Justifying Democracy - Dahl

8/7/2019 Justifying Democracy - Dahl

1/7

1 9 9 5

Justifying D em ocracyR o b e r t A . D a h l

I was born in 1915 in a sma l l t ow n in Iow a : mo s t o ft h e p e o p l e i n a n d a r o u n d m y t o w n w e r e f a r m e r s .

M y f a t h e r w a s a d o c t o r . H i s f a t h e r 's p a r e n t s h a d b e e nfa rmers i n Nor th Dako ta , t o wh ich t hey had immigra t edf r o m N o r w a y . M y m o t h e r , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w a s o fE n g l i s h a n d S c o t t i s h a n c e s t r y ; I a m i n s o m e w a y s ara the r t yp i ca l Amer i can "me l t i ng po t " mix tu re .

A l t h o u g h I d i d n o t g i v e m u c h t h o u g h t t o t h e s e m a t -t e r s when I was g rowing up , l a t e r I r e a l i zed t ha t t heys u r e l y m u s t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d , p e r h a p s s u b t l y , m y v i e w sof t he wor ld . Fo r example , e a r l i e r t han mos t o the r s i nAmer i can po l i t i c a l sc i ence , I became in t e re s t ed i n t hes m a l l e r E u r o p e a n d e m o c r a c i e s , w h o s e h i s t o r y a n dpo l i t i c s had been l a rge ly i gnored . In ed i t i ng Poli t icalPosi t ions in Western Europe I made su re t o i nc ludec h a p t e r s o n c o u n t r i e s l i k e N o r w a y , S w e d e n , a n d A u s -t r i a . In do ing so I fo rmed endur ing f r i endsh ips wi tht h e la t e S te i n R o k k a n i n N o r w a y a n d H a n s D a a l d e r i nthe Ne the r l ands , and , t oge the r w i th t he l at e Val Lorwin ,a n A m e r i c a n h i s to r i an w h o s p e c i a l iz e d i n B e l g i u m a n dF r a n c e , w e c o l l a b o r a t e d f o r s o m e y e a r s o n a n e f f o r t t os t imula t e r e sea rch and wr i t i ng on t he sma l l e r Euro -p e a n d e m o c r a c i e s .

W h e n I w a s t en w e m o v e d t o A l a s k a , w h e r e m yf a t h e r b e c a m e t h e p h y s i c i a n f o r a r a i l r o a d t h a t r a nn o r t h i n t o Y u k o n T e r r i t o r y in C a n a d a . G r o w i n g u p ina s m a l l A l a s k a n t o w n h a d a p o w e r f u l i m p a c t i n m a n yw a y s - - I ' l l m e n t i o n o n l y s e v er a l. F o r o n e th i ng , i tl e f t m e w i t h a d e e p a n d e n d u r i n g l o v e o f m o u n t a i n sa n d t h e s e a . F l y - f i s h i n g f o r t r o u t i n w i l d e r n e s s a r e a s

i n t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n s i s st il l o n e o f m y g r e a t e s tp a s s i o n s .

S e c o n d : l i v i n g i n a s m a l l v i l l a g e s u r r o u n d e d b ym o u n t a i n s o n t h r e e s i d e s a n d t h e s e a o n t h e o t h e r ,c u t o f f f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d i n t h e w i n t e r e x c e p tf o r th e o c c a s i o n a l b o a t d e l i v e r i n g s u p p l i e s , o n e c o m e st o k n o w t h e p e o p l e a r o u n d y o u e x t r e m e l y w e l l . A l -m o s t e v e r y p e r s o n b e c o m e s a h i g h l y c o n c r e t e , v e r ys p e c i f i c i n d i v id u a l , w i t h c o n c r e t e a n d s p e c i f i c q u a li -t i e s . In t ha t s i t ua t i on I l e a rned t o r e spec t human be -i n g s w i t h o u t r o m a n t i c i z i n g t h e m e i t h e r i n d i v i d u a l l yo r c o l l e c t i v e l y .

T h i rd , I l e a r n e d s o m e t h i n g - - f a r f r o m e n o u g h , I ama f r a i d - - a b o u t r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . A b o u t a q u a r t e ro f t h e p o p u l at i o n w e r e N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s , m e m b e r so f t h e T l in g i t t r ib e , w h i c h h a d o n c e h a d a v e r y c o m -p lex and we l l func t i on ing cu l t u re . They su f fe red i n -c red ib l e soc i a l , e con om ic , and cu l t u ra l d i sc r imina t i on :They were v i r t ua l l y a r ac i a l c a s t e . Though I wen t t os c h o o l w i t h t h e m , s o m e t i m e s p l a y e d , h u n t e d , a n df i s h e d w i t h t h em , a n d o f t e n w o r k e d s i d e b y s i d e w i tht h e m d u r i n g m y s u m m e r s , t o m y l a s ti n g r e g r e t I n e v e rw h o l l y b r o k e t h r o u g h t h e b a rr i e rs o f c a s te .

F o u r t h , b e c a u s e e v e r y b o y i n to w n w a s e x p e c t e d t ow o r k a l l s u m m e r a t w h a t e v e r w o r k w a s a v a i l a b l e, l i k es o m e o f th e o t h e r b o y s I w o r k e d a s a m a n u a l l a b o r e ron t he docks and on t he r a i l road . For me , a s I we l lk n e w , t h is c o n d i t i o n w a s n o t p e r m a n e n t ; b u t f o r s o m eo f t h e o th e r s , I k n e w i t w o u l d b e . I a c q u ir e d s y m p a -thy , wh ich I have neve r who l ly l os t , fo r t he o f t en ha rd


2/7

J U S T I F Y IN G D E M O C R A C Y / 3 8 7

a n d l i m i t i n g l iv e s o f w o r k i n g p e o p l e . I k n o w t h a t m yw r i t i n g s o n e c o n o m i c d e m o c r a c y a n d t h e p r o b l e m o fw o r k e r o w n e r s h i p a n d c o n t r o l o r i g i n a t e d i n t h o s ee x p e r i e n c e s .

F i n a l ly , g r o w i n g u p i n s m a l l t o w n s m u s t h a v e c o n -t r i b u t e d t o m y l i f e l o n g i n t e r e s t i n th e p r o b l e m o f s c a l ei n so c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l l i f e . A j o i n t p r o d u c t o f m y i n t e r -e s t in s c a le a n d i n th e s m a l l e r E u r o p e a n d e m o c r a c i e sw a s t h e b o o k I w r o t e w i t h t h e a s si s t a n c e o f E d w a r d R .T u f t e , S i z e a n d D e m o c r a c y . I do no t th ink i t i s ana d e q u a t e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t , a n d I f in d t h eq u e s t i o n s t il l n a g s m e . I t r e s u r f a c e d a s a c e n t r a l i n t er -p r e t a t i v e t h e m e i n D e m o c r a c y a n d I t s C r i ti c s.

I at t e n d e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W a s h i n g t o n i n S e a t tl eb e c a u s e i t w a s c l o s e r t h a n a n y o t h e r . E v e n s o , t o g e tt h e re a t t h a t t i m e - - b e f o r e a i r t r a v e l - - r e q u i r e d a f i v e -d a y t r ip o f a t h o u s a n d m i l e s b y b o a t a n d m e a n t t h a t Ih a d t o l e av e h o m e i n e a r ly S e p t e m b e r a n d n o t r e tu r nu n t i l J u n e . T h e n t o g a i n m y P h . D . a t Y a l e l h a d t oc r o s s th e c o n t i n e n t b y t r a i n - - a n o t h e r t h re e t o f o u r d a y so f t r a v e l. N o n e o f t h is w a s a h a r d s h i p : 1 t h o u g h t o f i tr a t h er a s a n a d v e n t u r e a n d a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o s e e s o m e -t h i n g o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , i n c l u d i n g s o m e o f i t s m o s ts p e c t a c u l a r l y b e a u t i f u l p a r t s .

A t Y a l e m y a i m w a s n o t t o b e c o m e a s c h o l a r . O nt h e c o n t r a r y , I w a n t e d t o e n g a g e i n t h e f a r m o r e a l -l u r i n g ta s k o f c h a n g i n g A m e r i c a n p u b l i c p o l i c i e s, ap o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h a d b e e n d r a m a t i c a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e dd u r i n g F r a n k l i n D . R o o s e v e l l ' s N e w D e a l. B y t h et i m e l a r r i v e d i n W a s h i n g t o n i n 1 9 4 0 w i t h m y n e w l ym i n t e d P h . D . , h o w e v e r , t h e N e w D e a l p e r i o d w a so v e r a n d W a s h i n g t o n w a s n o w f o c u s i n g o n t h e w a ri n E u r o p e , a n d s o o n i n t h e P a c i f i c . W o r k i n g i n g o v -e r n m e n t b u r e a u s e n g a g e d i n e c o n o m i c m o b i l i z at i o nf o r t h e w a r e f f o r t , I l e a r n e d a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t t h ep o s s i b i l it i e s a n d l i m i t s o f c en t r a l e c o n o m i c p l a n n i n gi n a d e m o c r a t i c s y s t e m . L a t e r I w a s t o d r a w h e a v i l y ,i f q u i t e i n d i r e c t l y , o n t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s , m o s t f u l ly ,p e r h a p s , i n P o l i t i c s , E c o n o m i c s . a n d W e ! f a r e . w r i t -t e n w i t h C h a r l e s E . L i n d b l o m .

I a l s o l e a r n e d t o m y s u r p r i s e a n d d i s m a y t h a t ! d i dn o t p a r t i c u la r l y e n j o y b e i n g a b u r e a u c r a t. T h e c a r e e r Ih a d s o e a g e r l y l o o k e d f o r w a r d t o a t Y a l e w a s , I lk )u nd ,n o t a t a l l t o m y l i k i n g .

I n t h e w i n t e r o f 1 9 4 3 1 e n t e r e d t h e U . S . A r m y , a n di n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 4 4 i a r r i v e d i n E u r o p e a s l e a d e r o f as m a l l r e c o n n a i s s a n c e p l a t o o n i n a n i n f a n t r y r e g im e n t .A f t e r a f a l l a n d w i n t e r f i g h t i n g i n t h e V o s g e s M o u n -t a i n s a n d e n d i n g u p o n V i c t o r y i n E u r o p e d a y i n t h eAu s t r i an A lps , I wa s a s s ig ned f i rs t i n Pa r i s Ve rs a i l l e s ,a c t u a l l y - - a n d t h e n i n F r a n k f u r t t o a u n i t a t S u p r e m eH e a d q u a r t e r s i n c h a r g e o f t h e A l l i e d o c c u p a t i o n o f th e

A m e r i c a n s e c t o r o f G e r m a n y . I t w a s a s s u m e d , I su p -p o s e , th a t m y P h . D . i n g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d b e o f s o m eu t i li t y d u r i n g t h e o c c u p a t i o n . T h e u n i t to w h i c h ! w a sa s s i g n e d w a s m a i n l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e ta s k o f d e-N a z i f y i n g t h e G e r m a n b a n k i n g s y s t e m - - a t w h i c h 1b e l i e v e t h e y w e r e o n l y p a r t l y s u c c e s s f u l . H o w e v e r ,f r o m m y p o i n t o f v i e w I h a d a l r e a d y d o n e m y s h a r e int h e w a r . 1 h a d a w i f e a n d t w o c h i l d r e n a t h o m e , a n dt h a n k s t o m y c o m b a t e x p e r i e n c e I w a s a l l o w e d t o r e-t u r n h o m e b y t h e e n d o f 1 9 4 5 .

M y m i l it a r y e x p e r i e n c e h a d p r o f o u n d a n d l a s t i n ge f f e c ts o n m y o u t l o o k ; I w i l l, h o w e v e r , m e n t i o n o n l yt w o h e r e . F i r s t , c o m i n g t o k n o w m y c o m r a d e s w i t ht h e i n t i m a c y a n d s o l i d a r i t y t h a t , a l a s , m e n m i g h t o n l yb e a b l e t o g a i n in c o m b a t , m y r e s p e c t f o r t h e q u a l i t i e so f " 'o r d i n a r y " h u m a n b e i n g s w a s d e e p e n e d e v e n f u r -t h e r . I b e l i e v e t h a t o r d i n a r y p e o p l e h a v e e x t r a o r d i n a r yc a p a c i t i e s , t h o u g h I l e a r t h e s e a r e t o o o f t e n i n s u f f i -c i e n t l y d e v e l o p e d .

S e c o n d , m y m i l i t a r y e x p e r i e n c e p r o v i d e d m e w i t ha n i n c e n t i v e f o r t h i n k i n g m o r e d e e p l y a b o u t w h a t Iw a n t e d o u t o f m y l i f e . I n o w d i s c o v e r e d t h a t w h a t It r u l y y e a r n e d f o r w a s a c a r e e r o f s c h o l a r s h i p a n d t e a c h -i n g . B y t h e e n d o f 1 9 4 5, I h a d b e e n a w a y t r o m a c a -d e m i c l i f e f l~ r f i v e y e a r s a n d I h a d p u b l i s h e d o n l y o n ea r t i c l e i n 1 9 4 0 ( d r a w n d i r e c t l y f r o m a c h a p t e r i n m yP h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n ) b e f o r e t h e w a r c r o w d e d o u t s u c hp o s s i b i l i t i e s . B u t s o o n a f t e r m y r e t u r n t o t h e U n i t e dS t a t e s I s o u g h t o u l m y e a r l i e r m e n t o r s a t Y a l e , w h oo f f e r e d m e a t e m p o r a r y p o s t a t Y a le , w h i c h i n d u e t i m eb e c a m e p e r m a n e n t .

C h o o s i n g a l i f e o f s c h o l a r s h i p a n d t e a c h i n g , a n dr e m a i n i n g a t Y al e t o p u r s u e t h e m , w e r e a m o n g t h e b e s td e c i s i o n s 1 e v e r m a d e . I a m f a i r l y s u r e t h a t I c o u l d n o th a v e b e e n a s h a p p y o r p r o d u c t i v e i n a n y o t h e r c a r e e r ,a n d Ik)l- m e Y a l e h a s b e e n a m a r v e l o u s p l a c e a t w h i c ht o t e a c h a n d w r i t e .T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f a P r o b l e m - O r i e n t e d S t y l e

I s h a l l t ry t o r e s is t t h e i m p u l s e t o m a k e m y i n t e l le c -t u a l a n d p o l i t ic a l e v o l u t i o n m o r e c o h e r e n t t h a n i t p r o b -a b l y w a s . I n t h is s p i r i t I w a n t t o s a y t h a t 1 n e v e r s e to u t t o b e c o m e a " d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r i s t . ' " E v e n t h e t e r m" d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r y " h a r d l y e x is t e d w h e n I b e g a n w r i t-i n g . 1 w o u l d s a y t h a t m y w o r k h a s b e e n p r o b h , m - o r i -e n t e d . A p r o b l e m , s o m e q u e s t i o n w i t h t h eo r e t ic a l a n de m p i r i c a l r e l e v a n c e a n d o f t e n o f m o r a l i m p o r t a n c e a sw e l l , w o u l d p r e s e n t i t s e l f t o m e . A p i e c e o f w o r k m i g h tl b l l o w , d u r i n g w h i c h I m i g h t r e s h a p e t h e i n i t i a l f o r -m u l a i i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o r q u e st i o n . S o m e o f m yb o o k s - - W h o G o v e r n s ?: DelllOCl'aCv alld PoweF i l l anA m e r i c a n C i o ' , f o r e x a m p l e - - q u i t e l i te r a ll y b e g i n w i t h


3/7

3 8 8 / S O C I E T Y 9 J A N U A R Y / F E B R U A R Y 1 9 9 8

a q u e s t i o n , a n d i n a ll o f t h e m , I th i n k , I s t a t e t h e p r o b -l e m i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r .

M y f i r s t b o o k , Congress a nd Foreign Policy (1950),f o c u s e d c r i t ic a l ly o n t h e p r o b l e m o f h o w t h e U . S . C o n -g r e s s d e a l t w i t h a n d s h o u l d d e a l w i t h f o r e i g n p o l i c y .T h a t b o o k w a s r e a l ly a v e n t u r e i n " d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r y ,"t h o u g h I p r o b a b l y w o u l d n o t h a v e p u t it t h a t w a y i n1 9 5 0 . Polit ics , Ec onom ics, and Welfare w a s a r e s p o n s et o t h e n e e d , a s L i n d b l o m a n d 1 s a w it, to r e - c r e a t e am o d e r n "political e c o n o m y , " a f t e r t h e l a t e - n i n e t e e n t h -c e n t u r y d i v o r c e o f n e o c l as s i c a l e c o n o m i c s a n d p o l it i-c a l s c i e n c e . S c h o l a r s w h o s p e c i a l i z e d o n p o l i ti c s w e r e( a n d t o o o f te n s t il l a r e ) w o e f u l l y i g n o r a n t o f e c o n o m i ct h e o r y , a n d n e o c l a s s i c a l e c o n o m i s t s w e r e (a n d t o om a n y s ti ll a r e ) ig n o r a n t a b o u t a n d d i s d a i n f u l o f p o li t i-c a l l i f e . I t w a s i n t h a t b o o k , b y t h e w a y , t h a t w e i n t r o -d u c e d th e t e r m " p o l y a r c h y ' - - a n e x i s t in g b u t r a r el yu s e d t e r m in E n g l i s h - - a n d f o r m u l a t e d a n e a r ly v e r -s i on o f w h a t w a s l a t er to b e c o m e a m o r e e l a b o r a t et h e o r y o f p o l y a r c h y .

I t o f t e n h a p p e n e d t h a t in o n e w o r k I w o u l d i g n o r eo r se t a s i d e , s o m e t i m e s e x p l i c i tl y , a n i m p o r t a n t q u e s -t io n t h a t w o u l d l a t e r c h a l l e n g e m e t o u n d e r t a k e a n -o t h e r w o r k . A n d s o i t w e n t , f r o m o n e p r o b l e m o rq u e s t i o n t o a n o t h e r . In d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r y e v e r y t h i n gi s i n s o m e w a y c o n n e c t e d w i t h e v e r y t h i n g e l s e . I d on o t k n o w w h e n I b e g a n t o s e e th a t a lm o s t e v e r y t h i n g Id i d w a s i n s o m e r e s p e c t s a p r o b l e m i n " d e m o c r a t i ct h e o r y . " O t h e r s m a y h a v e l a b e l e d m e a " d e m o c r a t i ct h e o r i s t " b e f o r e I f e l t c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h th a t te r m . E v e nA Preface to Democrat ic Theoo , , w h e r e I f i rs t u s e dt h e te r m i n a p u b l i c a t i o n , w a s q u i t e e x p l i c i t l y o n l y aprefitce, a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f c e rt a i n p r o b l e m s I f e l t w e r en o t a d e q u a t e l y d e a l t w i t h i n e x i s t i n g t r e a t m e n t s . A tt h a t ti m e I h a d n o i n t e n t i o n o f t ry i n g t o w o r k o u t ac o m p r e h e n s i v e t h e o r y t o w h i c h , a t b e s t, th e b o o k m i g h tb e a p r e f a c e .

H a v i n g s a i d a ll t h is , I m u s t a l s o a d d t h a t I s e e m o r ec o n s i s t e n c y i n m y w o r k , t a k e n a s a w h o l e , t h a n s o m eo f m y r e a d e r s e v i d e n t l y d o . I d o n o t r e g a r d i n t e l l e c -t u a l c o n s i s t e n c y o v e r a l o n g l i f e a s n e c e s s a r i l y a v i r -t u e . I n d e e d , a t t i m e s I f e e l a l m o s t e m b a r r a s s e d w h e n Ic o n s i d e r h o w m a n y o f th e m a j o r t h e m e s a n d o r i e n ta -t io n s i n m y l a t e r w o r k w e r e a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n m y c o m -p l e t e d P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n !

L e t m e m e n t i o n s o m e o f t h e t h e m e s t h a t 1 f i rs t d e -v e l o p e d i n m y d i s s e r t a ti o n . ( 1 ) I f i rs t w o r k e d o u t s o m ee x p l i c i t c r i t e r i a f o r a d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m . T ob e s u r e , it w a s t o t a k e m e m a n y y e a r s b e f o r e I w a sa b l e t o c o n s t r u c t a t h e o re t i ca l f r a m e w o r k t h at s e e m e dt o m e t o p r o v i d e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y t b r t h e h i s t o r i c a l , n o r -m a t i v e , a n d e m p i r i c a l a s p e c t s o f d e m o c r a c y . B u t I h a d

a l r e a d y b e g u n t h a t ta s k i n m y d i s s e r t a ti o n . ( 2 ) I c o n -c l u d e d t h a t M a r x i s m w a s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y a s a n e c o -n o m i c a n d p o li ti c a l th e o r y a n d c o m p l e t e l y i n a d e q u a t ea s a n e th i c a l t h e o r y . ( 3 ) I r e j e c t e d L e n i n i s m a n d t h ei d e a o f th e v a n g u a r d p a r t y as f u n d a m e n t a l l y a n t i d e m o -c r a t ic . ( 4 ) I w a s c h a r m e d b y t h e a s s o c i a t i o n a l a n d c o -o p e r a t i v e s y s t e m s p o r t r a y e d b y s o m e o f th e u t o p i a ns o c i a l is t s . H e r e t h e a t t ra c t i o n s f o r m e o f s m a l l - s c a l ec o m m u n i t i e s s h o w u p ag a in . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e ir s o -l u t io n s s e e m e d t o m e , w e l l , u to p i a n . ( 5 ) 1 c o n c l u d e dt h a t a l t h o u g h s o c i a l d e m o c r a t s a n d d e m o c r a t i c s o c i a l -i s t s o f t e n w e r e a d m i r a b l y c o m m i t t e d t o p o l i t i c a l d e -m o c r a c y , t h e y w e r e f a t a l l y m i s t a k e n i n t h e i r a t t r a c t i o nt o s ta t e - o w n e r s h i p o f i n d u s tr y a n d t h e i r i g n o r a n c e o fa n d d i s d a i n f o r t h e c e n tr a l i m p o r t a n c e o f m a r k e t s a s am e a n s o f a l l o c a ti n g r e s o u r c e s a n d s e t ti n g e c o n o m y .( 6 ) T h a n k s l a r g e l y t o t h e w r i ti n g s o f O s c a r L a n g e , A .R L e r n e r , a n d s e v e r a l o t h e r e c o n o m i s t s , I d e c i d e d t h a tt h e o n l y s o l u t i o n f o r a s o c i a l i s t e c o n o m y i n a d e m o -c r a ti c p o l i ti c al s y s t e m w o u l d b e a f o r m o f m a r k e t - s o -c i a li s m . T h e s p e c i f ic s o l u t io n I p r o p o s e d b e c a m e m yf i r s t p u b l i s h e d a r t i c l e , in 1 9 4 0 . L a t e r I c a m e t o f e e lt h a t t h e d e t a i l s o f th a t s o l u t i o n w e r e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y .A l t h o u g h 1 h a v e s e a r c h e d f o r a fe a s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e - -A Pr@tce to Economic Democ~z~c3' c o n t a i n s m y l a t e rf o r m u l a t i o n - - I a m n o w i n c li n e d t o b e l i e v e th a t t h e r em a y b e n o s i n g l e s a t i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n b u t p e r h a p s a na r r a y o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s s u i t a b l e i n s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s i nd i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s .A n E c l e c t i c is m o f S t y le

I f i n d i t b o t h f a s c i n a t i n g a n d p u z z l i n g t h a t e v e n s o m ef r i e n d l y c r i t i c s , s e e A Preface to Democrat ic Theorya n d Who Governs? a s s o m e h o w a t o d d s w i t h m y o t h e rw o r k . I d o n o t . O b v i o u s l y I w o u l d n o t w r i t e th o s e b o o k st h e s a m e w a y t o d a y , b u t I th i n k t h a t i s t r u e o f e v e r y -t h i n g I h a v e e v e r w r i t t e n . A l a t e r v e r s i o n o f a n e a r li e rw o r k w o u l d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e b e t t e r , b u t i t w o u l ds u r e l y b e d if f e r e n t . O n e r e a s o n 1 h a v e n e v e r w a n t e d t or e v i s e A Pre/~tce i s t h a t i t s e e m s t o m e w o n d e r f u l l yc o m p a c t , s u c c i n c t, c l e a r - - I w o u l d l i k e t o sa y e le g a n ti n i ts s i m p l i c i t y ! A r e v i s i o n t h a t w o u l d m a r t h a t w o u l da l m o s t s u r e l y n o t b e a n i m p r o v e m e n t .

S o m e r e a d e r s o f m y w o r k m a y n o t f u l ly a p p r e c ia t et h a t d i f f e r e n t p r o b l e m s r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d o l o -g i e s o r a d if f e r e n t m i x o f m e t h o d o l o g i e s . I h a v e n e v e rf e lt t h at a n y p a r ti c u l a r m e t h o d o l o g y o r a p p r o a c h i si n h e r e n t l y s u p e r i o r t o o t h e r s . W h a t i s b e s t d e p e n d s o nt h e q u e s t io n , t h e p r o b l e m . H i s t o r i c a l , b e h a v i o r a l , q u a n -t i t a t i v e , l i n g u i s t i c , m o r a l - e t h i c a l , a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a lm e t h o d s a n d a p p r o a c h e s a l l h a v e a p l a c e , t h o u g h n o tn e c e s s a r il y i n t h e s a m e w o r k . M e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k -


4/7

J U S T I F Y IN G D E M O C R A C Y / 3 8 9

i ng , I am d e l i bera t e l y and sh am el ess l y ec l ec t i c . 1 be-l i eve s t rong l y t ha t t he ques t i on one wan t s t o i nves t i -g a t e s h o u l d d i c ta t e t h e c h o i c e o f m e t h o d o l o g y ; am e t h o d o l o g y s h o u l d n e v e r d i c t a t e t h e c h o i c e o fq u e s t i o n .

1 a l so t h i nk t ha t my ma p o f the w or l d , i t s l i mi ts ,and i t s poss i b i l i t i es has a l ways been d i f f e r en t f romt h e s ta n d a r d i d e o l o g i c a l m a p s , w h e t h e r d r a w n b y th el e f t , l i bera l s , conserva t i ves , neoconserva t i ves , o r neo -l i b e r a l s . A f t e r a l e c t u r e i n D e n m a r k o n e c o n o m i c d e -m o c r a c y , t o m y a m u s e m e n t I w a s a c t u a l l y d e s c r i b e di n o n e n e w s p a p e r a s a n a n a r c h i s t ! S o m e r e a d e r s w h oexpec t t ha t my map ough t t o f i t w i t h t he i r s a r e d i sap -po i n t ed when i t does no t . What t o t hem i s i ncons i s -t e n c y , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s e e m s o t o m e :w e a r e j u s t o p e r a t i n g w i th d i f f e re n t c o g n i t i v e m a p s .The Pursuit of Democrat izat ion

T h e v a l u e s t h a t j u s t i f y d e m o c r a c y a r e h u m a n , n o tp a r o c h i a l . T a k e m o r a l a u t o n o m y a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ,fo r exam pl e . I th i nk any h um an be i ng i s a be t t e r per -son fo r hav i ng t he oppo r t un i t y and ab i l i t y t o r e f l ec ton t he r e l a t i ve wor t h , des i r ab i l i t y , o r goodness o f t hec h o i c e s h e o r s h e c o n f r o n t s a n d t h e n a c t i n g r e s p o n s i -b l y to b ri n g a b o u t w h a t i s b e s t . S o m e i m p o r t a n tc h o i c e s - - c o l l e c t i v e c h o i c e s , in p a r t ic u l a r - - a r e b e s tm a d e i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r p e r s o n s i n v o l v e da n d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h j u s t p r i n c i p le s f o r m a k i n g c o l -l ec t i ve dec i s i ons . Democracy i s t he on l y po l i t i ca l sy s -t em t ha t can fu l l y m eet t h i s tes t , even t hough i n p rac t icei t of ten fai l s to .

I n p r a c t ic e , d e m o c r a t i c s y s t e m s h a v e a l w a y s f a ll e ncons i derab l y sho r t o f t he c r i t e r i a and va l ues t ha t j u s -t if y d e m o c r a c y . S o o n e c h a l l e n g e l a c e d b y t h o s e o f usw h o b e l i e v e i n d e m o c r a t i c e n d s is to d i s c o v e r w a y s o fi m p r o v i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a c tu a l d e m o c r a c i e s . I nadd i t i on , t he cond i t i ons necessary fo r t he ex i s t ence o fa d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m - - t h e c o n t r o l o v e r m i l i -t a r y a n d p o l i c e b y f r e e l y e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s , f o r e x -a m p l e - a r e s i m p l y la c k in g i n m a n y p a r ts o f t he w o r l d.T h u s a n o t h e r a n d d i f f e r e n t c h a l l e n g e i s t o e n c o u r a g et h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o n d i t i o n s t h a t w o u l d f a c i l it a t edem ocra t i za t i on . Unfo r t una t e l y , 1 do no t t h ink t here i sa genera l an sw er t o t h i s ques t i on . Indeed , i n som e par t so f th e w o r l d d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n m a y s i m p l y n o t b e a t-t a i nab l e , o r a t any r a t e we on t he ou t s i de may be un -ab l e t o do any t h i ng t o p romot e i t , excep t , perhaps , t om a k e o u r o w n p o l i t i c a l l i f e i n d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e sm o r e e x e m p l a r y.

Mora l and po l i t i ca l r e l a t i v i s t s may con t end t ha t i ft h e p e o p l e o f a c o u n t r y c h o o s e t o b e g o v e r n e d b y a n o n -dem ocra t i c r eg i m e, t he i r cho i ce o f a po l it i ca l sy s t em i s

as val id as any o ther . But th i s i s paradoxical and u l t i -mat e l y nonsens i ca l . Fo r peop l e cann o t t r u ly choose h o wt hey a r e t o be gove rned un l ess t hey have t he oppo r t un i -t ies , r ights , pr iv i leges , and inst i tu t ions provided by de-m o c r a c y . P e o p l e i n a d e m o c r a c y c a n c h o o s e t o b egoverned by au t ho r i t a r i an ru l e r s , a l t hough i n f ac t t heyrare l y do . B u t once t hey have made t ha t cho i ce , t heycan no l onger eas i l y r ever se i t . I am very skep t i ca l o fa t t emp t s t o j u s t i fy an au t ho r it a r ian o r p seudo dem ocra t i cr eg i me by a rgu i ng f rom t he obv i ous f ac t tha t som e coun -t ri e s h a v e n e v e r s u c c e s s f u l l y e s ta b l i sh e d d e m o c r a c y t ot he conc l u s i on t ha t " ' Wes t e rn" democracy i s cu l t u r a l l yunsu i t ab l e fo r t he peop l e o f som e par t i cu la r coun t ry . I ti s one t h i ng t o say t ha t fo r peop l e w ho have l i ved underauthor i tar ian regim es ik~r gene rat ions i t m ay be d i f f i -cu l t , even i mposs i b l e i n t he sho r t t e rm, t o deve l op ademocra t i c cu l t u r e s t rong enough t o su s t a i n democracy .But i t i s qui te another , and s imply fool i sh , to say thalt hey have i n any mean i ng fu l sense chosen t o r emai nunder an au t ho r i t a r i an r eg i me.The D e ve lopme nt o f D e moc r ac y

B ecause a l l o f u s a r e t o some ex t en t b l i nded by ou row n cu l tu ra l as sum pt i ons , I doub t whet her i t wo u l d bep ro f i t ab l e t b r m e t o t ry to i den t i fy t he more spec i f i ca l l yAmer i can charac t e r i s t i cs and l i mi t a t i ons o l my t hough t .I t i s cer tain ly t rue, though, that 1 am on the on e han dhopefu l ab ou t t he poss i b i l i ti es o f ach i ev i ng des i r ab l ec h a n g e s a n d o n t h e o t h e r h i g h l y s k e p t i c a l a b o u tp roposa l s l o t sudden , l a rge- sca l e , comprehens i ve s t ruc-t ural t r ans fo rm at i ons . I f t ha t is an "A me r i can" per spec-t ive, so be i t.

The p oss i b i l i t y and des i r ab i l i t y o f an ab rup t r evo -l u t io n a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f b o th h u m a n b e i n g s a n d t h ebas i c s t ruc t u res o f t he i r soc i e t y , t o be ach i eved i f needb e b y v i o l e n c e , w a s s u r e l y o n e o f th e m o s t m i s l e a d -i ng , des t ruc t i ve , and se l f -defea t i ng m y t hs o f the pas tcen t u ry -and -a-ha l f . I t was a my t h cons t ruc t ed i n i t i a l l you t o f a d i s t o r t ed i n t e rp re t a t i on o f t he F rench R e vo l u -t io n a n d a u g m e n t e d a f t e r 1 9 1 7 b y a f u n d a m e n t a l m i s -i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e B o l s h e v i kR e v o h l t i o n .

I n t e l l e c t u a l s p l a y e d n o m i n o r r o l e i n h e l p i n g t op r o d u c e t h e f a i l u r e s t h a t i n e v i t a b l y f o l l o w e d s u c h ap r o f o u n d m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h u m a n l im i t s an dposs i b i l i t i es .

I am no t a pac i f i s t , and I do no t say t ha t v i o l en ce i sn e v e r n e c e s s a r y o r n e v e r .i u s ti f ie d . C o n s i d e r t h e A m e r i -c a n C i v i l W a r - - p e r h a p s m o r e c o s t l y i n h u m a n l i v e st h a n a n y p r e c e d i n g w a r in m o d e r n t im e s . I f t h e o n l ya i m a n d o u t c o m e o f th a t w a r h a d b e e n t o k e e p t h es o u t h e r n s t a t e s f ro m s e c e d i n g a n d t h e r e b y d i v i d i n g t h e


5/7


Uni t ed S t a t e s i n to two sepa ra t e coun t r i e s , I do no t be -l i eve the nor the rn p ro secu t ion o f the C iv i l War wo u ldh a v e b e e n j u s t if i e d . I d o b e l i e v e , h o w e v e r , t h a t th eabo l i t i on o f s l ave ry i n t he Uni t ed S t a t e s d id f i na l l yj u s t i f y t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l W ar .

Y e t o n e s h o u l d a l w a y s b e p e s s i m i s t i c a b o u t h o wmuch change fo r t he good i s l i ke ly t o r e su l t f rom v io -l ence . The Amer i can Civ i l War ended s l ave ry , bu t i td i d n o t f r ee t h e e x - s l a v e s f r o m g e n e r a ti o n s o f o p p r e s -s ion , wre t chedness , and ha r sh d i sc r imina t i on .

I n d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s , i m p o r t a n t s t r u c t u r a lc h a n g e s c a n b e a n d h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d b y p e a c e f u li n c r e m e n t a l c h a n g e s . T o b e s u r e , t h e i n c r e m e n t s a r es o m e t i m e s p r e t t y s u b s t a n t i a l , a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n -f l i c t s n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e t h e m c a n b e i m p a s s i o n e d .B u t o v e r t i m e - - d e c a d e s o r g e n e r a t i o n s - - t h e r e su l t-i ng changes i n a t t i t udes , behav io r s , p rac t i ce s , s t ruc -t u r es , a n d re l a t io n s c a n b e e n o r m o u s . C o m p a r eS w e d e n i n 1 9 3 0 , s a y , w i t h t h e S w e d e n o f 1 9 8 0 . E v e ni f p r e s e n t d i s c o n t e n t w i t h th e e c o n o m i c b u r d e n s o fthe we l fa re s t a t e r e su l t i n some reduc t ions i n se rv i ce s ,S w e d e n w i l l n e v e r r e t u r n t o 1 9 3 0 . N o r w i l l o t h e rd e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s .

I t i s t rue tha t i nc reme n ta l ch anges i n dem ocra t i cc o u n t r i e s h a v e n o t r e p l a c e d c e r t a i n d e e p l y e m b e d d e dsoc i a l and economic s t ruc tu re s . Marke t c ap i t a l i sm hasno t been abo l i shed i n any democra t i c coun t ry . Ye t t hem a r k e t c a p i t a l i s m t h a t M a r x k n e w h a s b e e n p e a c e -f u l ly t r a n s f o r m e d b y d e m o c r a t i c m e a n s i n to a f a r m o r eh u m a n e a n d d e c e n t e c o n o m i c o r d e r t h an p e r h a p s e v e nh e e n v i s i o n e d .

I see no r ea son fo r be l i ev ing t ha t t he p rocess o f so -c ioecon om ic change , no r, c e r t a in ly , o f cu l tu ra l change ,h a s e n d e d . N o d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r y - - a n d c e r t a i n l y n on o n d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r y - - h a s c r e a t e d a s e t o f so c i a l,e conomic , and po l i t i c a l a r r angement s t ha t a ch i eve asa t i s f ac to ry s t anda rd o f l i be rty , j u s t i c e , demo cracy , se -cu r i t y , and decency . The v i s ib l e gap be tween wha t i sand wha t ough t t o be , t empered by wha t cou ld be , wi l lcont inue to dr ive the search for a l te rnat ive solut ions.

L e s t I b e m i s u n d e r s t o o d , p e r h a p s I s h o u l d a d d w h a ts e e m s t o m e o b v i o u s : I n d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s - - a s o fc o u r s e e l s e w h e r e - - t h e v a l u e s a nd g o a l s I a d v o c a t e a n dtha t I hope wi l l p reva i l wi l l a lways be s t rong ly con-t e s t ed . I have no g rea t conf idence t ha t t hey wi l l nec -e s s a r i ly p r e d o m i n a t e , b u t t h e y w i l l c e rt a i n ly s u c c u m bi f t hose w ho be l i ev e in t he se goa l s f a i l to suppo r t t hemas bes t t hey can .O n L i m i t s a n d O p p o r t u n i t i e s

My in t e re s t i n t he poss ib i l i t i e s o f a more sys t em-a t ic a n a l y s i s o f p o w e r n o d o u b t h a d s e v e r a l s o u r c e s .

F i r s t, i t was pe r fec t l y c l ea r t ha t pow er i s a cen t ra l con -c e p t a n d p h e n o m e n o n i n n e a r l y al l as p e c t s o f l i f e - -p o l i t i c s , s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , a n d e c o n o m i c s . S e c o n d ,s y s t e m a t i c t r e a t m e n t s w e r e r a r e a n d i n c o m p l e t e . If o u n d T h o m a s H o b b e s ' s tr e a t m e n t e x t ra o r d i n a r il y i m -p r e s s i v e . I p r o f i te d g r e a tl y f r o m M a x W e b e r ' s f o r m u -l a ti o n s , w h i c h I t h o u g h t w e r e a m a j o r b r e a k t h r o u g h . Il e a r n e d a g r e a t d e a l f r o m m y c o l l e a g u e H a r o l dL a s s w e l l ' s a t t e m p t s t o f o r m u l a t e p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n sand ca t egor i e s fo r d i s t i ngu i sh ing and desc r ib ing pow er ,au thor i t y , and i n f luence .

Y e t I w a s d i s m a y e d b y t h e c a s u a l a n d u n d i s c r i m i -na t i ng way in which mos t soc i a l sc i en t i s t s , i nc lud ingp o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s , e m p l o y e d t h e t e r m " p o w e r , " i g -n o r i ng t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e c o n c e p t a s i f s o m e h o wthese com plex i t i e s we r e t r iv i a l. I t was a s i f phy s i c i s t sw e r e t o g o o n d i s c u s s i n g " f o r c e s " a n d " m a t t e r " w i t h -ou t any fu r the r r e f i nemen t . I was a l so i n t r i gued b y t hep o v e r t y o f sys temat ic empir ica l s tud ies t ha t we re con-c e p t u a l l y a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d . I n1 9 5 5 - 5 6 I s p e n t m u c h o f m y y e a r a t t h e C e n t e r f o rA d v a n c e d S t u d y i n t h e B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s i n P a l oA l t o t r y i n g t o c la r i f y th e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e c o n c e p tand t h ink ing ou t how one migh t ac tua l l y s t udy i t em-p i r i ca l l y . I be l i eve , t oo , t ha t be fo re l e av ing I had a l -r e a d y d e c i d e d t o tr y t o d o a n e m p i r ic a l s t u d y o f p o w e ri n N e w H a v e n .

W hen I r e tu rned t o Ya le I bega n t he r e sea rch o nN e w H a v e n t h a t w a s t o e v e n t u a t e i n Who Governs? ,i n w h i c h I w a s g r e a t l y h e l p e d b y t h r e e y o u n g P h . D .c a n d i d a t e s a t Y a l e, N e l s o n P o l s b y , R a y m o n dWo l f inge r , and Wi l l iam F lan igan . I f I we re wr i t i ng t heb o o k t o d a y , h o w e v e r , i t w o u l d b e v e r y d i f f e r e n t , f o rseve ra l r ea sons . F i r s t, t he c i t y i t se l f ha s chang ed : Thew h i t e p o p u l a t io n h a s d i m i n is h e d , t h e n o n w h i t e p o p u -l a ti on i s approa ch ing ha l f o f t he to t a l , and t he nu mb ero f p o o r p e o p l e i s f a r g re a te r . T h e p r o b l e m s o f r a c e a n dp o v e r t y a r e i n c o m p a r a b l y m o r e s e v e r e a n d d a u n t i n gthan t hey were i n 1950 . Second , I am m ore sens i t i veto t he l im i t s on wha t a c i t y can ach i eve because o feconomic and po l i t i c a l s t ruc tu re s beyond i t s con t ro l .W h e n I s t u d i e d N e w H a v e n , t h e s u b s i d i e s a v a i l a b l ef o r c i t i e s f r o m t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t w e r e p l e n t i -f u l - a t l ea s t f o r s o m e p u r p o se s , li ke r e d e v e l o p m e n t - -a n d N e w H a v e n ' s a s t u t e p o l it i ca l l e a d e r s w e r e a b l e t oga in more t han t he i r share , Sk i l l ed and unsk i l l ed w ork-e r s cou ld s t il l f i nd j ob s i n l oca l i ndus t r i e s . U nde r t he second i t i ons , c rea t i ve po l i t i c a l l e ade r sh ip cou ld make ad i f f e rence , Wha t l oca l l e ade r s cou ld no t do , and wha tI f a i l ed t o t ake su f f i c i en t l y i n to accoun t , was t o ove r -c o m e t h e d e e p a n d p e r s i s t e n t p r o b l e m s t h a t w o u l d i nl a t e r yea r s be caused by ex t ens ive i nne r -c i t y pove r ty ,


6/7

J U S T I F Y IN G D E M O C R A C Y / 3 91

t h e d e c l in e o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g j o b s , t h e s h r i n k i n g o ffede ra l funds , the g row th o f c r ime , and i nc rea sed so -c ia l d isintegra t ion.

I have so me t im es t hou gh t t ha t i f I we re t o unde r -t ake a s t udy l i ke W h o G o v e r n s? t o d a y , I w o u l d w a n tt o s a y m u c h m o r e a b o u t t h e q u e s t i o n o f l i m i t s a n do p p o r t u n i t i e s . Perhaps my in t e re s t i n t ha t ma t t e r ha sto do wi th t he p roce ss o f ag ing . In any ca se , l nowth ink more t han I once d id abou t how a l l l i f e i s g ivens t ruc tu re and mean ing by i t s l im i t s and oppor tun i t i e s ,by t he oppor tun i t i e s ava i l ab l e wi th in t hose l im i t s , andthe way those oppor tun i t i e s a re se i zed o r l o s t .

Though I t h ink W h o G o v e r , s ? was largely a va l idpor t r aya l o f t he po l i ti c s o f t he c i t y a t t he t ime , seen i nt h e p e r sp e c t i v e o f t o d a y ' s N e w H a v e n a n d o f c o m p a -r a b l e c it i es e l s e w h e r e , w h a t I p o r t r a y e d w o u l d b e t o oop t imi s t i c t oday . In t he nex t yea r o r so , my co l l eagueD o u g l a s R a e w i l l , I h o p e , p u b l i s h a b o o k a b o u t N e wHaven a s i t i s t oday , a book I expec t t o be o f unusua lo r ig ina l i t y , bo th i n subs t ance and me thodo logy . Fromwha t I have a l r eady seen o f i t , h i s book wi l l p robe t hep r o b l e m o f p o v e r t y in N e w H a v e n a n d o t h er c o m p a -rab l e c i t i e s f a r more deep ly t han ! d id o r t han anyonee l s e h a s t o m y k n o w l e d g e .

Whe the r po l i t i c a l l e ade r sh ip i n t he c i t y , t he s t a t e ,and t he na t i on wi l l r e spond to t he f a i r l y modes t andrea l i s t i c p roposa l s he wi l l make i s , howeve r , doub t -fu l . Consequen t ly I f ea r t he acu t e p rob l ems o f i nne r -c i t y pove r ty and soc i a l d i s i n t eg ra t i on wi l l r ema in wi thu s f o r m a n y y e a r s t o c o m e .The Inevitabil i ty of Inequality

I t h i n k b o t h t h e e c o n o m i c s y s t e m a n d t h e s t r u c -t u r e a n d o p e r a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n p o l i t ic s i n h i b it e f f o r t st o r e d u c e s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d p o l i t i c a l i n e q u a l i t y .I t i s i n h e r e n t i n a m o d e r n , p r i v a t e l y - o w n e d m a r k e te c o n o m y - - m a r k e t c a p i t al is m , i f y o u l i k e - - t h a t i t w i llg e n e r a t e i n e q u a l i t ie s : i n i n c o m e s , w e a l t h , s t a t u s ,s k i l l s , i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d a c c e s s t o c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ,and t hus i n pow er , i n f l uenc e , and au thor i t y . I do no tm e a n t ha t th e d y n a m i c s o f a m o d e r n m a r k e t e c o n o m yma ke i t mo re i nega l i t a r ian t han o the r h i s to r i ca l sys -t ems . I on ly mean tha t i t , l i ke t he o the r s , does l os t e ri n e q u a l it i e s . T h e s e c a n b e m i t i g a te d t o s o m e e x t e n tb y g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c i e s s u p p o r t e d b y e f f e c t i v e p o -l i t i c a l f o r c e s . T h e S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s h a v e c a r -r i e d t h e s e e f f o r t s a b o u t a s f a r a s i t m a y b e p o s s i b l e t og o w i t h o u t c r ea t in g e c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t v o t -e r s wi l l f i nd i n to l e rab l e .

Desp i t e a ve ry s t rong s t r a in o f soc i a l ega l i t a r i an -i sm in Amer i can cu l t u re , i n t he Uni t ed S t a t e s we havedone m uch l e ss to r educe i nequa l i t i e s l i ke t hose ! men-

t i o n e d t h an , s a y , S w e d e n , N o r w a y , a n d D e n m a r k . O n eof t he many rea sons fo r t h is i s t he na tu re o f t he Am er i -can po l i t i c a l sys t em, which makes i t e a s i e r fo r i n t e r -e s t g r o u p s t o i n t e r p o s e a v e t o o n p o l i c i e s t h a n f o rpo l i t i c a l l e ade r s t o fo rm and ma in t a in a coa l i t i on ca -pab l e o f i n t roduc ing changes . Ano the r r ea son i s t hec o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e e g a li ta r i an e l e m e n t o f A m e r i c a nideo logy and o the r e l emen t s t ha t run coun te r t o i t . Ina d d it i on , t h e s i z e a n d h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t he c o u n t r y - -g e o g r a p h i c , e th n i c , r ac i al , a n d i d e o l o g i c a l - - m a k e c o a -l i t i o n - b u i l d i n g e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t . T h e N e w D e a lcoa l i t i on t ha t Frank lin Ro ose ve l t pu t t oge the r i n themidd le o f the Grea t D epre s s ion was a r ar i ty , and i tu l t ima te ly co l l apsed .

A l t h o u g h t h e o r y a n d e v i d e n c e a r e i n c o n c l u s i v e , Ia m c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e g l o b a l e c o n o m y m a k e s i t m o r ed i f f i c u l t t o d e v i s e a n d e n a c t r e d i s t r i b u t i v e p o l i c i e s .Even in a coun t ry a s l a rge a s t he Uni t ed S t a t e s , wec a n n o l o n g e r m a k e e c o n o m i c p o l i c y b y t a k i n g o n l yd o m e s t i c f a c to r s i n to a c c o u n t . I d o u b t w h e t h e r w e e v e rsha ll be ab l e t o do so aga in .Political Systems

T h e d i f f i c u l t i e s I h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d in f o r m -i n g e f f e c t i v e c o a l i t i o n s f o r c h a n g e h a v e b e e n g r e a t l yi n c r e a s e d b y t h e d i s i n t e g r a t io n o f A m e r i c a n p o l i ti -c a l p a r t i e s a s r e l a t i v e l y c o h e s i v e e l e c t o r a l o r g a n i z a -t i ons . The pa r t i e s have d i s in t eg ra t ed i n to a ssoc i a t i onso f i n d i v id u a l p o l i t ic a l e n t r e p r e n e u r s , e a c h w i t h h iso r h e r o w n o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d f i n a n c i n g . T h e p a r t i e sd o r e m a i n s u r p r i s i n g l y c o h e s i v e ( b y A m e r i c a n , n o tE u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d s ) a s l e g i s l a t i v e p a r t ie s w i t h i n C o n -gre ss . Bu t Congre ss i s a t t he l im i t s o f i t s c apac i t i e sf o r c o o r d i n a t i o n . T o o m u c h n o w d e p e n d s o n t h e p r e s i-d e n t . A n d a s 1 h a v e a l r e a d y s a i d , b u i l d i n g a s t a b l ecoa l i t i on fo r change i s d i f f i cu l t , a s i s a l l t oo c l ea rf r o m P r e s i d e n t B i l l C l i n t o n ' s e f f o r t t o i n d u c e C o n -g r e s s t o a d o p t a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s y s t e m o f n a t i o n a lhea l t h ca re .

I am no t su re t ha t t he Amer i can po l i t i c a l sys t emp r o v i d e s a b e t t e r s o l u t i o n t h a n d o s o m e E u r o p e a nd e m o c r a t i c s y s t e m s t o t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e p o t en t i a lc o n f l i ct b e t w e e n g l o b a l i n t e r es t s a n d c o n s t i t u e n c y i n -t e re s t s . Among the coun t r i e s i n wh ich democra t i c i n -s t i tu t i ons have ex i s t ed i n t ac t s i nce 1950 , t he Am er i canpre s iden t i a l sys t em i s un ique . Inc iden t a l l y , one migh tb e t t e r c a l l it t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l - c o n g r e s s i o n a l s y s t e m ,because p robab ly no o the r na t i ona l l eg i s l a tu re i n t hewor ld i s a s i n f luen t i a l a s t he U.S . Congre ss .

I a m i n c l i n e d t o b e m u c h m o r e c r i t i c a l t h a n m yA m e r i c a n c o l l e a g u e s o f o u r p r e s i d e n ti a l -c o n g r e s s i o n a ls y s t e m . I t s e e m s t o m e t o h a v e f e w c o m p a r a t i v e a d -


7/7


vantages and some important disadvantages. As mycolleague Juan Linz and his collaborators show in theirimportant new book, T h e F a i h t r e o f P r e s i d e n t i a l D e -mocracy, outside the United States, particularly inLatin America, the presidential system has workedbadly, perhaps in some cases even contributing tobreakdowns in democratic government. In the UnitedStates itself, our presidential-congressional system isnot, in my view, working very well. In any case, I donot see that we have a better solution than do othercountries to the problem.

Although enlarging the boundaries of a politicalsystem may make it more effective in dealing withproblems of importance to citizens--defense, envi-ronmental issues, and trade, for example--the largerpolitical system will also be more remote from citi-zens, less accessible, and less participatory. The Eu-ropean parliament in Strasbourg will never be asdemocratical ly responsive and responsible as the na-tional parliament of, say, Denmark, or even of theUnited Kingdom. And the bureaucracies in Brusselswill be even less so. There is, then, an inevitabletrade-o ff between the greater effectiveness gained forthe political s y s t e m by enlarging it, and the effec-tiveness of c i t i z e n s as participants in the political lifeof that larger system. I do not have an overarchinganswer to that dilemma. If I were a Norwegian, how-ever, I would be strongly tempted to vote against ent ryinto the European Union on precisely that ground.

Luckily for me, it is up to the Norwegians, not me,to decide that question.

S U G G E S T E D F U R T H E R R E A D I N G

Robert A. Dahl and Charles E. Lindblom. Poli t ic s ,Economics , and We!f i tre . New Brunswick, N.J.:Transaction Publishers, 1993 (originally publishedin 1953).

Robert A. Dahl. A Pr

Documents

Justifying Democracy - Dahl