KERN Et Al. Pedo-geochemical Signatures of Archeological Sites, 2015

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R e s e a r c h A r t i c l e

Pedo-Geochemical Signatures of Archeological Sites in theTapirap e-Aquiri National Forest in Maraba, Amazonia, Brazil

Dirse Clara Kern,1 Jucilene Amorim Costa,2,*Maura Imazio da Silveira,1 Elisangela Regina de Oliveira,1

Francisco J. Lima Frazao,1

Jos e Francisco Berredo,1

Marcondes Lima da Costa,3

and Nestor Kampf4

1Departamento de Ciencia da Terra e Ecologia, Museu Paraense Emlio Goeldi, Bel em-Pa, Brazil2Coordenacao de Geografia, Universidade Federal do Amap a, Macap a-Ap, Brazil3Instituto de Geociencias, Universidade Federal do Par a, Bel em- Pa, Brazil4Departamento de Solos, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil

Correspondence

*Corresponding author: E-mail:

[email protected]

Received

20 May 2013Revised

5 February 2015

Accepted

10 February 2015

Scientific editing by Astolfo Araujo

Published online in Wiley Online Library

(wileyonlinelibrary.com).

doi 10.1002/gea.21528

The present study aims to interpret the occupation of terra firme (nonflooded

uplands) archeological sites located at Tapirape-Aquiri National Forest in the

Brazilian state of Par a, through an integrated analysis of pedological, arche-

ological, and geochemical data. We focus on seven archaeological sites, se-

lected among 22 identified in the region. Radiocarbon and thermolumines-cence dating indicate distinct periods of occupation over the past 6000 years,

and the pedo-geochemical data identify intra- and inter-site differences in soil.

Archaeological, chronometric, and pedo-geochemical data provide a basis for

the functional classification of archeological sites found in the region and help

to identify specific human activity areas. The results lead us to infer that many

of the archeological sites were the result of multiple occupations that left a

persistent pedological signature on the landscape. C 2015 Wiley Periodicals,

Inc.

INTRODUCTION

Geochemical analyses have been used to identify arche-

ological sites, define the extent of past human activities,

and aid in the interpretation of the use of space (Grif-

fith, 1981; Costa & Kern, 1999; Wells et al., 2000; Terry

et al., 2004; Eberl et al., 2012). However, interpreta-

tions of chemical distributional patterns in archeological

soils may be hindered by site-use complexity and post-

depositional pedogenic processes (Kern & Kampf, 2005).

Impacts to soil resulting from human activities may be

derived from multiple re-occupations of the site, and

include the remains of constructions, food-preparation

sites, fires, garbage pits, the production of lithic or ce-

ramic utensils, agriculture, irrigation practices, and otheractivities (Smith, 1980, Heckenberger et al., 2003; Kip-

nis, Caldarelli, & Oliveira, 2005; Neves, 2008; Machado,

2009; S anchez-Perez et al., 2013). Common chemical el-

ements added to soil by these human activities include C,

N, P, Ca, and in smaller quantities, K, Mg, S, Cu, Mn, and

Zn (Holliday, 2004:298303).

Addition of organic material to soil derived from plant

and animal remains as a result of past human activities

is commonly recognized by dark coloration (dark brown

to black) in the uppermost horizons. Indian Dark Earth

or Archeological Dark Earth (ADE) is the most notable

example of this feature in the Amazon Basin. Dark col-

oration, derived from the presence of organic material,

has been used to identify archeological sites. In addi-

tion to their elevated carbon content, Amazonian ADE

soils commonly contain archeological remains, primarily

in the form of ceramic fragments, and high concentra-

tions of P and C, contrasting considerably with surround-

ing natural soils. High concentrations of P, Ca, Zn, Cu,

and Mg are commonly associated with deposits of char-

coal residues, bones, and feces, associated with habita-

tions, fires for food preparation, and garbage pits. In this

sense, the ADEs are habitation sites at which the depthand extent of the area occupied are related to the time

span of occupation, the type of past human activities, and

the size of the local population (number of individuals in-

habiting the site).

This anthro-pedogenic process may be associated with

or occur within extensive areas of more lightly-colored

soil, which may also have relatively high concentrations

of organic material, but lower levels of P and Ca, as well

430 Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 30 (2015) 430451 Copyright C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.


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KERN ET AL. GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA

as lower artifact densities. These soils, known as Terra

Mulata (TM), are thought to be the result of past agri-

cultural activities, in particular the frequent use of fires

to clear vegetation resulting in the production of py-

rogenic charcoal (Sombroek, 1966; Mora et al., 1991;

Woods, McCann, & Meyer, 2000; McCann, Woods, &

Meyer, 2001). Smaller sites with low density archeolog-ical remains, and lower concentrations of the chemical

elements mentioned above, have been interpreted as

campsites associated with temporary habitation of short

duration (Silveira et al., 2008, 2009).

A recurring theme in the discussion of prehistoric

human occupation of the Amazon Basin has been the

mobility, origin, population density, and the social and

political complexity of indigenous residents. According

to Meggers (1996), scarcity of natural resources is the

limiting factor for subsistence and thus to the expan-

sion of indigenous populations, hindering their evolu-

tion toward more complex and stratified societies. Arche-

ological research over the past few decades has never-

theless demonstrated diverse human subsistence strate-

gies beginning with mobile Paleoindian foragers and

culminating in the Pre-Colonial Period with relatively

densely populated and complex indigenous societies,

such as those of Maraj o and Santar em (Roosevelt, 1994,

2002).

Current research that integrates ethnoarchaeological,

zooarchaeological, paleobotanical (e.g., charcoal, phy-

toliths, starch grains, diatoms, pollen, and other mi-

crovestiges), pedological, and geochemical data indicate

not only a systematic human adaptation to the tropical

environment, but also the management and even do-mestication of cultigens, confirming more dynamic in-

teractions and cultural exchanges between these ancient

groups than previously assumed (Roosevelt, 2002; Heck-

enberger et al., 2003; Kipnis, Caldarelli, & Oliveira, 2005;

Almeida, 2008; Neves, 2008; Silveira et al., 2008, 2009;

Oliveira & Silveira 2009a; Machado, 2009; Caromano,

2010; Cascon, 2010; among others). As a contribution

to this ongoing debate, the present study analyzes the

occupation patterns of terra firme archeological sites in

the Tapirape-Aquiri National Forest based on the spatial

distribution of chemical elements in the soil. We inte-

grate pedological, archeological, and geochemical data to

demonstrate human contributions to the pedogenic mo-

saic of the Amazon Basin and what it means with respect

to past human settlement.

STUDY AREA

The study area is located in the eastern portion of

the Tapirape-Aquiri National Forest (FLONATA) in the

municipality of Maraba (MC 51 coordinates between

55249.592S, 504134.251W and 54157.514S,

502519.278W), Carajas region, approximately 600 km

south of the city of Bel em, capital of the Brazilian

state of Par a (Figure 1). The reserve covers a total area

of approximately 80,000 km, which is drained mainly

by the Salobo, Mirim, and Cinzento Rivers, all tribu-taries of the Itacai unas River (Figure 2; Silveira et al.,

2009).

Recent paleoenvironmental studies from the Carajas

region (Hermanowski et al., 2012; Hermanowski, Costa,

& Behling, 2014) indicate that stable and extremely hu-

mid conditions at the beginning of the Holocene led

to rainforest expansion. Subsequently, during the mid-

Holocene, the Amazon Basin was affected by much

warmer and drier climate which shifted plant community

boundaries over the past 3400 years to form the trop-

ical rainforest as it is known today. Witness to this late

Holocene biogeographic reorganization were prehistoric

ceramist peoples, thus complicating the discrimination

between natural and cultural environmental changes.

The ADEs developed within this cultural and climatic

regime. Today the local climate is typical of the humid

tropics, with high temperatures and humidity, consistent

with the Awi category of the Koppen classification sys-

tem, that is, humid tropical with annual precipitation of

20002400 mm. Mean monthly temperatures vary be-

tween 24.3C and 28.3C (Rolim et al., 2006). There are

two well-defined seasonsa dry season between June

and November, and a rainy season between December

and May. Geologically, the area is part of the Amazo-

nian Carajas Mineral Province, characterized by the heav-ily folded and faulted Precambrian rocks of the Serra

dos Caraj as massif, with a mean altitude of around 700

m above sea level (asl), which is composed of flattened

residual hilltops dissected by deep valleys (IBGE, 1974).

Soils are dominated by Ferralsols (Latosols) and Acrisols,

also known as Argisols (IUSS Working Group WRB,

2006), over which human-altered soils (Anthrosols) have

developed.

The study area is dominated by different environ-

ment types, including open submontane rainforest with

palms, dense submontane rainforest, and alluvial rain-

forest. The predominant tree species include the Brazil-

nut (Bertholletia excelsa) and the horse-eye bean tree

(Ormosia paraensis), as well as the andiroba (Carapa guia-

nensis), copaba (Copaifera multijuga), and the babacu palm

(Orbignya speciosa). Fauna are diverse, with many mam-

mal, bird, reptile, amphibian, and fish species, as well as

insects. These species tend to concentrate in the alluvial

forests and hillsides, rather than the hilltops (Brandt Meio

Ambiente, 1998, 2003). This presumably accounts for the

concentration of archeological sites in the former areas,

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 30 (2015) 430451 Copyright C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 431


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GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA KERN ET AL.

Figure 1 Location of the Salobo study area in northern Brazil.

that is, greater biodiversity provides more favorable con-

ditions for human subsistence.

Overall, the study area encompasses an extensive hy-

drographic network dominated by forests with heteroge-

nous local microclimates supporting a diversity of plant

and animal life. These factors favored the establish-

ment of human settlements over at least the past 3400

years.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES ANDMATERIALS

Twenty-two archeological sites were identified within the

study area, located within three separate hydrological

basins of the Salobo, Mirim, and Cinzento Rivers. Twelve

sites were identified in an area of 11 km 2 within the Sa-

lobo River Basin, whereas five sites were identified in an

area of 7 km2 and 3 km2 within the Cinzento and Mirim

River Basins, respectively (Figure 2). Archaeological sitesare located primarily in low elevation areas and alluvial

deposits along the margins of rivers and streams at alti-

tudes below 170 m asl. Exceptions include sites 4 Alfa and

P32 which are found on hilly terrain at altitudes of 175

300 m asl. All the sites are delimited by natural features,

such as hill slopes, springs, and bends and meanders in

water courses (Silveira & Rodrigues, 2009; Silveira et al.,

2009).

During initial fieldwork (Silveira et al., 2007,

2008, 2009; Oliveira & Silveira 2009a; Silveira &

Rodrigues, 2009), it was possible to establish a functional

classification system for the settlements, based on their

size, depth, and other evidence such as soil color and the

abundance and distribution of archaeological remains.

According to this system, all sites were classified as habi-

tation or camp sites. Habitation sites are characterizedby large boundaries (26,00086,000+ m), thick (60

150 cm) archaeological layers, patches of ADE (Munsell

values 4 and color categories black, very dark brown,

very dark grayish brown, and very dark reddish brown),

and large quantities of ceramics and other archeological

remains, both at and below the surface, concentrated in

specific areas of the settlement. Camp sites also contain

ceramics but are smaller in area (


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Figure 2 Topographic map of archeological sites and other features within the Salobo study area.

METHODS

Fieldwork

Fieldwork was conducted in a series of stages, start-ing with the identification of each archeological site and

recording UTM coordinates using a handheld GPS, geo-

referenced to the South America 69 datum (Silveira

& Rodrigues, 2009). Experimental probes1 were dug

in selected areas, including marginal sites, in order to

1These probes were small excavations of 50 cm 50 cm or 1 m 1 m, which in some cases were placed over pre-existing holes

made by animals or trees to minimize impact.

document stratigraphy and occurrence of in situ remains

as well as better determine site boundaries.

Based on site and topographic surveys, a 1 m 1 m

grid was established in each area, and units were selected

for excavation (trenches, sections, probes, and/or profiles,

as required) in such a way as to provide the most rep-

resentative sample and help define the distribution and

density of the archeological remains. The selection of ar-

eas for excavation was based on the presence or absence

of patches of darker soil and the density of archeologi-

cal remains, both on the surface and at depth. In areas of

ADE or darker soil, the melanized patches were counted



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Table I Sites selected for the present study including presence/absence

of Archaeological Dark Earth.

Area (ha)

Archeological

Site Site Type

Maximum

Depth (m)

Presence

of ADE Total ADEs

Bitoca 1 Habitation 1.50 Yes 9.00 0.17

Bitoca 2 Habitation 0.70 Yes 6.25 0.05

Cachorro Cego Habitation 0.60 Yes 20.62 0.02

Alex Habitation 0.60 Noa 24.00 0.00

Mirim Habitation 0.60 Noa 12.50 0.00

Barfi Camp site 0.30 No 0.24 0.00

4 Alfa Camp site 0.30 No 0.48 0.00

ADE: Archeological Dark Earth.aContain patches of darker soil, which do not satisfy the color criteria of

the dark ADE soils, associated with high concentrations of archeological

remains.

and measured, as were areas between the patches and

boundaries of each archeological site.Topographic survey of the sites was based on orthopho-

tomaps with 1 m contours. This approach was comple-

mented using a TOPCON total station for the identifica-

tion of reference points for each site, such as streams,

springs, rocky outcrops, stands of Brazil-nut and acai

palm, and archaeological excavations. Subdata were es-

tablished in relation to the topography of the surface in

order to provide better control of the stratigraphy and lo-

cation of the archeological remains (Silveira & Rodrigues,

2009).

The excavation sites, labeled E, were plotted with a

1 m 1 m grid, with each cell considered to be a sec-

tor (S). The surface layer of these sites was searched sys-

tematically and sectors were selected for excavation. Ex-

cavated areas were referenced by the excavation site (E)

identified by its respective number, followed by the sector

(S) number. For example, 13 patches of ADE were found

at site Bitoca 1 and were coded A through M for exca-

vation (Figure 4). In order to ensure a conclusive under-

standing of the characteristics of each ADE patch, excava-

tions were conducted within and around each patch, and

in the surrounding area (between patches), as shown in

the case of excavation 1 (Figure 5). In the case of patch A,

for example, eight sectors (E1S1E1S8) were excavated

within a total area measuring 14 m 9 m. Sectors E1S1,

E1S2, and E1S3, located outside the ADE, were charac-

terized by lighter colored soil, with few archeological re-

mains. In sectors E1S4, E1S5, E1S6, and E1S7, located inthe transition zone, more cultural remains were found,

and the soil is slightly darker. Sector E1S8, located in the

ADE patch, was characterized by the largest quantity of

archeological remains (Figure 6).

In addition to excavations by sector, trenches of vary-

ing sizes (1.0 m 0.50 m, 1 m 3 m, 1 m 5 m, and

so on) were dug at selected sites, and were identified by

T (Trench). These trenches were established in order to

obtain a better understanding of the pattern of occupa-

tion and define areas of ADE or darker soil, as well as

complementary samples of archeological remains. Some

of these trenches were excavated contiguously, following

the archeological layers defined in the principal excava-

tions (Figure 7). Areas peripheral to the settlement sites

were also excavated.

During the delimitation of ADE patches, profiles were

drawn, on which the color of the soil and the occurrence

of archeological remainsverified using boreholes2 at

1 m intervals following the cardinal compass points

were noted. The excavation of sectors, probes, and

trenches was conducted by stripping down the natural

layers (Kneip et al., 1991) following the stratigraphy of

the terrain, which permitted the identification of changes

in the archeological levels. The natural levels are defined

by sediments whereas archaeological levels are indicatedby changes in cultural material. Each level was numbered

and named accorded to its most prominent characteristic.

In the excavations (sectors and trenches), subdata were

established in order to more accurately measure the

2Initially, a simple articulated auger was used to dig the bore-

holes, but during later fieldwork, an Eijkelcamp soil core sampler

(04.06.06 mineral gouge auger, 13 mm diameter, total length

110 cm, graduation of 5 cm) was used.

Figure 3 Excavation units and examples of soils. (a) Bitoca 1habitation site with Archaeological Dark Earth; (b) Alexhabitation site without Archaeo-

logical Dark Earth; (c) Barficamp site without Archaeological Dark Earth. Photography C Maura I Silveira.



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Figure 4 Distribution of Archaeological Dark Earth patches found the Bitoca 1 site.

depth and configuration of the layers, and the material

found in situ. Assessment of the vertical (temporal) and

horizontal (spatial) parameters and the resulting arche-

ological evidence (depth and location) is fundamentally

important for the contextualization of the archeological

samples. The excavation of different sectors within each

site permitted the definition of areas used for specific ac-

tivities, trails, and peripheral zones.

Archeological strata were identified, described, and

drawn based on stratigraphic profiles and excavations,

that is, sedimentary characteristics and the incidence

and distribution of archeological remains. This procedure

helped provide a detailed understanding of occupational

history at each site.

A Munsell (1964) chart was used to document soil

color. The layers were excavated and defined according

soil characteristics (e.g., color, compaction, moisture con-

tent, etc.) and the archeological evidence they contained

(e.g., presence/absence of remains, increase/decrease in

remains, specific features, and structures). In addition to

the archeological material, soil samples were collected by

level in a vertical column, and horizontally from the cen-

ter of the patch outwards. Archaeological remains were

maintainedin situ, as long as possible for documentation.

All excavated sediments were sieved (and 1/8 mm) and

the material recovered was stored separately from the re-

mains foundin situ.

All data were recorded on standard data forms (bore-

holes, probes, excavation, sector or trench, level, pol-

ishers), and combined with photographic and illustrated

documentation. The latter included drawings of specific

features or structures, with each object or group of objects



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Figure 5 Excavations within Archaeological Dark Earth Patch A at the Bitoca 1 site Photography C Maura I Silveira.

extracted from these soil patches numbered and stored

separately (Silveira & Rodrigues, 2009).

Chemical Analysis and Dating

Soil samples were air dried, crushed, divided into four

subsamples, ground in an agate mortar, and passed

through a


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Figure 7 Trenches excavated at the Bitoca 2 site. Photography C Maura I Silveira.

Ltd. (Geosol, 2013; also see Holliday & Gartner, 2007;

Hutson et al., 2009). The mean concentrations of P2O5,

CaO, MgO, K2O, Cu, Mn, and Zn are much higher in

the ADEs, and represent a geochemical signature as rec-

ognized by Kern (1996), Costa and Kern (1999), Gof-

fer (2007), and Costa, Costa, and Kern (2013). Statistical

procedures (scatter plot and cluster analysis) were con-

ducted in Statistica (version 6.0).

Archaeological sites were dated using 14C and ther-

moluminescence (TL) methods. Charcoal collected from

archeological sites was submitted to Beta Analytic, Inc.

and dated using a particle accelerator coupled to a mass

spectrometer. Dates were calibrated with the INTCAL04

radiocarbon age calibration database (Talma & Vogel,

1993). Quartz-grain TL dating of ceramics was performed

by the laboratory at Datacao, Com ercio & Prestacao de

Servico Ltda., using the accumulated and annual dose

methods (Aitken, 1985, 1990).

RESULTS

Archeology and Chronology

In general terms, the most common ceramic material

found at the sites was hand-built by the coiling method

with crushed rock used as temper. The use of black, red,

and white pigments for the decoration of the vessels was

less common than the application of plastic decoration

alterations of the still-pliable surface using either tools

and/or handsof which the most common types were

incisions, brushing, scraping, nail marks fingernail punc-

tate, stippling punctate, roll-marks coiled, and stamps

(Figure 8). A number of items were found in addition to

fragments of vessels, such as spindle whorls, balls of clay,

and appliqu es (zoomorphic and anthropomorphic) used

to decorate utensils or function as inhalers.

The technological, morphological, and stylistic charac-

teristics of the ceramic material were generally consis-

tent with the Tupiguarani tradition (Figueiredo, 1965;

Brochado, 1981; Prous, 1992). However, a number of

the ceramic artifacts present production techniques and

decorationssuch as modeled zoomorphic and anthro-

pomorphic appliqu esthat are similar to those observed

on objects commonly found in the region of the Tapaj osRiver basin (Roosevelt, 1987; Gomes, 2008). This is in ad-

dition to certain types of decoration (incisions and punc-

tated) and dating consistent with the Santar em culture of

the 10th and 11th centuries A.D., indicating a relation-

ship with this culture.

The most common chipped stone artifacts were flakes

and scrapers made of quartz, quartzite, and silexite. The

polished material consists of axe blades, diggers, and



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Figure 8 Ceramic artifacts from study area include modeled zoomorphic (a: 4 Alfa site; b: Mirim site) and anthropomorphic appliqu es (c: Bitoca 1 site).

Photography C Maura I Silveira.

adornments (Figure 9). In addition to these artifacts, par-

tially made stone beads and pendants representing var-

ious stages of the production process (Figure 9) were

found at the ADE habitation sites (Rodet et al., 2014).

In the habitation sites, the irregular distribution ofarcheological material associated with variations in soil

color allowed for the identification of distinct activity ar-

eas, with different functions or uses. As mentioned, these

sites present patches of ADE or darker soils of variable

dimensions (the smallest at the Cachorro Cego site mea-

suring 3 m 3 m and the largest at Bitoca 1 site measur-

ing 20 m 15 m), and differences in the age and thick-

ness of the cultural layer. Within archaeological sites, 80

ADE patches were identified and most of them were ex-

cavated. Archaeological refuse is more abundant in the

center of each patch, where the ADE is deeper, becom-

ing shallower on the borders. The ADE patches tend to

have a large and diverse assemblage of ceramics and lithic

materials, the latter including polished axe blades and

adornos, quartz, quartzite and silexite and Scrapers, and

iron oxide probably used for red pigments. Also present

are large amounts of charcoal, post holes, and bonfires re-

mains (concentration of burned clay and stones, ceram-

ics, ashes, carbonized seeds, animal bones, and teeth).

Archaeological remains suggest that the ADE patches

were ancient houses/habitation structures, where people

executed diverse daily activities such as food preparation,

craft production (lithic, ceramic, and organic artifacts),

among others (Silveira et al., 2007, 2008, 2009; Pereiraet al., 2008; Silveira & Oliveira, 2010a,b, 2011; Oliveira

& Silveira, 2010, 2011). The soil is lighter and more com-

pact in areas between different ADE patches. In these ar-

eas, the archaeological layer is thinner with lower density

archaeological remains. At the sites Bitoca 1 and 2, both

located at the bank of Salobo River, polishing areas were

recorded in basaltic rocks.

Archeological remains and chronometric evidence in-

dicate that the overlap of dark soil or ADE patches are

the result of relocating huts or re-occupation of the sites

(Table II). The habitation sites were established by seden-

tary groups that subsisted by hunting, fishing, the gather-

ing of fruit, and probably some agriculture. Natural re-

sources were gathered from strategic areas, where the

archeological evidence indicates a less intense pattern of

occupation over shorter periods, with these areas being

referred to here as camp sites.

While the ceramics encountered during the present

study are generally consistent with the Tupiguarani

Figure 9 Stone artifacts from study area include(a) axe blades (shown in situ) atthe Barfi Site, (b) pendantand (c) unfinished stone beads, both from the

Bitoca 1 Site. Photography C Maura I Silveira.



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Table II Chronological summary of archeological site occupations analyzed in the presentstudy, based on thermoluminescence and 14C dating (source:

Silveira et al., 2008). See Supplemental Table S1 for full list of numerical ages.

Site Occupations Calibrated 14 C Agesa (Beta no .) Th ermolumi nescence Agesb (FATEC no.)

Barfi (campsite) Oldest 1150 127 (LVD 1258)

Intermediate

Youngest 600 50 (LVD 1257)

4 Alfa (campsite) Oldest 2450 300 (LVD 1487)Intermediate 13201240 cal. yr B.P. (217608)

Youngest 650520 cal. yr B.P. (217609)

Bitoca 1 (habitation) Oldest 12501050 cal. yr B.P. (195709)

Intermediate 1060920 cal. yr B.P. (195708)



Bitoca 2 (habitation) Oldest 1300 170 (LVD 1259)

Intermediate 540440 and 350340 cal. yr B.P. (227308)

Intermediate 640590 and 560500 cal. yr B.P. (227309)


Cachorro Cego (habitation) Oldest 53105040 cal. yr B.P. (243652)



Alex (habitation) Oldest 27302360 cal. yr B.P. (217593) Intermediate 16201480 and 14701430 cal. yr B.P. (217592)


Mirim (habitation) Oldest 67106430 cal. yr B.P. (217602)





aCalibrated 14C ages are years before A.D. 1950 and providedat twosigma;provide calibration dataset reference (e.g., INTCAL04;Talma & Vogel, 1993).bThermoluminescence ages are years before year of analysis.

tradition, the diversity of material culture indicates a rel-

atively complex scenario for the region. Contemporarydating, as well as the technological and decorative as-

pects of some ceramic artifacts are consistent with the

incised-dotted tradition of the ceramic industries found

in the regions of Santarem and Trombetas (Guapindaia,

1993, 2008; Gomes, 2002; Pereira et al., 2008; Silveira &

Oliveira, 2010b; Oliveira & Silveira, 2009b, 2010, 2011).

Radiocarbon and TL results indicate 6000 years of oc-

cupation within the study area (Table II). Most sites date

to the ceramic period. However, four sitesMirim, Mari-

naldo, Cachorro Cego, and Abrahambelong to a much

older period contemporary with cave sites in the Caraj as

region, farther south, where some of the earliest dates

for colonization of the Amazon basin have been recorded

(Hilbert & Barreto, 1988; Lopes, Silveira, & Magalhaes,

1988; Silveira, 1994; Roosevelt et al., 1996).

Soil Geochemical Characteristics

Archaeological sites with ADE patches are character-

ized by higher concentrations of P, Ca, Mg, and Mn in

comparison with peripheral areas (Figure 10; Table III). In

addition, statistical analyses indicate a clear separation of

habitation sites with ADE, habitation sites without ADE,and camps (Figure 11a). The three types of site are also

clearly separated when the full set of elements is ana-

lyzed (Figure 11b). In this analysis, Group 1, which rep-

resents the habitation sites with ADE, is isolated from the

other sites, while Group 2 (habitation sites without ADE)

and Group 3 (camps) are separate, but more closely re-

lated than either is to Group 1 (Figure 11b). The highest

and lowest levels of P were recorded in the ADEs of the

Bitoca 2 (B2) and Cachorro Cego (CC) sites, respectively.

In addition, the mean and minimum levels of P at the

sites without ADE (Barfi, 4 Alfa, Alex, and Mirim) were

higher than those of the ADE at the sites Bitoca 1 (B1)

and Cachorro Cego. The lowest Ca levels were recorded

in the peripheral areas of sites Bitoca 1 and 2, while the

lowest mean levels of K were found at Bitoca 1. Mag-

nesium levels were irregular, with both the highest and

lowest concentrations recorded in the ADEs.

Campfires associated with the occupations generated

charcoal and ash, the latter containing high levels of P,

K, and Ca. Excavations in the ADE patches revealed ar-

eas of probable food preparation and consumption and



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Figure 10 Mean concentrations of chemical elements at (a) sites with Archaeological Dark Earth (ADE) soils, and (b) sites without ADE soils.

disposal of waste. The analyzed samples of these ar-

eas presented high concentrations of P and Ca. Ar-

eas adjacent to the archaeological sites showed lower

concentrations of these elements, although these lev-

els are still higher than those in the surrounding un-

occupied areas (Middleton, 2004; Terry et al., 2004).

This indicates that the formation of ADEs at the habi-

tation sites may have been related to the prepara-

tion (campfires) and processing of foods (remains of

fish or game, fruits, vessels, etc.), residues of in-

gested foodstuffs (excrement), and burials (human re-

mains, urns, vestments, etc.), in addition to other ac-

tivities (Neves et al., 2003). The processing of foods

and the continuous burning of refuse are probably an

important source of organic material resulting from in-

complete combustion (pyrogenic carbon, charcoal). Left-

overs such as fish and game bones are especially rich in P

and Ca (Lima et al., 2002; Lehmann et al., 2003). Cook-

ing vessels often present high concentrations of P, derived

from the preparation of foods rich in this element, such

as fish (Costa et al., 2006). Palm leaves, which are used

to thatch shelters, and are renewed periodically, may also

be an important source of K, Ca, Mg, Zn, and Mn for the

ADEs (Kern et al., 1999).

Of all the elements analyzed in this study, the levels of

P and Ca (and to a lesser extent, Mg) are the most closely

related to human activities. In general, higher concen-

trations of the analyzed elements were found in the



12/22


Table

III

GeochemicalsignaturesofthearcheologicalsitesintheSalobostudyare

a.Unitsaremilligram/kilogram

unlessotherwisenoted.

Sites(Number

ofSamples)

Bitoca1ADEs

(33)

Bitoca1

Periphery(13)

Bitoca2ADEs

(27)

Bito

ca2

Periph

ery(3)

CachorroCego

ADE(7)

CachorroCego

Periphery(13)

Alex(19)

Mirim

(56)

Barfi(

8)

4Alfa(12)

Al2O3

(%)

9.46

3.00

8.30

1.14

9.54

2.0

12.53

3.26

20.50

7.30

16.50

6.00

10.86

2.85

6.52

1.20

5.75

1.02

7.2

0.931

5.0017.30

7.309.50

6.5314.63

8.76

14.6

12.0029.00

6.3026.00

7.2915.57

3.878.96

4.167

.55

5.88.5

Fe2O3

(%)

4.40

1.20

4.10

0.34

5.60

1.25

8.03

2.10

6.00

2.19

7.60

2.40

7.70

1.53

7.72

1.18

7.00

1.18

11

2.1

2.807.14

3.704.40

2.717.73

7.10

10.4

3.608.60

4.2011.00

5.6811.41

4.851042

5.419

.12

5.113

P2O5

1170

726

843

353

3836

2313

2569

2560

799

300

769

94

1656

1088

1198

350

1493

266

1770

266

3183412

3641410

3629517

435

5409

6001401

7001000

7725182

6572045

10881

791

14312256

CaO

3968

3184

2410

1700

2885

3476

1421

442

1301

1374

592

1007

2971

2581

3406

2319

3116

2885

2329

2134

62013,243

8616697

53012,583

861

2152

4004004

2003904

7619790

91310,715

59890

74

5447490

MgO

761

232

576

217

995

342

588

83

658

97

761

199

873

84

945

215

1648

267

745

260

3111242

280932

5911904

491

641

501802

5011202

5811363

6661900

13092

014

4961207

K2O

737

98

715

112

1321

359

1370

71

1280

157

3013

1664

1118

994

1606

227

2813

276

1063

158

547926

568926

6182261

1295

1434

10961594

8304648

6315071

11732315

22643

121

9161517

Mn

524

161

459

147

430

173

616

71

442

230

580

362

858

215

3182

442

2210

143

2382

186

196798

318693

235776

534

659

264768

2401248

4281033

21714488

19742

462

21252782

Cu

69

12

62

10

84

13

110

19

na

na

167

43

72

12

127

18

357

117

51105

4477

54107

80

117

105262

44101

1011

58

36463

Zn

53

12

43

6

49

9

46

5

na

na

46

5

96

13

76

10

20

13

3476

3156

3666

41

50

3856

75149

619

0

1362

ADE:ArcheologicalDarkEarth;na:notanalyzed.



13/22


Figure 11 Multielemental analysis of the three archaeological site types: (a) ternary diagram displaying habitation sites with Archaeological Dark Earth

(ADE; Bitoca 2), habitation sites without ADE (Alex), and camp sites (Barfi); (b) cluster analysis of habitation sites with ADE (B1Bitoca 1), habitation sites

without ADE (Mirim), and camp sites (4 Alfa).

upper solum or near-surface (anthropogenic soil layer),

decreasing down the soil profile, as shown in Figure 12a.

In this case, the highest levels of P and Ca were normally

associated with the highest concentrations of archeolog-

ical remains, in particular ceramic fragments. The high

levels of Ca found in the exchangeable complexes of the



14/22


Figure 12 Vertical distributions of (a) P andCa in soil profiles atCachorro Cego,(b) Zn and Mnin soil profiles atBitoca 1,and (c) Mn and Cu in soil profiles

at Alex.

ADEs may relate to the pronounced humification of these

soils, which favors biological activity, making the organicmaterial less soluble, and thus forming more stable aggre-

gates (Lima et al., 2002).

Higher P levels were found in subsurface layers of

the ADEs at Bitoca 1 (3400 mg/kg) and Bitoca 2

(9500 mg/kg), as well as parts of Alex (5200 mg/kg),

whereas the concentrations in peripheral areas at all

sites ranged 10005400 mg/kg. The higher P levels were

generally associated with higher levels of Ca. Phospho-

rus levels varied irregularly with depth in the ADEs but

more systematically in peripheral areas. A similar patternwas recorded in ADE profiles in Melgaco and Oriximin a,

also in Par a (Kern & Kampf, 1989, 2005; Kern, 1996).

The lower P levels recorded at Cachorro Cego may re-

flect a shorter or less intense occupation at this site. The

other Salobo sites have mean P levels higher than the

ones recorded in ADE at Manduquinha in Caxiuana, an-

other site in Par a, where a mean level of 1000 mg/kg

was recorded in the surface layer (Costa & Kern, 1999).



15/22


Calcium also occurs at high levels in Solobo (mean of

3968 mg/kg in the surface layer), showing a similar pat-

tern to that observed in other places of the Amazonia,

such as 3000 mg/kg at ADE-2 in Juruti and even higher

levels on the order of 6300 mg/kg in the surface layer at

Manduquinha in Caxiuana (Kern, 1996; Costa & Kern,

1999; Costa, Costa, & Kern, 2013).Phosphorus concentrations are irregularly distributed

in the soil profiles, whereas those of Ca and Mg decrease

regularly, and K varied little with depth. Given the low

mobility of P in soil, this irregular pattern appears to re-

flect temporal variation within the deposits, that is, or-

ganic material left during successive periods of occupa-

tion. Differences between sites in P and Ca levels are

probably a reflection of variations in the levels of human

activities, in terms of the intensity, type, and duration of

re-occupations. It is interesting to note that concentra-

tions of these elements are also relatively high in the pe-

ripheral areas, often being higher than those recorded in

the patches of ADE. While archeological material is much

scarcer in these areas, the levels of these chemical el-

ements suggest that the disposal of organic residues by

the local inhabitants may have been spread over a much

wider area. The geochemical signatures at the campsites

(Barfi and 4 Alfa) also indicate the disposal of significant

quantities of organic waste by indigenous residents, even

though archeological material is relatively scarce, and the

occupation layer is not deep (


16/22


in color, and thus did not present the basic characteris-

tic of an ADE. The latter soils not only failed to qual-

ify as ADEs, but also as TM, given that they not only

lacked high concentrations of chemical elements (P, Ca,

etc.) and ceramic artifacts but also presented no evidence

of agricultural activities such as high concentrations of

bio-charcoal from swidden burn-off. Chronometric evi-dence indicates that these sites (both campsites and habi-

tation sites) which lack ADE were re-occupied less fre-

quently and for shorter periods (the last occupation was

in the 14th century) in comparison with the ADE sites,

where occupation was recorded up to the 1618th cen-

turies. An alternative approach would be to consider all

the soils as ADEs, as proposed by Woods and McCann

(1999). However, this proves to be inadequate due to the

absence of darker coloration, even in soils with significant

amounts of archeological remains. In this case, dark col-

oration would not be an adequate criterion for the classi-

fication of all archeological soils in the Salobo region.

As an alternative, Kampf et al. (2003, 2010) pro-

posed a key to the classification of archeo-anthrosols,

which attempts to contemplate the full variety of soils

affected by past human activities, including ADEs and

other types of archeological soils. Based on morpholog-

ical and geochemical data, we use this key to classify rep-

resentative soil profiles at the Salobo archeological sites

(Table IV). Hortic-cultural ebonic archeo-anthrosols

present evidence of formation through the disposal of

domestic residues in residential areas (hortic); abundant

ceramic and stone artifacts indicate the cultural tradi-

tions of the occupants (cultural). In addition, the soils are

dark in color (ebonic) and have archeological layers >60cm (cumulic), 3060 cm (mesic), or < 30 cm (leptic) in

depth. By contrast, the hortic-cultural chromic archeo-

anthrosols and the cultural chromic archeo-anthrosols

are much lighter in color (chromic), with an archeologi-

cal layer of 3060 cm (mesic) or < 30 cm (leptic) in depth.

This classification provides greater detail for characteriz-

ing variability compared to the traditional ADE and TM

categories.

DISCUSSION

Habitation sites within the Solobo area generally have

higher concentrations of calcium and phosphorus in com-

parison with camp sites and/or shorter term habita-

tion sites. Zinc concentrations did not vary between the

two site types. The relatively high concentrations of Mn

recorded at Mirim, Barfi, and 4 Alfa were probably due to

the geological parent material from which the soil origi-

nated. Potassium concentrations did not appear to be af-

fected by human activities.

Increased levels of Ca, P, Mg, Zn, and Mn at the archeo-

logical sites with and without ADE demonstrate the use-

fulness of these geochemical signatures for the identifi-

cation of past human activities. These elements tend to

be more concentrated in the center of the ADE patches

and decrease toward the edges. Considerable variation

was also observed within and between ADEs. In ad-dition, there are significant depth-dependant chemical

differences between archaeological levels. This pattern

may result from the re-occupation of habitation sites and

changes in human activities through time. Apart from

one or two rare exceptions, the soils located between

ADE patches and in peripheral areas have significantly

lower concentrations of chemical elements, which vary

more systematically with soil depth. Even so, these ele-

ments are found in higher concentrations than those of

the natural soils, indicating that human activities have a

much wider area of influence beyond recognizable site

boundaries.

With the exception of the Alex and Mirim sites, human

activities at long-term habitation sites have led to the for-

mation of a variety of ADE patches of variable sizes and

depths. These patches probably correspond to the habi-

tation area, and in some cases, the houses themselves,

based on archeological evidence. The areas of ADE ana-

lyzed in the present study were not continuous. Patches

of darker soil of varying sizes were irregularly distributed

within each area, with no well-defined pattern, such as

circles or semicircles, as seen in present-day indigenous

villages. The lack of an easily identified pattern may nev-

ertheless be the result of successive occupations by a small

number of habitations, which often overlapped, and thusobscured the original arrangement of the settlement.

The irregular distribution of stratified archeological ma-

terial (in particular ceramics) and geochemical signatures

suggests an ascending formation through the vertical ac-

cretion of organic and inorganic material, increasing an-

thropogenic soil depth over successive occupations. The

high concentrations of P and Ca in the ADEs reinforce the

hypothesis that these areas of habitation are relatively an-

cient, as confirmed by the archeological evidence at each

site. Nevertheless, the marked variation in the concen-

trations of these elements in the ADEs at different sites

indicates differing intensities and periods of occupation,

the latter confirmed by 14 C and TL dating.

The fact that the ADEs correspond to an extremely

small portion of each archeological site areaonly 1.9%

at Bitoca 1 and less than 0.1% at Bitoca 2 and Cachorro

Cego, and completely absent from Alex, Mirim, Barfi, and

4 Alfasuggests that the patches of ADE correspond to a

small number of widely distributed habitational nuclei,

with occupation and re-occupation dispersed over long

periods, as indicated by the variety of dates obtained at



17/22


Table IV Preliminary classification of representative soil profiles from archeological sites in the study area, according to the Kampf et al. (2003, 2010)

classification key for archeo-anthrosols.

Archeological Site Soils in Study Area Soil Classification

Bitoca 1 ADE1.1, 2.1, and 3.1 Hortic-cultural ebonic cumulic archeo-anthrosol

ADE 2.2 Hortic-cultural ebonic mesic archeo-anthrosol

ADE 1.2 and 3.2 Hortic-cultural ebonic leptic archeo-anthrosol

Periphery 1.3 Cultural chromic leptic archeo-anthrosolPeriphery 2.3 Cultural chromic mesic archeo-anthrosol

Bitoca 2 ADE 3 Hortic-cultural ebonic cumulic archeo-anthrosol

ADE 5 Hortic-cultural ebonic mesic archeo-anthrosol

Cachorro Cego ADE Hortic-cultural ebonic mesic archeo-anthrosol

Periphery Cultural chromic leptic archeo-anthrosol

Alex E1, E2, E3 and E4 Cultural chromic mesic archeo-anthrosol

Mirim E2, E3, E4, E5, E6 and E9 (Hortic)-cultural chromic cumulative and mesic archeo-anthrosol

Barfi E1S8 and E3S1 Cultural chromic leptic archeo-anthrosol

4 Alfa E1S2, E1S8 and E2S3 Cultural chromic leptic archeo-anthrosol

ADE: Archeological Dark Earth.

most sites. In addition, the pedo-geochemical signaturesindicate that the impact of human activities extends well

beyond the limits of the areas defined as ADEs, amplify-

ing significantly the boundaries of the archeological sites.

The evidence supports the hypothesis that many of the

archeological sites of the FLONATA are the result of mul-

tiple occupations.

The absence of ADE at the Alex and Mirim habita-

tion sites, which nevertheless have relatively high con-

centrations of P and Ca, appears to be related to the fact

that their most recent occupation was dated to the 9th

and 14th centuries, respectively (Silveira et al., 2008),

whereas the habitation sites with ADE were all dated to

the 1618th centuries. Neves et al. (2003) have shown

that, in general, the formation of ADEs ceased after A.D.

15001600, due to the rapid decline in indigenous popu-

lations resulting from epidemics and enslavement by the

European colonists. This suggests that ADE formation at

Alex and Mirim was interrupted due to the abandoning

of these sites, whereas re-occupation of the other sites

(Bitoca 1 and 2, and Cachorro Cego) continued over sub-

sequent centuries (Silveira et al., 2008). This hypothesis

also implies that the ADEs at Salobo were formed later

than those at Lago Grande and Hatahara in the central

Amazon Basin, which have been dated to the 7th and

11th centuries, respectively (Neves & Petersen, 2006).

CONCLUSIONS

The Tapirape-Aquiri National Forest in Para State was

inhabited for approximately 6000 years by preceramic

and ceramic cultures. The area was more intensively oc-

cupied between AD 500 and 1500 by ceramists when

environmental conditions were similar to today. Thesegroups were sedentary and related to the Tupiguarani ar-

chaeological tradition. They lived along riverbanks (habi-

tation sites), and their economy was based on hunting,

fishing, gathering, and possibly agriculture. Habitation ar-

eas were placed in strategic locations, with less intense or

short-term occupations occurring at camp sites.

Several of the archaeological sites contain patches of

ADE. The ADE sites reflect long periods of occupation

and/or high population density. Variation in the dis-

tribution of artifacts inside some of the archaeological

sites may relate to the location of houses in the vil-

lage. According to early naturalists reports and ethno-

graphic studies, Amazonian villages can have quite differ-

ent patterns of house spatial distributions, such as circular

or semicircular, communal, aligned along the riverbank,

communal houses, or random (Costa & Malhano, 1987;

Kern, 1996).

Areas adjacent to houses were used for several daily ac-

tivities, several of which generated a high amount of or-

ganic matter input into soil. Examples include the highly

perishable palm leaves still used today to build houses,

hammocks, and basketry. Human and animal waste was

usually disposed in areas peripheral to dwellings. Other

sources of organic matter include food animal remains

(bones, teeth, carapaces, entrails, etc.). Ethnographic re-search demonstrates that organic residues and other trash

are thrown into adjacent yards, and, in some cases, inside

the houses. Campfires usually occur in the central com-

mon area and/or around the houses, where people de-

veloped their daily routines (Baldus, 1942; Bates, 1944;

Roquette Pinto, 1950; Diniz, 1966; Ramos, 1980). The

episodic accumulation of these plants and animal organic

residues over centuries to thousands of years, combined



18/22


with charcoal and ash from fires, and inorganic debris

such as ceramic fragments result in the ascending forma-

tion of these dark soil patches and/or ADEs.

Profound inter- and intra-site biogeochemical transfor-

mations (both vertical and horizontal) occur during an-

thropogenic soil formation. Higher levels of Ca, Mg, P,

Zn, Mn, and C occur inside the Salabo ADE areas com-pared to adjacent soils. Pedoarchaeological evidence indi-

cated that the high levels of C, P, and Mg strongly relate

to the deposition of ashes, animal bones residues (fish-

ing and hunting), human waste, and other organic com-

pounds, whereas Zn and Mn are more closely correlated

with vegetable residues (Kern & Kampf, 2005).

In the Salobo region, anthropic horizons tend to con-

tain several occupational levels with significant variations

in chemistry. The upper stratigraphic/occupational lay-

ers (Anthropic A Horizon) have higher concentrations of

Ca, P, Mg, Zn, and Mn that decrease into lower (archae-

ologically sterile) layers, a common pattern with ADE

soils. The Salobo ADE patches exhibit a diversity of ar-

chaeological remains. Post and stake holes, evidence for

artifact manufacturing, and higher concentrations of

chemical elements suggest that these patches likely re-

flect ancient household areas. The center of the patches

tends to contain an increase of both artifacts and levels of

P, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn, and C, decreasing toward the edges

of the patches. The larger ADE patches have irregular

borders and multiple occupational layers, which suggests

episodes of reoccupation. Episodic occupation, confirmed

by 14 C and TL dating, helps explain the irregular chemical

composition with depth. According to Meggers and Miller

(2006), environmental and food constraints limit villagesize, such that ADE soils are more likely to result from

multiple and small sized occupations through time. De-

spite evidence for reoccupations in the Salobo region, we

identified archaeological evidence for large villages indi-

cating abundant food resources that could support a large

number of individuals. This relates to creative solutions of

environmental management in ancient Amazonia (Roo-

sevelt, 1987, 1994; Denevan, 2001; Heckenberger et al.,

2003). Thus, Salobo ADEs are the product of repeated oc-

cupations, commonly within large settlements.

Soils are clearly lighter in color and more compact

between the ADE patches and beyond archaeological

site boundaries. Outside ADE patches, the archaeological

layer is thinner with fewer cultural materials and lower

levels of P, Ca. Mg, Zn, Mn, and C. Nonetheless, elemen-

tal concentrations were higher compared to soils outside

the archaeological sites. We interpret this pattern to re-

flect the spatial distribution and organization of dwelling

structures and how they relate to patterns of human ac-

tivity and input of archaeological material and chemical

elements to the soil.

In sum, soil geochemical signatures in the Salabo re-

gion show a gradient of human activity over the past

6000 years. The amount of P, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn, and C

in soil progressively decreases between ADE habitation

sites, non-ADE habitation sites, camp sites, and areas out-

side archaeological sites. This coincides with archaeolog-

ical site feature and artifact densities, that is, habitationsites have more archaeological remains than camp sites.

This study provides additional evidence for the persis-

tent pedological imprint of indigenous societies on the

Amazon.

This research was developed through an agreement be-

tween Museu Paraense Emlio Goeldi (MPEG), Salobo Metais

S.A./Vale, and the Amazonian Development Foundation

(FIDESA). It was also funded by the National Council for Scien-

tific and Technological Development CNPq (no. 57.3862/2008-

7). We thank Louis Martin Losier and Arlete Silva de Almeida for

the maps, Helena Lima and Francisca Alves Cardoso for the En-

glish revision, Feranada de Araujo Costa, Gary Huckleberry, and

Jamie Woodward for their valuable contributions, as well as theanonymous reviewers.

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