowing also asks use to develop a whole range of social skills that are needed foreffective person-to-person communication and relating.

If this person-to-person way of knowing is more developed in you, you learnthrough personal interactions. You probably have lots of friends, show a great deal

of empathy for other people and exhibit a deep understanding of other points ofview. You probably love team activities of all kinds and are a good team

member--you pull your own weight and often much more! You are sensitive toother peoples feelings and ideas, and are good at piggybacking your ideas on

others thoughts. And you are likely skilled at drawing others out in a discussion.You are also probably skilled in conflict resolution, mediation, and finding

compromise when people are in radical opposition to each other.

7. Naturalist Intelligence(nature smart or environment smart)

The naturalist intelligence involves the full range of knowing that occurs in and

through our encounters with the natural world including our recognition,appreciation, and understanding of the natural environment. It involves such

capacities as species discernment, communion with the natural world and itsphenomena, and the ability to recognize and classify various flora and fauna.

If the naturalist intelligence is one of your strengths you have a profound love forthe outdoors, animals, plants, and almost any natural object. You are probably

fascinated by and noticeably affected by such things as the weather, changing leaves

in the fall, the sound of the wind, the warm sun or lack thereof, or an insect in theroom. At a young age you were likely nature collectors, adding such things as bugs,rocks leaves, seashells, sticks, and so on to your collections. You probably brought

home all manner and kinds of stray animals and today you may have several petsand want more. You tend to have an affinity with and respect for all living beings.

8. Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence(music smart or sound smart)

This is the knowing that happens through sound and vibration. In the originalresearch on the theory of multiple intelligences this intelligence was called musical-

rhythmic intelligence.However, it is not limited to music and rhythm so Im calling it auditory-

vibrational, for it deals with the whole realm of sound, tones, beats, and vibrationalpatterns as well as music.

If you are strong in this intelligence area you likely have a love of music andrhythmic patterns.

You are probably very sensitive to sounds in the environment; the chirp of cricket,rain on the roof, varying traffic patterns. You may study and work better with

music in the background. You can often reproduce a melody or rhythmic patternafter hearing it only once. Various sounds, tones, and rhythms may have a visibleeffect on you--others can often see a change in facial expressions, body movement,

or emotional responses. You probably like to create music and you enjoy listeningto a wide variety of music. You may be skilled at mimicking sounds, languageaccents, and others speech patterns, and you can probably readily recognize

different musical instruments in a composition.


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3.1 Practice

Situaci

The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of

education at Harvard University. Here is a discussion of the eight different intelligences Dr. Gardner

proposes and their relationship to the CLIL classroom. Each explanation is followed by lesson plans or

exercises which can be used in class.

Teaching the StudentThe most important element when catering to diverse learning styles is remembering to

teach to the student and not just the subject. Teachers should be trained to take into

consideration a variety of learning styles and make efforts to teach in ways that maketrue learning available to all students. Once teachers are familiar with these learning

styles, classroom activities and study habits can be adjusted to accommodate the styles

of any group of students.

Learning styles are most often divided into three basic groups. There are the auditory

learners, visual learners and kinesthetic or tactile learners. In addition to these basic

groups, some educational theorists also recognize verbal, logical, social and solitary as

additional styles. Here is a systematic breakdown of each learning style and some

suggestions for addressing these styles in the classroom.

Teaching Auditory LearnersAuditory learners learn best through hearing the message. Students who are auditory

learners respond well to lectures and verbal instructions. They may also be interested inbooks on tape or listening to review material. Some auditory learners have greater

success with oral exams due to the fact that they are able to process verbally, hear the

questions, and hear their own responses. Teachers auditory learners requires the teacher

to use rhythmic memory aids such as acronyms, short songs, or rhymes. For studying,

auditory learners do best when they are able to read their material aloud. Flip cards

which can be read aloud may also be useful.

Teaching Visual LearnersVisual learners process information according to what they see and the images they

have created in their mind. When teaching visual learners, their seating position should

be in the front of the room to help them avoid external visual distractions. Illustrations,diagrams, and charts are very helpful when working with visual learners. Students who

are visual learners are often the best note-takers because they need to see the

information being presented. Flip cards can be very helpful for visual learners as it

isolates an image of the material they are studying.


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Teaching Kinesthetic LearnersKinesthetic, or tactile, learners learn best through touching, feeling and doing. Teachers

trying to reach kinesthetic learners should incorporate hands-on projects, multi-media

assignments, skits, movement, and physical artifacts as examples. Assigning a diorama

or skit is a great example of how to reach a kinesthetic learner. These students also

respond well to object lessons if they are able to touch the object involved.

Hands-on experiments are another great tool for teaching kinesthetic learners. This is

easily done with science material, but can also be incorporated into social studies andeven language arts, if teachers keep a close eye on the environment of the history

lesson or the story being studied. Information about geography, customs, and food can

often be reworked into a hands-on experience. Examples of this include mummifying a

chicken in association with a social studies unit on ancient Egypt or preparing an ethnic

food in conjunction with a culture-based language arts story. These sorts of ideas attract

and engage the kinesthetic learners in the classroom.

Teaching Logical, Social or SolitaryThese learning styles are not as commonly discussed as the above three, but to warrant

some mention. Logical learners are those students who most enjoy problem solving,

logic games and reasoning. These students love riddles, word problems, and problem

solving games or worksheets, so provide many when teaching them. The categories of

social and solitary describe how the students prefer to study, either in groups or

individually.

Determining a Student's StyleTeachers should consider ways they can determine the learning styles of their students.

This can be a very different process for various age groups. For older students, teachers

can use curriculum for teaching learning styles and then offer personality tests

specifically designed to help identify their students' styles. With middle school students,

teachers should incorporate a variety of learning styles in an effort to reach all students

as testing this age group can be particularly difficult due to shyness, reading readiness

and social pressures.For kindergarten and early elementary teachers, the use of an object lesson, such as an

unusual pet or particularly old item, can help identify the students primary learning

styles. Young students who are kinesthetic learners are generally the first ones to ask

Can I hold it? while visual learners are the ones who sit right in front, but may not

want to touch what is being shown. Auditory learners are the ones who talk about the

lesson the whole rest of the day. To observe students, it is best to have the object lesson

taught by a co-worker or have a co-worker observe the students.

Is it worth it?While incorporating such a variety of techniques into curriculum and teaching can be

difficult, the reward of reaching every student is well-worth the effort.


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4. Lev Vigotsky's scaffolding theory

Scaffolding as a Teaching Strategy

Rachel R. Van Der Stuyff

Adolescent Learning and Development

Section 0500A - Fall 2002

November 17, 2002

I. Scaffolding as a Teaching Strategy - Definition and Description

Scaffolding instruction as a teaching strategy originates from Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and his

concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). "The zone of proximal development is the distance

between what children can do by themselves and the next learning that they can be helped to achieve with

competent assistance" (Raymond, 2000, p.176). The scaffolding teaching strategy provides individualized

support based on the learner's ZPD (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002). In scaffolding instruction a more

knowledgeable other provides scaffolds or supports to facilitate the learner's development. The scaffolds

facilitate a student's ability to build on prior knowledge and internalize new information. The activities

provided in scaffolding instruction are just beyond the level of what the learner can do alone (Olson & Pratt,

2000). The more capable other provides the scaffolds so that the learner can accomplish (with assistance)

the tasks that he or she could otherwise not complete, thus helping the learner through the ZPD

(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000).

Vygotsky defined scaffolding instruction as the "role of teachers and others in supporting the learner's

development and providing support structures to get to that next stage or level" (Raymond, 2000, p. 176).

An important aspect of scaffolding instruction is that the scaffolds are temporary. As the learner's abilities

increase the scaffolding provided by the more knowledgeable other is progressively withdrawn. Finally the

learner is able to complete the task or master the concepts independently (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002, p.

7). Therefore the goal of the educator when using the scaffolding teaching strategy is for the student to

become an independent and self-regulating learner and problem solver (Hartman, 2002). As the learner's

knowledge and learning competency increases, the educator gradually reduces the supports provided

(Ellis, Larkin, Worthington, n.d.). According to Vygotsky the external scaffolds provided by the educator

can be removed because the learner has developed "...more sophisticated cognitive systems, related to

fields of learning such as mathematics or language, the system of knowledge itself becomes part of the

scaffold or social support for the new learning" (Raymond, 2000, p. 176).

Caregivers help young children learn how to link old information or familiar situations with new knowledge

through verbal and nonverbal communication and modeling behaviors. Observational research on early

childhood learning shows that parents and other caregivers facilitate learning by providing scaffolds. The

scaffolds provided are activities and tasks that:

Motivate or enlist the child's interest related to the task

Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable for a child

Provide some direction in order to help the child focus on achieving the goal

Clearly indicate differences between the child's work and the standard or desired solution

Reduce frustration and risk

Model and clearly define the expectations of the activity to be performed (Bransford, Brown, and

Cocking, 2000).

The activities listed above are also detailed in the Executive Summary of the Research Synthesis on


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Effective Teaching Principles and the Design of Quality Tools for Educators, which refers to these as

"...Rogoff's six characteristics of scaffolded instruction" (Ellis, Larkin, Worthington, Principle 5 section, para.

2).

In the educational setting, scaffolds may include models, cues, prompts, hints, partial solutions, think-aloud

modeling and direct instruction (Hartman, 2002). In Teaching Children and Adolescents with Special

Needs the authors provided an example of a procedural facilitator (hint, cue-card, partially completed

example). When trying to teach the math skill of rounding, a teacher may list, "...the steps of rounding

hundreds beginning with the first step of 1. Look at the number in the ten's position', (this) provides hints

to the students" (Olson and Platt, 2000, p.180). This cue prompts the students to complete the next step of

the task. Educators may also use questions as scaffolds to help students solve a problem or complete a

task. Teachers may increase the level of questioning or specificity until the student is able to provide a

correct response. This type of scaffold is reflected in the following excerpt, "...if you receive no response

or an incorrect response after asking the question, "How do we change lady to ladies?" you should

proceed with a more intrusive verbal prompt: "What is the rule?" to remind the student that there is a rule.

If necessary, continue with "What do we do when a word ends in y to make it plural?" to give the student a

part of the rule" (Olson and Platt, 2000, p.186). As the student develops his or her ability with applying the

rule, the number and intrusive nature of the questions would be decreased until the student can do the task

without prompting.

Following the use of teacher provided scaffolds, the educator may then have the students engage in

cooperative learning. In this type of environment students help students in small group settings but still

have some teacher assistance. This can serve as a step in the process of decreasing the scaffolds

provided by the educator and needed by students (Hartman, 2002).

Teachers have also used scaffolding to engage students in research work and learning. In this context,

scaffolding facilitates organization of and focus for students' research (McKenzie, 1999). The structure and

clearly defined expectations are the most important component of scaffolding in this context. The teachers

provide clarity and support but the students construct the final result through their research. In a chapter

on scaffolding, Scaffolding for Success, Jamie McKenzie provides a visual image analogy of how

scaffolding works, "The workers cleaning the face of the Washington Monument do not confuse the

scaffolding with the monument itself. The scaffolding is secondary. The building is primary." (McKenzie,

1999, Matters of Definition section, para. 6). He goes on to describe eight characteristics of scaffolding.

The first six describe aspects of scaffolding instruction. The last two refer to outcomes resulting from

scaffolding and are therefore presented in a later section of this paper. According to McKenzie scaffolding:

Provides clear direction and reduces students' confusion - Educators anticipate problems that students

might encounter and then develop step by step instructions, which explain what a student must do to

meet expectations.

1.

Clarifies purpose - Scaffolding helps students understand why they are doing the work and why it is

important.

2.

Keeps students on task - By providing structure, the scaffolded lesson or research project, provides

pathways for the learners. The student can make decisions about which path to choose or what things

to explore along the path but they cannot wander off of the path, which is the designated task.

3.

Clarifies expectations and incorporates assessment and feedback - Expectations are clear from the

beginning of the activity since examples of exemplary work, rubrics, and standards of excellence are

shown to the students.

4.

Points students to worthy sources - Educators provide sources to reduce confusion, frustration, and

time. The students may then decide which of these sources to use.

5.

Reduces uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment - Educators test their lessons to determine possible

problem areas and then refine the lesson to eliminate difficulties so that learning is maximized

(McKenzie, 1999).

6.

Scaffolded instruction is also employed in problem based learning environments. "Problem-based learning

(PBL) is an educational approach that challenges students to "learn to learn"." (Ngeow and Yoon, 2001, p.

1). In this type of classroom the teacher must assess the activities that the students can perform

independently and what they must learn to complete the task. The teacher then, "...designs activities which

offer just enough of a scaffold for students to overcome this gap in knowledge and skills." (Ngeow and

Yoon, 2001, p. 2). The authors also describe several of same scaffolding activities or characteristics that

were presented by Bransford, Brown and Cocking and McKenzie thus illustrating scaffolding's applicability

to various educational settings.


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Creates momentum - Through the structure provided by scaffolding, students spend less time

searching and more time on learning and discovering, result ing in quicker learning (McKenzie, 1999).

2.

III. Advantages and Disadvantages of Scaffolding

One of the primary benefits of scaffolding instruction is that it engages the learner. The learner does not

passively listen to information presented instead through teacher prompting the learner builds on priorknowledge and forms new knowledge. In working with students who have low self-esteem and learning

disabilities, it provides an opportunity to give positive feedback to the students by saying things like "...look

what you have just figured out!" This gives them more of a can do versus a "this is too hard" attitude. This

leads into another advantage of scaffolding in that if done properly, scaffolding instruction motivates the

student so that they want to learn.

Another benefit of this type of instruction is that it can minimize the level of frustration of the learner. This is

extremely important with many special needs students, who can become frustrated very easily then shut

down and refuse to participate in further learning during that particular setting.

Scaffold instruction is individualized so it can benefit each learner. However, this is also the biggest

disadvantage for the teacher since developing the supports and scaffolded lessons to meet the needs of

each individual would be extremely time-consuming. Implementation of individualized scaffolds in aclassroom with a large number of students would be challenging. Another disadvantage is that unless

properly trained, a teacher may not properly implement scaffolding instruction and therefore not see the full

effect. Scaffolding also requires that the teacher give up some of the control and allow the students to

make errors. This may be difficult for teachers to do. Finally the teachers' manuals and curriculum guides

that I have been exposed to do not include examples of scaffolds or outlines of scaffolding methods that

would be appropriate for the specific lesson content. Although there are some drawbacks to the use of

scaffolding as a teaching strategy the positive impact it can have on students' learning and development is

far more important.

References:

Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, and Experience &

School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Chang, K., Chen, I., & Sung, Y. (2002). The effect of concept mapping to enhance text comprehension and

summarization. The Journal of Experimental Education 71(1), 5-23.

Ellis, E., Larkin, M ., & Worthington, L. (No date). Executive summary of the research synthesis on

effective teaching principles and the design of quality tools for educators. University of Alabama, AL.


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Retrieved November 11, 2002, from http://idea.uoregon.edu/~ncite/documents/techrep/tech06.html

Four-Stage Model of ZPD. (No date). North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved October

12, 2002 from http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/learning/lr1zpda.htm

Hartman, H. (2002). Scaffolding & Cooperative Learning. Human Learning and Instruction (pp. 23-69).

New York: City College of City University of New York.

Jaramillo, J. (1996). Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and contributions to the development of constructivist

curricula. Education 117(1), 133-140.

Lev Vygotsky Archive. (No date). Retrieved November 15, 2002, from http://www.marxists.org/archive

/vygotsky/

McKenzie, J. (2000). Scaffolding for Success. [Electronic version] Beyond Technology, Questioning,

Research and the Information Literate School Community. Retrieved October 12, 2002, from http://fno.org

/dec99/scaffold.html

Ngeow, K.K., &Yoon, S. (2001, October). Learning to learn: preparing teachers and students for

problem-based learning. ERIC Digest. Retrieved October 20, 2002, from http://www.ed.gov/databases

/ERIC_Digests/ed457524.html

Olson, J. and Platt, J. (2000). The Instructional Cycle. Teaching Children and Adolescents with Special

Needs(pp. 170-197). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Raymond, E. (2000). Cognitive Characteristics. Learners with Mild Disabili ties(pp. 169-201). Needham

Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, A Pearson Education Company.

Social Development Theory. (No date). Retrieved November 3, 2002, from http://tip.psychology.org

/vygotsky.html

Toth, E. E. (no date). Representational scaffolding during scientific inquiry: interpretive and expressive

use of inscriptions in classroom learning. Retrieved October 19, 2002, from http://www.cis.upenn.edu

/~ircs/cogsci2000/PRCDNGS/SPRCDNGS/posters/toth.pdf


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4.1 Practice

Situaci

Scaffolding Instruction describes specialized teaching strategies geared to support learning when students are first

introduced to a new subject. Scaffolding gives students a context, motivation, or foundation from which to understand the

new information that will be introduced during the coming lesson.

Scaffolding techniques should be considered fundamental to good, solid teaching for all students, not just those withlearning disabilities or second language learners. In order for learning to progress, scaffolds should be gradually removed

as instruction continues, so that students will eventually be able to demonstrate comprehension independently.

Scaffolding instruction includes a wide variety of strategies, including:

activating prior knowledge

offering a motivational context to pique student interest or curiosity in the subject at hand

breaking a complex task into easier, more "doable" steps to facilitate student achievement

showing students an example of the desired outcome before they complete the task

modeling the thought process for students through "think aloud" talk

offering hints or partial solutions to problems

using verbal cues to prompt student answers

teaching students chants or mnemonic devices to ease memorization of key facts or proceduresfacilitating student engagement and participation

displaying a historical timeline to offer a context for learning

using graphic organizers to offer a visual framework for assimilating new information

teaching key vocabulary terms before reading

guiding the students in making predictions for what they expect will occur in a story, experiment, or other course of

action

asking questions while reading to encourage deeper investigation of concepts

suggesting possible strategies for the students to use during independent practice

modeling an activity for the students before they are asked to complete the same or similar activity

asking students to contribute their own experiences that relate to the subject at hand

Scaffolding is an instructional technique, associated with the zone of proximal development, in which a teacher provides

individualized support by incrementally improving a learners ability to build on prior knowledge. Scaffolding can be used in

a variety of content areas and across age and grade levels.

Scaffolding in the classroom

When using scaffolding as an instructional technique, the teacher provides tasks that enable the learner to build on prior

knowledge and internalize new concepts. According to Judy Olson and Jennifer Platt, the teacher must provide assisted

activities that are just one level beyond that of what the learner can do in order to assist the learner through the zone of

proximal development. Once learners demonstrate task mastery, the support is decreased and learners gain responsibility

for their own growth.

In order to provide young learners with an understanding of how to link old information or familiar situations with new

knowledge, the instructor must guide learners through verbal and nonverbal communication and model behaviors.

Research on the practice of using scaffolding in early childhood development shows that parents and teachers can

facilitate this advancement through the zone of proximal development by providing activities and tasks that:


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Motivate or enlist the childs interest related to the task.

Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable for a child.

Provide some direction in order to help the child focus on achieving the goal.

Clearly indicate differences between the childs work and the standard or desired solution.

Reduce frustration and risk.

Model and clearly define the expectations of the activity to be performed.

In the educational setting, scaffolds may include models, cues, prompts, hints, partial solutions, think-aloud modeling, and

direct instruction.

Eight characteristics of scaffolding

Jamie McKenzie suggests that there are eight characteristics of scaffolding instruction. In order to engage in scaffolding

effectively, teachers:

Provide clear direction and reduce students confusion. Prior to assigning instruction that involves scaffolding, a

teacher must try to anticipate any problems that might arise and write step-by-step instructions for how learners must

complete tasks.

Clarify purpose. Scaffolding does not leave the learner wondering why they are engaging in activities. The teacher

explains the purpose of the lesson and why this is important. This type of guided instruction allows learners to

understand how they are building on prior knowledge.

Keep students on task. Students are aware of the direction in which the lesson is heading, and they can make choicesabout how to proceed with the learning process.

Offer assessment to clarify expectations. Teachers who create scaffolded lessons set forth clear expectations from the

beginning of the activity using exemplars, rubrics.

Point students to worthy sources. Teachers supply resources for research and learning to decrease confusion,

frustration, and wasted time.

Reduce uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment. A well-prepared activity or lesson is tested or evaluated completely

before implementation to reduce problems and maximize learning potential.

Deliver efficiency. Little time is wasted in the scaffolded lesson, and all learning goals are achieved efficiently.

Create momentum. The goal of scaffolding is to inspire learners to want to learn more and increase their knowledge

and understanding.

Martha Larkin suggests that there are eight guidelines that teachers most commonly follow when developing scaffoldedlessons. According to research in the area of scaffolding, teachers often:

Focus on curriculum goals to develop appropriate tasks.

Define a shared goal for all students to achieve through engagement in specific tasks.

Identify individual student needs and monitor growth based on those abilities.

Provide instruction that is modified or adapted to each students abil ity.

Encourage students to remain focused throughout the tasks and activities.

Provide clear feedback in order for students to monitor their own progress.

Create an environment where students feel safe taking risks.

Promote responsibility for independent learning.


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4.2 Example

Key features of Scaffolding


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5. Jim Cummins' common underlying linguistic competence

In this article Professor James Cummins laid out the foundations of all his theories on bilingualism and

bilingual or plurilingual education. Before reading his theories on this topic we recommend reading this

article through and then proceed to the reading of his theories as a form of summary or compendium.

Article

Summary of James Cummins theories: Summary


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5.1 Practice

Common Underlying Proficiency

Cummins believes that in the course of learning one language a child acquires a set of skills and implicit

metalinguistic knowledge that can be drawn upon when working in another language. This common

underlying proficiency (CUP), as he calls these skills and knowledge, is illustrated in the diagram below. It

can be seen that the CUP provides the base for the development of both the first language (L1) and thesecond language (L2). It follows that any expansion of CUP that takes place in one language will have a

beneficial effect on the other language(s). This theory also serves to explain why it becomes easier and

easier to learn additional languages.

Implications for mainstream teachers

It is very important that students be encouraged to continue their native language development. When

parents ask about the best ways they can help their child at home, you can reply that the child should have

the opportunity to read extensively in her own language. You could suggest that parents make some time

every evening to discuss with their child, in their native language, what she has done in school that day:

ask her to talk about the science experiment she did, question her about her understanding of primary and

secondary sources of historical information, have her explain how she has solved a math problem etc.

As Cummins (2000) states: "Conceptual knowledge developed in one language helps to make input in the

other language comprehensible." If a child already understands the concepts of "justice" or "honesty" in her

own language, all she has to do is acquire the label for these terms in English. She has a far more difficult

task, however, if she has to acquire both the label and the concept in her second language.

Task Difficulty

Cummins has devised a model whereby the different tasks we expect our students to engage in can be

categorized. In the diagram below tasks range in difficulty along one continuum from cognitively

undemanding to cognitively demanding; and along the other continuum from context-embedded to context-

reduced. A context-embedded task is one in which the student has access to a range of additional visual

and oral cues; for example he can look at illustrations of what is being talked about or ask questions to

confirm understanding. A context-reduced task is one such as listening to a lecture or reading dense text,

where there are no other sources of help than the language itself. Clearly, a D quadrant task, which is both

cognitively demanding and context- reduced, is likely to be the most difficult for students, particularly for

non-native speakers in their first years of learning English. However, it is essential that ESL students

develop the ability to accomplish such tasks, since academic success is impossible without it.


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Application:

Cummins invented vocabulary to describe this. Basic interpersonal communicative skill s(BICS) is

achieved first. Cognitive academic language proficiency(CALP) comes later. But how much later?

It takes two years or less to develop BICS. It takes five to seven years to develop CALP. While the child is

learning English, their native English-speaking peers are learning through English. If an ESL child is in an

immersion setting (in an English-speaking classroom), he will remain behind the native speakers for many

years. By the time he attains CALP, those native speakers have already learned more than he has. So he

has to catch up. In large scale studies, it took an average of seven years to catch up. We all know what an

average means, right? A lot of the kids took longer than seven years.

Stopping ESL support when the child gains BICS in English is dangerous. It might seriously harm the

child's academic development, especially if the child is in a very "square D" classroom.

Now, what makes a difference in the rate of second language acquisition?

-Quantity of language exposure (length of time, how much the child is paying attention)

-Quality of language exposure

-Child's age

-Cognitive abilities

-L1 literacy (literacy skills in the first language)

-Personality

-Personal confidence (are they willing to put themselves out there and be brave, trying to communicate in

the second language?)

-Motivation

We must never forget when applying CLIL to students that which we poited out at the beginning, that is,

Bloom's taxonomy of learning domains (Knowledge > Comprehension > Application > Analysis >

Synthesis). This provides a useful way of determining whether a task is demanding or undemanding. So

activities which fall within the category of Knowledge - such as collecting, naming, showing etc. - will

clearly be less demanding than Analysis activities such as comparing, explaining and inferring.

The degree to which a task is context-embedded depends on the number of channels of information

available to the student. So a student who listens to a news report on the radio has only one channel of

information - this is a context-reduced learning experience. Compare this with the student who reads a

report about the same event in a newspaper article which contains photographs and diagrams. The


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student can read at her own speed and has access to a dictionary. If she can also ask another student or

her parents to explain parts of the text, then she has many channels of information available to her. This is

clearly a context-embedded activity and as a result is much more manageable.

It is difficult to see the value of any tasks that are cognitively undemanding and context-reduced. Copying a

list of the kings and queens of England from a textbook to an exercise book is an example of such an

activity. It is sometimes called busy work.


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6. Learning vs acquisition: Stephen Krashen

Introduction

Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of

linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of hisrecent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language

acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books and articles

and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United

States and Canada.

This is a brief description of Krashen's widely known and well accepted theory of

second language acquisition, which has had a large impact in all areas of second

language research and teaching since the 1980s.

Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:

the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,

the Monitor hypothesis,

the Natural Order hypothesis,

the Input hypothesis,

and the Affective Filter hypothesis.

The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the

hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists andlanguage practitioners.

According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language

performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or

'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process

children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful

interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are

concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.

The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it

comprises a conscious process, which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the

language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning'


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is less important than 'acquisition'.

The Monitor hypothesisexplains the relationship between acquisition and learning

and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the

practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition

system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the

'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correctingfunction when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner

has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about

correctness, and he/she knows the rule.

It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language

performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be -

minor, being used only to correct deviations from 'normal' speech and to give speech

a more 'polished' appearance.

Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with

regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the

time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their

conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor'

appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's psychological profile

can help to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts are under-users,

while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is

frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'.

The Natural Orderhypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974;Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the

acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a

given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late.

This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of

exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always

100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the

existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that

the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus

should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical

sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.

The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a

second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second

language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with

'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and

progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is

one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner

is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible

Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of

linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative


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inputis the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will

receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic

competence.

Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's

view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in

second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and

anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good

self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second

language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can

combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents

comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is

'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but

not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.


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6.1 Practice

Read this pdf document to see how Krashen's theories can be brought into the language classroom. Click

here


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6.2 Task

Think of a communicative task where students are asked to put into practice something they have learned

by watching, listening or reading others do it. This task requires some human interaction to move from

"learning about something" to "acquiring knowledge through practice". Below, you have an example of a

task where students are asked to enact different situations using the language provided. You can use the

empty template from the link provided below and complete it with your own ideas.

Example of telephone conversationsEmpty template


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7. Advantages of plurilingualism

On the importance of CLIL in the context of the debate onplurilingual education in the European Union

Dieter Wolff

Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) has existed as a pedagogical concept

in European school systems for more than thirty years now. It can be traced back to

similar approaches in international and European schools. Common to all approaches is

the fact that a language other than the one most widely spoken is used to teach a fairly

restricted number of content subjects (geography, history, politics, social sciences etc.).

It should be noted that in almost all the countries in which CLIL exists it is seen not

simply as an approach to foreign language teaching but as an integrated form of teaching

content and language. Not only does the content subject provide content for the

language learning process; moreover, the fact that content is analysed from different

cultural perspectives offers opportunities for intercultural learning and thus gives a new

quality to classroom work. The experience available shows that both linguistic and

content subject competence can be promoted within this integrated concept more

effectively than when content and language are taught in isolation.

In the White Paper of 1995 the European Union has set itself an ambitious political goal,

i.e. to maintain and to promote plurilingualism among the citizens of itsmember states. In order to reach this goal, the education systems in Europe have to

look for new and better ways to secure and to improve the quality of foreign language

teaching and learning. The political goal of promoting plurilingualism cannot be attained

if member states still reduce language programmes in their school systems, for example

with respect to the number of languages or lessons per week. Although the European

year of languages has led to a new interest of the general public in questions of language

policy, it has neither changed the quality of foreign language teaching in the member

states nor the number of languages on offer.The concept of CLIL is highly relevant for the promotion of

plurilingualismand thus also for European language policy. The most important

reason is that it is a realistic and economic concept which could be implemented fairly


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quickly in all member states. There can be no doubt that a teacher who is expected to

teach in a CLIL class needs a specific kind of training which goes beyond the training of

a foreign language or content subject teacher.

Training programmes adapted to the needs of such teachers have already been

developed, however, and could quickly be implemented. And the European Union

could, in the context of the European mobility programmes, ensure that native speakers

of a specific language who have studied a content subject could teach this content

subject in another country in their own language.

Moreover, CLIL is a concept which opens new opportunities to restructure foreign

language programmes in school: the fact that content subjects are taught in a

foreign language would reduce the number of weekly hours necessary for

the teaching of the language used in a content subject. These hours can be used to

introduce more languages in the curriculum.

Most content subjects are not taught over the whole school cycle, which contributes to

reflecting more on the possibilities of reducing the teaching of a foreign language to a

smaller number of years. Better than traditional foreign language teaching programmes,

CLIL can contribute to offering a larger choice of languages in our schools

and thus enhance plurilingualism on a broader scale.

Another political reason for introducing CLIL in the mainstream school system should

be mentioned here. It is related to the European dimension in education. Working with

content in another language necessarily leads to considering this content from different

perspectives.

The history of Germany and France, for example, will be presented in a CLIL classroomboth from a German and a French angle, and this contributes to the development ofat

least a bidimensional perspective. In dealing with the political systems of the European

Union in politics a multiperspectival approach will be chosen, and through contrastive

analysis new insights will be gained in how these systems function. Thus through CLIL

learning results are obtained which go far beyond the mere promotion of linguistic

abilities and have a genuine effect on the development of understanding for our joint

European culture.

At this point the question arises how we can define the pedagogical potential of CLIL

with respect to improving the quality of foreign language learning. Empirical research

has shown that it is superior to traditional foreign language teaching and learning, but

also that this superiority has nothing to do with criteria of selection. CLIL is not an

elitist approach to language learning; it functions in all learning contexts and with all

learners.

In most empirical research the superiority of CLIL is attributed to the greater length of

exposure to the foreign language. The more and the longer students use the foreign

language, the better they learn it. Undoubtedly the time factor plays an important role in

learning a foreign language; it is, however, not the only reason for the CLIL learners

greater success. The pedagogical potential of CLIL is not restricted to the time factor,

but includes other factors which are equally important.


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The predominant among these factors is that CLIL provides a learning environment

which makes it possible to realise modern learning theoretical and methodological

concepts in an optimal way:

(1) The concept of authenticity relates both to content and interaction. In contrast to

traditional language teaching, learners in a CLIL classroom work with the authentic

contents of the content subject; in contrast to the traditional classroom, learners interact

in the foreign language about the real world around them. This authentic use of the

foreign language promotes the language learning process much more than talking about

the pseudoreal and fictitious contents of the traditional language classroom.

(2) Methodologically, CLIL is strongly geared towards learning strategies and

techniques: in the history or geography classroom, for example, techniques like

analyzing tables, maps or diagrams, or reading historical sources are applied and thus

learned.

These strategies are highly important for language learning as well and can lead the

learner to a certain degree of independence. Learner autonomy as the highest goal in alleducation is based to a large extent on the mastery of learning strategies and study skills.

(3) The topics relevant in the content and language classroom help learners understand

the relevance of forms of collaboration which are unknown in the traditional classroom,

for example group work or project work. These forms of social learning are regarded as

being highly successful in language learning as well.

On the whole, then, CLIL creates a learning environment which corresponds much

better to modern pedagogical principles than do traditional learning environments. The

classroom is seen as a learning laboratory, a place in which learners and teachers jointlywork in projects, a place in which the different subjects are not divided arbitrarily and

taught in isolation, but are seen as a complex whole, a place of autonomous learning in

which the learners deal independently with the learning content. This classroom, about

which modern pedagogues only dream at present, becomes more realistic within a CLIL

environment. The true pedagogical potential of CLIL does not lie in the promotion of

foreign language learning alone but in the power it exerts to change our encrusted

educational structures.

Within such a learning environment it will also be possible to reach the goal which is

defined in the 1995 White Paper and which many people still regard as utopian:

trilingualism for all citizens of the European Union. The classroom as a learning

laboratory a pedagogical concept incorporated in the CLIL approach is far better

suited than mainstream pedagogical concepts to provide for the learners different

aptitudes. If CLIL were implemented in our educational systems, the idea of languages

and language learning as something reserved only for an elite could quickly be

abandoned.

( " "

)


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7.1 Practice

Take a look at the following classroom projects using several languages form the EU: CLICK HERE

Advantages of CLIL in a plurilingual curriculum


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8. Questions

PROGRESS TEST

In order to move on to the next unit you will have to take a progress test made up of 10 questions on the

above topics. You need to get 80% or more of correct answers so that the next unit lights up. In the case

that you score under 80%, you can try again with a new set of questions. You can attempt the "progress

test" as many times as you wish.

Documents

Knowledge Theories Supporting CLIL