Julia Creasy B. Ed (primary) Supervisor Associate

Julia Creasy B. Ed (primary)

Supervisor – Associate Professor Peter Whipp

Faculty of Life and Physical Sciences

School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health

2010

PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE AND PRIMARY SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION

OUTCOMES

This thesis is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Science of

The University of Western Australia

For my husband, Rob

Your guidance and support has made the completion of

this thesis possible

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who supported me on the journey to

completion of this thesis.

I wish to thank the following people who were instrumental in providing me with the belief

that I could actually complete the demanding task of this thesis;

Associate Professor Peter Whipp guided me with unwavering support and patience through

every aspect of my thesis. He was always willing to answer my endless questions and discuss

my ideas. Peter’s understanding of the emotional demands of writing a thesis gave me the

courage to persist through the research process. In addition, his expertise and attention to

detail were greatly valued.

Winthrop Professor Bob Grove’s guidance on all the statistical aspects of this project was

invaluable. I appreciated his time, patience and expert knowledge.

I would like to acknowledge the willingness and enthusiasm with which the students

participated in this project. I am thankful for their acceptance of my presence in their PE

lessons and the honesty with which they responded to the questionnaire.

Finally, I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to the dedicated teacher participants.

I recognise that it is not easy to have a researcher examine your teaching practices. I truly

admire the enthusiasm and professionalism you have displayed in all aspects of this project. It

is your willing participation that has made this research project possible.

ii

ABSTRACT

Physical educators are required to provide children with the necessary skills to equip them for

successful participation in lifelong physical activity (Trost, 2005; Curriculum Council, 1998).

Hastie (1994) identifies the need to increase knowledge concerning teacher effectiveness by

identifying teacher characteristics that lead to higher levels of student achievement.

Knowledge of how to teach specific content in specific contexts has been defined by Melaldo,

Blanco & Ruiz (1998) as pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). This study served to determine

the extent to which the teachers were displaying PCK in their teaching. Furthermore, the

study aimed to explore the relationship between PCK and student outcomes along with the

relationship between PCK and the school.

Within this study, female PE teachers (n=5) and students (n=125, 9-13 years of age) from five

co-educational non-government schools, within the Perth metropolitan region participated in

the project in term two of 2008. These teachers were PE specialists, responsible for the

planning, teaching and assessing of PE in primary schools.

This study used Grossman (1990) to evidence PCK in teaching and evaluate the impact of PCK.

Grossman (1990) has defined four elements of PCK; knowledge and beliefs about the purpose

of teaching, knowledge of student's understanding of subject matter, knowledge of

instructional strategies and knowledge of curriculum content. To assess the impact of these

four theoretical elements, this study made them operational through the use of a rigorous,

practical data collection process. Firstly, the teacher’s theoretical belief system was

determined using Ennis and Chen’s (1995) VOI-2. This VOI-2 profile was then observed for in

the teaching, along with elements of the PE lesson such as; activity, activity focus, teaching

styles, opportunities provided for student to learn, as well as instructions and feedback. Data

from the students was gathered throughout the observed lessons to determine the behaviour

of the students and the activity output of a sub-set of representative students. Following the

observations, the students completed a questionnaire to quantify their feelings of enjoyment

towards the PE programme and PE teacher. At the completion of the observations, each

teacher was interviewed. The interview enabled teachers to describe their perceptions of

support provided to them by the school. All data gathered were used to determine the extent

to which the teachers were displaying (PCK) in their teaching and relates directly to

Grossman’s (1990) four elements of PCK.

iii

An analysis of teaching, student outcomes and the schools revealed that PCK related to many

factors observed. Teachers with rich PCK were observed to:

Demonstrate evidence of setting both broad and narrow goals was evident of teachers with rich PCK.

Communicate their goals and instructions as well as provided frequent corrective feedback to their students.

Maximise lesson time allocated to activity whilst minimising time allocated to management and transition between activities.

Obtain the highest enjoyment scores from their students even though a skills focus pre-dominated all observed lessons. It is interesting to note that overall enjoyment scores were high.

Provide opportunities for higher outcome (skills for physical activity) attainment.

Feel well supported by their school.

Overall, it was established that a teacher with rich PCK can provide opportunities for students

to be active, cooperative, enjoy the PE programme and learn.

Conversely, this study also found a small number of factors that did not appear to contribute

to PCK, these included:

PCK was not related to the specialist qualifications of the teacher.

PCK did not appear to impact on the opportunities the teachers provided for the students to be active. However, overall activity output levels were low across all observed lessons.

The study operationalised Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework to further explore PC K in

PE. A number of factors were identified as influencing PCK. The extent of this influence needs

to be elicited through further research. This research highlighted that students are enjoying PE,

regardless of the skills focus presented. If teachers were subjected to less pressure to prepare

students for competitions, there may be more teaching time allocated to outcomes other than

skills for physical activity. Overall activity output was low. Given the use of teacher centred

pedagogy and in the defined context, the PE activity recommendations (DET, 2010; CPAC,

2008) appear unachievable and potentially unrealistic. These activity outcomes may be best

served through programmes and initiatives external t the PE lesson time. This research

reiterates the importance of school support for PE teachers. Teachers need to be supported

by the school community to assist them to maximise the opportunities they provide for

student outcome attainment. From this research, it was clear that teacher PCK, student

outcomes and school support are inextricably linked.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

Acknowledgments i

Abstract ii

Table of contents iv

List of tables xii

List of figures xiii

Abbreviations xv

Chapter 1: Introduction

16

1.1 Statement of the problem 18

1.2 Purpose of the study 19

1.3 Justification of the study 19

1.4 Research questions 20

1.5 Definition of terms 20

1.6 Delimitations and limitations 21

1.7 Personal history of the researcher 23

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

24

2.1 Introduction 24

2.2 PE in primary schools 25

2.2.1 Attitude to PE 26

2.2.2 Gender 27

2.3 The teacher – Pedagogical Content Knowledge 27

2.3.1 PCK and teacher effectiveness 29

2.3.2 Elements of PCK 30

2.3.2.1 Experience & qualifications 30

2.3.2.2 Goals: Value Orientation, consistency between theory and action 33

2.3.2.3 Dialogue: Instructions, feedback 38

2.3.2.4 Teaching Styles 41

2.3.2.5 Lesson time allocation 42

2.3.2.6 Opportunities provided for students to display learning – Curriculum Framework Outcomes

43

2.4 The student – Student outcomes of PCK 45

2.4.1 Activity 45

2.4.1.1 Factors influencing PE participation 48

2.4.2 Enjoyment – Students’ attitude towards PE/PA 50

2.5 The school 52

v

2.5.1 Time allocated to PE/PA 53

2.5.2 School Support 53

2.5.3 PE programme rationale 55

2.5.3.1 Student interest/choice 55

2.5.4 Socioeconomic status 56

2.6 Summary 57

2.6.1 The teacher 58

2.6.2 The students 59

2.6.3 The school 59

2.6.4 Conclusion 59

Chapter 3: Methods and Procedures

61

3.1 Introduction 61

3.2 Overview of research design 61

3.3 Participants and setting 62

3.3.1 Ethics and rapport 62

3.4 Data collection procedures 63

3.4.1 Value orientation inventory-2 65

3.4.2 Case study classes 65

3.4.2.1 Observation schedule: Target student and whole class observations 66

3.4.2.2 Actigraph GT1M 67

3.4.2.3 Voice data: Instructions, feedback

3.4.2.4 Digital Video footage

68

3.4.2.5 Post lesson self-evaluation 69

3.4.3 Student enjoyment questionnaire 69

3.4.4 Teacher interviews 70

3.4.5 Summary of data 70

3.5 Piloting procedures 71

3.5.1 Piloting of value orientation inventory-2 72

3.5.2 Piloting of case study classes 73

3.5.2.1 Observation Schedule - Target student and whole class observations 74

3.5.2.2 Actigraph GT1M 74

3.5.2.3 Voice data 75

3.5.3 Piloting of student enjoyment questionnaire 75

3.5.4 Piloting of teacher interview questions 77

3.6 Data analysis 78

3.6.1 Value orientation inventory-2 78

vi

3.6.2 Parametric analysis 79

3.6.3 Non-parametric analysis 79

3.6.4 Descriptive analysis 80

Chapter 4: What is Happening in Primary School PE?

81

4.1 Geordie Bay Primary School 83

4.1.1 Background information 83

4.1.2 Overview of observed lessons 83

4.1.3 Pedagogical content knowledge 84

4.1.3.1 Qualifications & experience 85

4.1.3.2 Goals: Narrow, Value orientation, broad 85

4.1.3.3. Dialogue 87

4.1.3.4 Teaching styles 89


4.1.3.6 Opportunities provided for students to display learning 90

4.1.4 Student outcomes 91

4.1.4.1 Activity 92

4.1.4.2 Enjoyment 92

4.1.5 PE at Geordie Bay Primary School 93

4.1.5.1 Time allocated to PE/structured PA 93

4.1.5.2 Teacher Perception of School Support 94

4.1.5.3 PE programme rationale: Student interest 95

4.1.5.4 Socioeconomic status 95

4.1.6 Conclusion 96

4.2 Longreach Primary School 98






4.2.3.3. Dialogue 102





4.2.4.1 Activity 106


vii

4.2.5 PE at Longreach Primary School 108



4.2.5.3 PE programme rationale: Carnivals, exposure to new sports 109


4.2.6 Conclusion 111

4.3 Bathurst Primary School 113






4.3.3.3. Dialogue 117







4.3.5 PE at Bathurst Primary School 122



4.3.5.3 PE programme rationale: Carnivals, student interest, space 124



4.4 Salmon Bay Primary School 128






4.4.3.3. Dialogue 134






viii


4.4.5 PE at Salmon Bay Primary School 141



4.4.5.3 PE programme rationale: Rotational programme 142



4.5 Thomson Primary School 146






4.5.3.3. Dialogue 151







4.5.5 PE at Thomson Primary School 158



4.5.5.3 PE programme rationale: Carnivals, Student skills 160



4.6 Summary of what is happening in primary school PE 164

4.6.1 The teacher 164

4.6.1.1 Qualification and experience 164

4.6.1.2 Goals 164

4.6.1.3 Dialogue 164







ix

4.6.3 The school 166

4.6.3.1 Time allocated to PE/PA 166


4.6.3.3 Programme Rationale 167

4.6.3.4 SES 167

Chapter 5: Discussion – PCK and primary PE outcomes

168

5.1 Introduction 168

5.2 Is Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework for PCK evidenced in the field? 169

5.2.1 Which Teacher Behaviours Were Observed? 170

5.2.1.1 Teacher Qualification and Experience 172

5.2.1.2 Goals: Narrow, Value Orientation, Broad 172

5.2.1.3 Teacher Dialogue: Instruction, Feedback, summary 175

5.2.1.4 Teaching Style 182

5.2.1.5 Lesson Time Allocation: Summary 183


5.2.2 Which student outcomes were observed? 188


5.2.2.2 Enjoyment and cooperation 191

5.2.3 Practical Elements of Observed Lessons That Did Not Relate to Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical Framework for PCK

194

5.2.4 Practical Elements of Observed Lessons That Did Relate to Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical Framework for PCK

195

5.2.5 Summary of Evidence of Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical Framework for PCK in the Field

196

5.3 What is the relationship between PCK and the school? 198

5.3.1 Time allocated to PE/structured PA 198

5.3.1.1 Summary – Time Allocated to PE/Structured PA 199

5.3.2 Teacher Perception of School Support 200

5.3.2.1 Summary – Teacher Perception of School Support 202

5.3.3 PE programme Rationale 202

5.3.3.1 Teacher perception of support from colleagues 202

5.3.3.2 Student interest 203

5.3.3.3 Carnivals 203

5.3.3.4 Multi Age Grouping 203

5.3.3.5 Previous teacher designed programme 204

5.3.3.6 Space 204

5.3.3.7 Summary – PE Programme Rationale 206

x

5.3.4 Socioeconomic status 206

5.3.4.1 Summary – Socioeconomic Status 208

CHAPTER 6: Conclusions and Recommendations

209

6.1 Introduction 209

6.2 Conclusions 209

6.2.1 Evidence of Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical Framework in the primary school PE ball sports unit

209

6.2.1.1 Elements of the theoretical framework that did not relate to PCK in the primary school PE ball sports unit

210

6.2.1.2 Elements of the theoretical framework did relate to PCK in the primary school PE ball sports unit

210

6.2.1.3 Summary – Evidence of Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical Framework primary school PE ball sports unit

211

6.2.2 PCK does impact on outcomes of enjoyment 211

6.2.3 Perceived School Support Impacts on PCK 212

6.2.4 A Teacher with Rich PCK Can Provide Opportunities for Students to Be Busy, Happy, Good and Learn

212

6.3 Recommendations for future research 215

6.3.1 Teacher 215


6.3.2 Student Outcomes 218



6.3.3 The School 219


References 221

xi

APPENDICES

A Grossman (1990) schematic – detailed 237

B Value Orientation Inventory – 2 241

C Observation schedule with explanation of terminology 248

D Completed observation schedule 252

E Lesson transcript – not coded 257

F Lesson transcript – coded 266

G Student Enjoyment Questionnaire 275

H Teacher interview – transcribed and coded 282

I Teacher self-evaluation – post observation 284

J Grossman (1990) schematic - brief 285

K Human Research Ethics approval 286

L Statement of Disclosure – school principal 288

M Informed consent – school principal 290

N Statement of Disclosure – teacher – initial phase 291

O Statement of Disclosure and informed consent– teacher – second phase 294

P Statement of Disclosure and passive consent – parents 297

Q Actigraph data summary 299

R Summary of video footage and coded voice data 301

S Case study data summary – teachers 302

T Case study data summary – students 304

U Case study data summary – schools 305

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.4.1.1

Summary of Key Attributes for Current Methods to Measure Physical Activity in Children and Adolescents (Trost, 2007)

47

Table 2.4.2.1

Mean Scores from Student Enjoyment Questionnaire (Hashim, Grove & Whipp, 2007)

52

Table 3.4.5.1 Summary of Data: Piloting, Collection Methods and Analysis 72

Table 3.5.1.1 Changes Made to the VOI-2 73

Table 3.5.3.1 Changes Made to the Items on the Enjoyment Questionnaire 76

Table 3.5.3.2 Changes Made to the Five Point Likert Scale on the Student Enjoyment Questionnaire

77

Table 5.2.1.6.1 Opportunities Provided for Curriculum Framework HPE Outcomes 187

Table 5.2.2.2.1

Mean Scores from Student Enjoyment Questionnaire – Comparison of Students in Two Projects

191

Table 5.3.1.1 Weekly Opportunities for PE/Structured PA (mins) 198

Table5.3.3.6.1 Space Utilised and Percentage of Lesson Time in MVPA 205

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Schematic Model for the impact of PCK on Primary PE Outcomes 18

Figure 2.1.1 PCK and Primary PE Outcomes 24




Figure 2.7.4.1 PCK and Primary PE Outcomes 59

Figure 2.7.4.2 Conceptual Framework for PCK in Primary School PE 60


Figure 3.6.1.1 Z score graph detailing priority cut offs (Adapted from Bourne, 2009) 79

Figure 4.1 PCK and Primary PE Outcomes 81

Figure 4.1.3.2.1 Melanie’s VOI-2 Profile 86

Figure 4.1.3.3.1 Transcribed Voice Data (mean % of total words spoken by Melanie) 89

Figure 4.1.3.5.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Melanie’s Lessons

90

Figure 4.1.4.2.1 Activity Intensity Analysis (% of lesson time) of Geordie Bay Primary School students by Gender

93

Figure 4.1.5.4.1 MVPA Comparisons and SES Score of Participating Schools 96

Figure 4.2.3.2.1 Kate’s VOI-2 Profile 101

Figure 4.2.3.3.1 Transcibed Voice Data (mean % of total words spoken by Kate) 103

Figure 4.2.3.5.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Kate’s lessons

105

Figure 4.2.5.4.1 MVPA comparisons and SES rank of Participating Schools 111

Figure 4.3.3.2.1 Sarah’s VOI-2 Profile 115

Figure 4.3.4.3.1 Transcribed Voice Data (mean % of total words spoken by Sarah) 118

Figure 4.3.3.5.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Sarah’s Lessons

119

Figure 4.3.5.4.1 MVPA Comparisons and SES Rank of Participating Schools 126

Figure 4.4.3.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Emma’s lessons

131

xiv

Figure 4.4.3.2.1 Emma’s VOI-2 Profile 132

Figure 4.4.3.3.1 Voice Data from AFL Lessons Compared with Netball Lessons 134

Figure 4.4.3.3.2 Voice Data (mean % of total words spoken by Emma) 135

Figure 4.4.3.5.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Emma’s lessons

137

Figure 4.4.4.2.1 Schools Measures of Enjoyment (mean scores) 140

Figure 4.4.5.4.1 MVPA comparisons and SES rank of participating schools 143

Figure 4.5.3.2.1 Nina’s VOI-2 Profile 149

Figure 4.5.3.3.1 Transcribed Voice Data (mean % of total words spoken by Nina) 152

Figure 4.5.3.5.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Nina’s lessons

154

Figure 4.5.5.4.1 MVPA comparisons and SES rank of participating schools 157

Figure 4.5.4.1.2 Mean MVPA comparison by lesson 161

Figure 5.2.1.1 Teacher Behaviours Linked to Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical Framework

171

Figure 5.2.1.3.1 Mean Percentage of Learning Instructions (of total words spoken) by School

177

Figure 5.2.1.3.2 Percentage of Corrective Feedback of Total Words Spoken 180

Figure 5.2.1.5.1 Percentage of Lesson Time Allocated, by School 184

Figure 5.2.1.5.2 Percentage of Learning and Management Instruction Delivered 185

Figure 5.2.2.1.1 Percentage of Lesson Time Students Wearing ActiGraph Monitors Engaged in MVPA

190

Figure 5.2.2.2.1 Schools Measures of Enjoyment (mean scores) 192

Figure 5.2.3.1 Practical Elements that did not appear to relate to PCK 194

Figure 5.2.4.1 Practical Elements that Did Appear to Relate to PCK 195

Figure 5.2.5.1 Practical Elements of PCK that did relate to Grossman’s Theoretical Framework for PCK

197


206

Figure 6.2.4.1 PCK and Primary PE Outcomes 213


Figure 6.3.1.1 Relevance and Importance of the Practical Elements of Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical Framework for PCK

216

xv

ABBREVIATIONS

A&V Attitudes and Values

CF Curriculum Framework

FMS Fundamental Movement Skills

HPE Health and Physical Education

IPS Interpersonal Skills

K&U Knowledge and Understanding

LA Learning Area

PA Physical Activity

PCK Pedagogical Content Knowledge

PE Physical Education

SMS Self-management Skills

SES Socioeconomic status

SPA Skills for Physical Activity

16

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Australian children are less active, less physically coordinated and skilled and less fit than ever

before (Morgan, 2005). Physical inactivity is a leading contributor to Australia’s growing

burden of chronic disease – especially heart disease, type 2 diabetes and some cancers. There

are alarming trends of increased overweight and obesity and inactivity in our children, and

there is growing evidence regarding the adverse health and social effects of these trends

(CPAC, 2008).

Habits and attitudes towards physical activity are formed early and are thought to track into

adulthood (Malina 1996; Pate, Baranowski, Dowda, & Trost, 1996). Therefore, schools are

ideally placed to positively influence the physical activity habits of children as they are integral

in the development of the healthy/active lifestyles of the future.

Physical educators are required to provide children with the necessary skills to equip them for

successful participation in lifelong physical activity (Trost, 2005; Curriculum Council, 1998).

Furthermore, to motivate and engage the students, the Physical Education (PE) programme

should meet their needs as well as be enjoyable (Curriculum Council, 1998). In addition,

physical educators are seen to be in a prime position to combat inactivity. The role of the

physical educator is clearly important. It is therefore surprising that students are allocated just

60 minutes a week to develop skills and understandings that aim to combat the vast adverse

health and social effects of inactivity.

To achieve the desired outcomes, effective teaching in PE is essential. Siedentop (1983)

defined eight strategies for effective teaching:

1. Devote a large percentage of time to content

2. Minimise management/wait/transition time in class routines

3. Devote high percentage of content time to practise

4. Keep students on task

5. Assign tasks that are meaningful and matched to students abilities

6. Keep the learning environment supportive and set high but realistic expectations

7. Give lessons smoothness and momentum

8. Hold students accountable for learning

However researcher Carr (1989) has explored the term ‘quality teaching’ which goes beyond

the expectations of effective teaching to the achievement of pre-specified objectives.

17

Similarly, researchers Tinning, Macdonald, Wright and Hickey (2001) have explained that

quality teaching should involve:

Teachers striving to make lessons meaningful, purposeful and enjoyable

Teachers reflecting on their practice and the performance of students to differentiate

what they think they are doing from what is actually happening

The elements of effective and quality teaching have been found in pedagogical content

knowledge (PCK). Teachers need a combination of knowledge of teaching and how children

learn as well as subject knowledge. Teachers with strong PCK are able to present information

in a variety of ways to assist children to learn (Grossman, 1990). Furthermore, they are able to

implement a variety of instructional skills and are concerned with student performance that

goes beyond participation and cooperation (Hastie & Vlaisalvljevic , 1999). However, the

complicating factor is that PCK is sport specific. In other words, a teacher can possess strong

PCK in one sport, but not in another.

It could be postulated that PCK influences student outcomes. Teachers with strong PCK will

provide students with greater opportunities to achieve outcomes than teachers with weak

PCK. To what extent this relationship exists is unknown. Activity, enjoyment and learning of

the necessary skills, knowledge and understandings are all key outcomes of a quality PE

programme. Achievement of these outcomes will enable students to participate more

successfully in a healthy, active lifestyle as they progress on to adolescents and adulthood.

Whilst The Department of Education and Training (Western Australia) has mandated minimum

time allocation for PE, this being 120 minutes of physical activity each week as part of the

school learning programme, schools are responsible for implementing it. The support that the

school community provides appears to influence the PE teachers PCK (Amade-Escot, 2000;

Rovegno & Bandhauer, 1997). Schools are in an immensely powerful position to influence the

success of the PE programme which in turn will influence the lifelong activity habits of the

students. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that PE teachers are well supported.

There is a need to evaluate the impact of PE teacher’s PCK on student outcomes. The main

focus of this evaluation was to determine the influence of the teacher, school and student on

PCK and primary PE outcomes.

PCK was evaluated by operationalising Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework (Appendix A).

Prior to the commencement of the lessons, each teacher completed the Value Orientation

18

Inventory-2 (Ennis & Chen, 1995) to establish each teacher’s goals for student learning

(Appendix B). A modified observation schedule (Whipp, Grove, & Hutton, 2006) was used to

gather data during PE lessons (Appendices C and D). In addition, all teacher voice data were

recorded using a digital voice recorder. It was then transcribed and coded (Appendices E and

F). Each lesson was video-taped.

Three elements of student outcomes were evaluated. The activity intensity and duration was

established through the use of ActiGraph GT1M (2007) accelerometer-based activity monitors.

Evidence of teaching within the five outcomes of the HPE Curriculum Framework (Curriculum

Council, 1998) was gathered to provide a lens to determine student learning opportunities.

Student enjoyment was evaluated by administering the Student Enjoyment Questionnaire

(Hashim, Grove, & Whipp, 2007) (Appendix G).

The participating teachers were interviewed to evaluate the perceived level of support

afforded by the school (Appendix H). In addition, the teacher interview confirmed the time

allocated to PE and fitness programmes at the school.

Gathering data from the teacher, students and school were necessary components in

determining the impact of PCK on primary PE outcomes. The schematic model that guided this

evaluation is shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Schematic Model for the impact of PCK on Primary PE Outcomes

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The role of the PE teacher is becoming increasingly important as a result of increasing obesity

and inactivity in Australian children (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006). A key aim of the PE

learning area is to equip students to be able to successfully participate in physical activity

through adulthood (Curriculum Council, 1998). However, there has been limited research into

Teacher

PCK

Student

Student

Outcomes

The

School

PCK and Primary PE Outcomes

19

the relationship between a teacher’s subject matter knowledge as well as his/her teaching

skills (Pedagogical Content Knowledge) and student outcomes. Pedagogical Content

Knowledge (PCK) has been explored in a theoretical context; however, there is a paucity of

research that explores the impact of PCK in the field and the student outcomes associated with

teacher PCK as well as the influence of the school on teacher PCK.

1.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study was to:

Operationalise a theoretical framework for PCK

Determine the extent to which a theoretical framework for PCK is evidenced in the

field

Explore the relationship between PCK and student outcomes

Investigate the relationship between PCK and the school

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

This research is important to PE teachers, students and schools. With some students

becoming disengaged by school PA/PE programmes (Tinning & Fitzclarence, 1992) and fewer

students involved in sport outside of school (Booth, et al., 1997), a love of PE needs to be

installed in the students.

This research aims to create a ‘snap shot’ of existing primary school pedagogy. The rich data

collected will enable researchers to analyse teaching practices, student outcomes and the

impact of the school on PE programmes. This will be achieved through the validation of an

existing theoretical framework. This theoretical framework will be made operational by

gathering data related to observable and practical elements of teacher and student behaviour.

Identifying the extent to which teachers are displaying PCK in their teaching will potentially

enable teachers to improve their teaching practice and further understand teaching qualities

that elicit better student outcomes. Improved student outcomes will ideally lead to

“confident participation in sport and recreational activities” (Curriculum Council, 1998, p.113).

20

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Q1 How was Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework evidenced in the primary school PE ball

sports unit?

Which elements of the theoretical framework did relate to PCK in the primary school

PE ball sports unit?

Which elements of the theoretical framework did not relate to PCK in the primary

school PE ball sports unit?

Q2 What is the relationship between PCK and the school?

1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Affective Goals: Broad goals for the development of feelings, attitudes, values and/or social

skills.

Classroom teacher (non-specialist): generalist primary school teacher responsible for one class

of students only.

Curriculum Framework: an outcomes-based framework provided by the Western Australian

Curriculum Council (1998) to assist teachers to develop programmes and assess the

effectiveness of their teaching by the outcomes students achieve.

Curriculum Framework, Skills for Physical Activity, Level 2: ‘students demonstrate a

wide range of fundamental movement skills and an awareness of rules and other

participants in simple games and physical activities’ (Curriculum Council, 1998)

Curriculum Framework, Skills for Physical Activity, Level 3: ‘students perform

controlled movement skills and demonstrate basic game strategies within rules in

minor games and physical activities’ (Curriculum Council 1998)

Goals: broadly defined outcomes of an education programme.

Health and Physical Education: one of the eight learning areas in the Curriculum Framework

that aims to provide student with an understanding of health issues, as well as the skills

needed for confident participation in sport and recreational activities.

21

Outcomes (Curriculum Framework): outcomes is the term used to demote what the student

should be able to do, use, show and understand as a result of their learning within the

Learning Area Outcome of Health and Physical Education.

Outcomes (General): is the term used to denote what behaviours, attitudes and feelings the

student has demonstrated as part of the overall experience, e.g., enjoyment, participation.

Physical education specialist: term applied to teachers employed in the primary school system

that are responsible for the delivery of the PE curricula across many classes in the school.

Physical Activity: Exercise as well as other activities which involve bodily movement and are

done as part of playing, working, active transportation, house chores and recreational

activities (World Health Organisation, 2010).

Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity: Physical activity resulting in ≥ 3 MET’s (Metabolic

equivalent) derived from the energy expenditure equation developed by Freedson, Pober, and

Jansz (2005).

Pedagogical Content Knowledge: The combination of content knowledge, general pedagogical

knowledge and the knowledge of the learners (Grossman, 1990).

Value Orientation: “A description of teachers’ goals for student learning” (Ennis & Zhu, 1991,

p. 33).

Fitness programme: Mass participation aerobic exercise, often without a skills focus.

Generally conducted for 10 – 20 minutes each session. Focus is on activity rather than skill

attainment.

1.6 DELIMITATIONS AND LIMITATIONS

1.6.1 All specialist PE teachers in one education sector were invited to participate in this

project. Only five teachers accepted the invitation to take part. Therefore, the

information gathered and the conclusions drawn may not be representative of all

Western Australian primary schools.

1.6.2 Participating teachers may not be representative of the primary PE teaching

community. As the study was voluntary, there is the possibility the sample was biased

towards teachers with an interest in latest research outcomes in PE.

22

1.6.3 As the sample was restricted to one education sector, it is possible that the

information gathered will not be representative of the behaviours of teachers and

student in the larger Western Australian primary school community.

1.6.4 The researcher was not officially blind to the details of the participants. However the

results from the Value Orientation Inventory -2 (Ennis & Chen, 1993) were not

analysed prior to the observed lessons. This was done to reduce the impact of any

preconceived ideas that this may form.

1.6.5 During the observations, the researcher was in attendance as a non-participatory

observer. This may have impacted on the behaviour of some students.

1.6.6 The case study observations necessarily incorporate the researcher’s perceptions of

what was happening in the class setting. However, efforts were made to avoid biased

interpretations through the use of systematic observation schedule concentrating only

on observable behaviours and events (Appendix C). In addition, the observation

schedule was piloted over six PE lessons with an experienced researcher. All

discrepancies in observations were resolved by means of discussion between

researchers at the conclusion of the observed lesson. The case study observations

produced descriptive information only.

1.6.7 The student questionnaire consisted of statements from a validated instrument that

was reworded to suit a primary school population (Appendix G). This could potentially

affect the sensitivity of the measure used. However, statements that statistically

loaded most strongly were used in the questionnaire to reduce this effect.

1.6.8 Participating teachers were asked to present lessons that reflect their ‘normal’

teaching. Potentially, teachers could have presented a lesson that was not reflective

of their normal teaching. To attempt to overcome this, teachers were asked to self-

evaluate their teaching at the completion of each lesson to indicate if their lesson and

student participation was a fair representation of their teaching (Appendix I).

1.6.9 The timescale (4 weeks) of this project and the limited number of observations (3-4

observations per school), limit the conclusions that can be drawn. To overcome this,

controls were put in place to limit the impact of variables (gender of teacher, age of

students, ball sports unit and sector of education).

23

1.7 PERSONAL HISTORY OF THE RESEARCHER

Whilst it is impossible to remove ones values and experiences from the design and processes

of social research, the researcher can ensure that they examine their values in relation to the

context or situation being studied. It is therefore important that the researcher be identified

in a personal and professional context, whilst attempting to reflect on their own core values

and attitudes that underpin this study. In doing so, the researcher is prepared to admit that

values do play a significant part in inquiry and to take them into account to whatever extent is

necessary.

Sport, PE and physical activity have always held significant interest to the researcher. As a

successful team, individual and recreational sporting participant, early school PE classes served

to reinforce the value and important of these activities. Undoubtedly these school

experiences and influences of teachers and sporting mentors all served to influence an

enrolment and completion of a Bachelor of Education at Edith Cowan University in Western

Australia. On completion of this degree, the researcher maintained an interest in sport and

began to develop a particular interest in PE pedagogy and student participation, including

being actively involved in the teaching, planning and assessing of the PE programme for eight

years. Out of school, the researcher continued to participate in a variety of sports as well as

teaching swimming. More recently, the researcher has accepted a position as a unit

coordinator and lecturer in the HPE unit which is part of a graduate entry Master of Teaching

(early childhood and primary) qualification. The role of unit coordinator and lecturer involves

ensuring that pre-service teachers are presented with the most relevant research, teacher

education and practical training that enables them to become effective teachers of PE.

A particular interest is the development of skills and participation in PE evolved from both

classroom and PE teaching for eight years in an independent primary school. The researcher

believes that primary school PE teachers play a vital role in providing a foundation for future

activity. It is therefore essential that the primary school PE experience enables students to

acquire the necessary skills, understanding and values needed to enjoy a lifelong participation

in physical activity.

24

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

An active child is more likely to grow up to be an active adult and an inactive child is more

likely to grow up to be an inactive adult (World Health Organisation, 2000). It is therefore

imperative that young children engage in quality Physical Education (PE) in order for them to

develop a lifelong physically active lifestyle. These lifelong activity patterns need to be

established early in life to enable children to possibly enjoy the longer term benefits of

physical activity (PA) outside of school (Trudeau & Shephard, 2005).

Given that schools provide the only physical activity (PA) for some children, developing an

understanding of what is happening in school PE programmes is imperative to the needs of the

students and teachers (Trudeau & Shephard, 2005). This review of related literature explores

five key elements of primary school PE:

Benefits of PA and current PA habits

PE in primary schools

The teacher – Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

The students – Student Outcomes of PCK

The school

Figure 2.1.1 PCK and Primary PE Outcomes

Teacher

PCK

Student

Student

Outcomes

The

School


25

Figure 2.1.1 illustrates the interrelationship between the three key elements of this research

project; the teacher, the student and the school. This project aims to determine the

relationship as well as the impact of the relationship between:

The PCK of the teacher

The opportunities for students to display PE outcomes

The school

2.2 PE IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Physical education is one of the eight key learning areas in the WA primary school curriculum.

These classes should provide students with opportunities for skill development, health related

fitness improvements, and opportunities to explore attitudes and values, interpersonal and

self-management skills (Curriculum Council, 1998). Physical education needs to provide

students with challenges and be seen as fun, engaging and meaningful. It also needs to

provide students with activities that develop, refine and extend skills and strategies (Siedentop

& Tannehill, 2000). Physical education in primary schools has the potential to support the

physical, psychomotor, cognitive, emotional and social development of students (Morgan,

2005). Primary schools are ideally placed to influence the physical activity behaviour of

children. Through the delivery of quality PE, schools have the opportunity to encourage the

development of positive attitudes and practices in order to achieve an active lifestyle (Morgan,

2004, 2005).

In 1983, Placek explored how PE teachers think about success in teaching. Placek concluded

that unfortunately, many teachers do not view teaching success as related to student learning.

Rather, many teachers measure the success of their PE programme by the extent to which

students are participating (busy), enjoying themselves (happy) and doing as the teacher

instructs them to (good). This research highlights the need to encourage PE teachers to foster

an awareness and desire to provide opportunities for students to learn, so that students are

busy, happy, good and learning. After all, literature clearly identifies the importance of

equipping students with the necessary skills, values and understandings to enable them to

enjoy lifelong participation in physical activity (Trudeau & Shephard, 2005).

Primary school PE is considered to be the most important environment for children to develop

fundamental movement skills (FMS) as these skills are more difficult to acquire in the

adolescent years. It is these FMS that are essential for continued participated in PA. Without

26

FMS, children struggle to derive a feeling of success and enjoyment when participating in PA

and see children excluding themselves from PA due to the risk of experiencing failure (Maeda

& Murata, 2004; Morgan, 2005).

Frequently ‘curriculum change’ is cited as a recommendation for improving the quality of PA in

school PE (Curriculum Council, 1998; Morgan, 2005; Premier's Physical Activity Task Force,

2002). Curriculum innovation is more often than not implemented via a ‘top down’ approach.

Experts advise school leaders of change and the teacher is expected to implement these

changes into his/her programme of planning, teaching and assessment, (Curriculum Council,

1998). In reality, curriculum innovation will not be implemented until the teacher decides to

put it into action. Cuban (cited in Chen & Ennis, 1996, p. 353) asserts that the teacher is in

control of the final stage of curriculum implementation with little supervision from other

professionals. The acceptance or rejection of new knowledge is a key factor in curriculum

improvement and in the enhancement of student learning in PE (Ennis, 1994). Even though

curriculum may change, Value Orientations (VO) may not adapt to the proposed changes. This

is due to the strength of a teacher’s beliefs that have originated from the time the teacher

commenced school as a student. Conversely, teachers are able to display many aspects of

their VO profile in their teaching when they derive a sense of autonomy in the educational

setting (Ennis, 1994; Ennis & Chen, 1993; Ennis & Chen, 1995; Ennis, Ross, & Chen, 1992; Ennis,

Cothrane, & Loftus, 1997; Ennis & Zhu, 1991).

The earlier a belief is added into the value structure, the more imbedded it will be in the

teacher’s attitudes towards curriculum, making it complicated to change (Kulinna & Silverman,

1999). This results in the curriculum change not taking place as the teacher’s VO may be

stronger than the need to implement ‘top down’ policies. When the curriculum is consistent

with the beliefs of the teacher, changes are more likely to take place. Conversely, if there is a

variation between curriculum expectations and VO, the teacher is less likely to teach

effectively. This issue is impacted on by the need for more professional development and

teacher support, particularly to generalist teachers on PE. Given the potential benefit to

students of involvement in PE programmes, it is deemed essential by some that qualified and

competent teachers teach PE (Morgan, Bourke, & Thompson, 2002).

2.2.1 Attitude to PE

A teacher’s attitude towards PE may have a profound effect on a student’s attitudes to PE

(Morgan, et al., 2002). Smith (cited in Morgan, 2002, p. 2) has reported that the attitude of

the teacher is one of the most essential factors in the success of primary PE programme. In

27

particular, a teacher’s affective disposition may impact on a student’s PE experience and

subsequently exert a significant influence on their PE experience (Aicinena, 1991; Carlson,

1995). In an Australian study, comparing 681 physical educators (specialists and generalists)

perceptions about PE, it was concluded that specialists possessed a very positive attitude

towards teaching PE. In addition, they held very strong beliefs about the benefits of

participation in PE (Morgan, et al., 2002).

2.2.2 Gender

Female teachers represent 68% of the teaching staff in all Australian primary and secondary

schools, whilst males represent 31% of teaching staff in Australian schools (Australian Bureau

of Statistics, 2006). A variety of results have been reported, comparing the attitudes and

perceived confidence to teach of males and females. Morgan (2004) explored perceptions

about PE of practising and prospective teachers from both specialist and generalist education

backgrounds. Perceptions of 681 teachers of PE were sampled. Females appeared to hold

stronger beliefs about the benefits of PE. Female specialists possessed higher levels of

confidence to teach PE. Inservice generalist teachers tended to display a less positive attitude

and weaker beliefs towards PE. In 2005, Morgan investigated pre-service and primary school

teachers’ perspectives of PE teaching confidence and PE teacher education. He discovered

that male teachers displayed a more confident attitude to teaching major games, motor skills,

fitness and athletics. Females were more confident teaching dance. Overall, females appear

to hold a more positive attitude towards the benefits of teaching PE, however males evidently

possess a more confident attitude towards teaching PE.

2.3 THE TEACHER – PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE


Teacher

PCK Student

Student

Outcomes

Outcomes

The

School

28

Schools are seen as the primary social institution responsible for promoting PA among young

people (Sallis & Owen, 1999). The responsibilities of the school appear to be twofold –

educating children physically and simply getting children active (Morgan, 2005). Schools are in

an ideal position to influence the PA and lifestyle habits made by children (Morgan, 2004).

Effective teaching is required for students to maximise opportunities for students to achieve

the Health Physical Education (HPE) outcomes. Effective teachers teach with an obvious focus

and intent on student learning (Castelli & Rink, 2003). Effective teachers are responsive to the

learning needs of their students through mastering important subject content, integrating

concepts and implementing teaching strategies that are responsive to a wide range of learner

needs and abilities (Jewett & Bain, 1985). The overall aim is to engage students with the

content at a high level through appropriate progressions for prolonged periods of time

incorporating some form of student choice (Rink, 1992, 1996) whilst providing effective,

specific feedback and delivery of instructions to the students. Characteristics of effective

teaching are not specific to any style of teaching. Effective teaching skills permeate teaching

styles and the presence of effective teaching is more important than teaching styles

(Siedentop, Herkowitz, & Rink, 1984).

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is a representation of the teacher knowledge of the

curriculum content. This requires the teacher to determine goals and outcomes in order to

deliver an effective PE curriculum. PCK is one of the seven suggested knowledge bases

required for teaching (Shulman, 1986, 1987). Good (1990) suggested that “PCK indicates

teachers abilities to use effectively (from the knowledge they possess about the subject) those

ideas that are important to teach to students” and “especially includes the ability to

communicate or to structure learning activities so that students can understand” (p. 40). PCK

is knowledge of how to teach specific content in specific contexts (Mellado, Blanco, & Ruiz,

1998). However, PCK is specific to particular subject matter, in other words, a PE teacher may

possess rich PCK when teaching basketball, but not when teaching soccer (Grossman, 1990).

It has been proposed that both a teacher’s pedagogical knowledge (what they know about

teaching) and a teacher’s subject matter knowledge (what they know about what they teach)

are crucial to developing students understanding of the content and quality teaching practices

(Appleton & Harrison, 2001; Buchman, 1984; Buchman & Schwille, 1983). This has been

illustrated in Figure 2.4.1. PCK is influenced by content knowledge, general pedagogical

knowledge and the knowledge of the learners. The key to distinguishing the knowledge base

29

for teaching lies in the intersection of these influences (Shulman, 1987). However, content

knowledge is not enough to enable a teacher to teach the curriculum effectively.

2.3.1 PCK and Teacher Effectiveness

As previously mentioned, content knowledge alone is not enough to guarantee successful

teaching. Knowledge of teaching methods is also an essential determinant of successful

teaching (Good, 1990). Siedentop and Tannehill (2000) suggest that to foster an

accomplishment of important learning goals over an extended period of time, the teacher

needs to know about the activity and how to transform that knowledge and use it directly to

assist student goal attainment.

Tinning (1992) explained that just knowing enough to the point of being able to teach the

content without the ability to articulate how it is done was a form of ‘weak’ practical content

knowledge. This was seen as inferior to translating their knowledge about an activity and

delivering it with relevance and understanding to a particular group of learners.

In 1999, researchers, Hastie and Vlaisalvljevic examined the teaching behaviours of teachers

(n=9) with both high and low subject matter expertise from a large metropolitan high school in

Australia. They concluded that teachers with high subject matter expertise when compared to

teachers with low subject matter expertise displayed the following teaching behaviours:

1. They provided more tasks per lesson. These consisted of large tasks being broken

down into doable tasks and tasks that extended students who displayed proficiency in

the initial task.

2. They displayed a vast array of instructional skills.

3. They were concerned with the quality of student performance – participation and

cooperation was not enough.

These conclusions concur with the work of Grossman (1990) who has suggested that teachers

with strong PCK are able to present subject matter in a variety of ways to assist students to

understand.

In conclusion, teacher effectiveness is reliant on the possession of high levels of PCK and an

environment which fosters the development and implementation of these teaching qualities

to enhance the learning experience.

30

2.3.2 Elements of PCK

Grossman (1990) has defined four central elements of PCK:

1. Knowledge and beliefs about the purpose of teaching: They set broad and narrow

goals

2. Knowledge of students’ understanding of subject matter: They understand each

student’s prior knowledge and understanding

3. Knowledge of curriculum content

4. Knowledge of instructional strategies: They utilise a repertoire of teaching approaches

Whilst clearly defined in theory, in teaching practice, these four elements are inextricably

linked. The sub-headings to follow enable a practical analysis of each element to take place in

order to allow PCK to become even more salient in both research and teaching practice.

Appendices A and J demonstrate the connection between Grossman’s (1990) theoretical

structure of PCK and the observable, practical elements of teacher and student behaviour as

detailed below.

2.3.2.1 Experience & Qualifications

Experience

Stereotypically, experienced teachers of PE place a high priority on traditional content and

teaching methods. Research using the VOI, conducted by Ennis & Zhu (1991) concluded that

this stereotype was not evident, finding no correlation between experience and value

orientation. This may be due to teachers needing to put aside traditional sport and fitness

goals in order to address the personal and social problems faced by the students (Ennis & Zhu,

1991). As a consequence, the nature of the school context influences teacher’s attitudes and

the way the teacher implements the curriculum (Silverman & Ennis, 1996).

Teachers develop strong belief systems that may influence their curriculum and teaching

(Kulinna & Silverman, 1999). These belief systems remain stable over time and are generally

established during the first ten years of teaching. Teachers with 10-20 years of experience are

more stable and less likely to change. Teachers with 20 years of experience have firmly

established beliefs and are very unlikely to change at all (Curtner-Smith & Meek, 2000).

Teaching and learning belief systems begin to develop from the time children start school. The

strength of teachers attitudes about teaching and learning are related to the connection

31

among the attitudes in their belief system (Kulinna & Silverman, 1999). Behets (2001) used

the VOI to examine and compare the value profiles of 274 pre-service teachers and 637 in-

service teachers. These results concur with those of Kulinna & Silverman (1999). Behets

(2001) found value profiles to be stable over time. The only significant difference between

pre-service and in-service teachers was found in the orientation of Learning Process. These

findings were also reported by Ennis and Zhu (1991). Teacher VO profile generally forms

during the first 10 years of service. VO of teachers with between 10-20 years of experience is

more stable and less likely to change (Curtner-Smith & Meek, 2000).

Qualifications – Specialist Teachers of PE

For the purpose of this study, specialist teachers of PE (specialists) are those that are

responsible for the planning, teaching and assessing of PE in primary schools. Specialists have

received teacher training focussed on the health and PE learning area at either an

undergraduate or postgraduate level.

Specialist teachers would be able to provide effective instruction and teach classes with

greater periods of active time (Xiang, Lowy, & McBride, 2002). They would also be more

interested and gain more enjoyment from teaching PE than generalists (Morgan & Bourke,

2004). Siedentop and Eldar (1989) explored the concept of teacher expertise through a study

of seven effective specialist teachers for one year. Expertise is specific to subject matter and

context. Whilst experience is necessary for, it is not a prerequisite for expertise. From the

study, the researcher was able to conclude that lack of subject matter in PE is likely to delay

development more than any other factor (Siedentop & Eldar, 1989).

Siedentop and Eldar (1989) have explained expertise behaviourally as:

1. Experts are able to ‘see things’ than non experts don’t see.

2. Experts respond more quickly

3. Experts are able to use prior knowledge of the activity area and more complex

elements of the subject matter to make judgements

4. Experts are able to respond in more ways to what they see

5. Experts plan, but the setting affects how the teacher interests what goes on during the

class

6. Experts are able to articulate and rationalize their performance differently

32

From this research, it could be concluded that the highest quality of PE is delivered by experts.

However, Siedentop and Eldar (1989) are of the view that subject specific knowledge is not

essential for teaching effectiveness. In fact, many effective teachers possess moderate levels

of competence in most units of their programme. Therefore, it is unrealistic to expect a

teacher to be an expert in all aspects of the PE learning area. However, with continued time

and effort, specialists are able to become experts in their field and combine expertise with

effective teaching skills in order to deliver PE of a high standard (Siedentop & Eldar, 1989).

Over the past 20 years, a number of researchers have expressed concern regarding the lack of

confidence and qualification of teachers of PE (Morgan & Bourke, 2007). Confidence impacts

on the feelings of enjoyment experienced by the students. A lack of confidence to teach PE

can lead to teachers avoiding teaching PE and PE lessons consisting of little more than playing

a ‘game’ (such as tee ball) where only a few students are active at any one time. A delivery of

an inappropriate lesson can lead to students experiencing a sense of failure and recognition of

how uncoordinated they may be. This can subsequently impact on a student’s self esteem and

future willingness to take part in PE/PA (Morgan, 2005).

It has been established that confidence to teach PE is influenced by factors such as; individual

ability in sporting activities, confidence in level of qualification and experiences in school PE

(Morgan & Bourke, 2007). Specialists have been found to possess a higher level of confidence

in their teaching than generalists (Morgan, et al., 2002).

Teachers who have confidence in their ability to teach PE utilise a greater variety of strategies

and are more successful in changing the knowledge, skills and attitudes of students (Bandura,

1977). In addition, teachers who have personal experience and knowledge, relevant

qualifications or are personally interested in the particular content are more likely to display a

more confident attitude towards teaching PE (Morgan & Bourke, 2007). It is clear that

greater outcomes will be achieved by students who experience lessons implemented by a

competent and confident teacher who is committed to teaching PE (Morgan, 2005).

Generalist teachers constitute a significant population of physical educators in Department of

Education (Western Australia) Schools (Whipp, Grove, & Hutton, 2006). Conversely, they

represent a minority of physical educators in non-government schools WA. Given that the

sample population for this project is from a non-government sector, specialist teachers will be

the focus of the existing literature. The data gathered from the project will allow a comparison

to be made with existing literature. However, a limitation of this project is that it does not

allow for a comparison of generalist and specialist teachers of PE.

33

2.3.2.2 Goals

Educational researchers, Jewett and Bain (1985), have described the importance of setting

goals. They explain that goals should reflect the teacher’s value orientation, the local

curriculum, student development and necessary subject matter content. In order for teachers

to create goals, firstly they need to determine the needs and interests of the students. With

this in mind, teachers can then create broad programme goals. This can then be transformed

into lesson objectives or narrow goals. These narrow goals should focus on motor

performance, however cognitive and affective objectives should be evident (Jewett & Bain,

1985).

Ashton (1984) explored the link between teacher efficacy and student achievement. The

researcher examined the teaching of high school teachers (n=48). The following conclusions

were drawn regarding goal setting and the characteristics of teachers with a high sense of

effectiveness:

1. They plan for student learning, set goals for themselves and their students and identify

strategies to achieve them

2. They approach goal setting and working towards achieving the goals as a partnership

with the students

3. They involve students in the setting of goals and the plan for achieving goals

Researchers James, Griffin and Dodds (2008) investigated the relationship between teacher

goals and the ecology of PE. They established that it was essential for teachers to actually

have goals that were compatible with their teaching. In other words, PE teachers need to

actually work to implement their goals.

Therefore, teachers with rich PCK are able to demonstrate an awareness of both broad and

narrow goals in their planning and teaching. Evidence of consistency between VOI-2 results

and teaching practice should be clear as is an understanding of the Curriculum Framework

Document (Curriculum Council, 1998). This can then be used to assist in the setting of broad

goals to meet the needs and interests of the particular group of students being taught. Lesson

objectives should then reflect these broad goals.

34

Value Orientations

Within PE, teachers make a number of significant educational decisions. Decisions include

what content to teach, how to teach it and the extent to which the content will be learned by

students (Ennis & Chen, 1995). These decisions are guided by their personal beliefs and by the

limitations of the curriculum. The belief system reflects teacher’s values and consequently

influences the content of the PE lessons and how it will be taught (Pajares, 1992). The study

of a teacher’s thoughts, cognitions and judgements is an essential element in determining the

role of the teacher. For some time now, experts have reported that planning, teaching

content, instructional styles, assessment and setting goals for student learning has its

foundations in educational value orientations (Eisner & Vallance, 1974; Jewett, 1994).

The value orientations can be defined as “a description of teachers’ goals for student learning”

(Ennis & Zhu, 1991). Value orientations reflect philosophical positions that can be practically

defined in PE (Ennis & Zhu, 1991). The priority a teacher places on components of the teaching

and learning process determines the value orientation. Many researchers have attempted to

classify and describe the value orientations. The theoretical framework of educational beliefs

influencing teacher’s decision making most widely accepted in PE is that of Jewett and Bain

(1995). They have proposed four different orientations, each describing a philosophy or

ideology for constructing curriculum. A fifth orientation, social responsibility, was added by

researchers Ennis, Ross and Chen (1992):

1. Discipline mastery (DM): Defined as the mastery of fundamental core knowledge and

performance skills considered to be essential to the knowledge base. Discipline

mastery teachers believe they can increase student performance on skills and fitness

content, despite limitations in class size, scheduling, prior student experience and

facilities and equipment availability.

2. Learning process (LP): The focus within this orientation is on skill, sport and fitness

content as the basis for problem development. Teachers focus teaching on how to

learn movement and fitness content. Process skills are integrated across lessons and

units in systematic progressions to facilitate the learning of increasingly complex skills.

3. Self actualization (SA): Teachers encourage students to become increasingly self-

directed, responsible and independent. Tasks and activities are planned to provide

opportunities for students to achieve success believed to contribute to the

development of independence, individuality and positive student growth.

35

4. Ecological integration (EI): Teachers with a high priority for ecological integration

encourage students to learn about themselves as they grow and develop their own

characteristics and abilities. The teacher aims to present a curriculum that focussed

on integrating individuals’ needs with the natural and social environment and finding a

balance between societal expectations, student needs and subject matter demands.

5. Social responsibility (SR): This orientation focuses learning on social rules that lead to

enhancing positive student social interactions, cooperation, participation, teamwork

and respect for others. Teachers allocate a great deal of time to teaching students to

act and behave appropriately.

In 1988, Ennis and Hooper developed the Value Orientation Inventory (VOI) to examine

teachers’ priorities for curriculum decisions (Ennis & Chen, 1993). This is a paper and pencil

instrument designed specifically for PE teachers. Ennis and colleagues have used the VOI

extensively to determine teachers’ value orientations. In 1993, the VOI was revised to replace

the social reconstruction value orientation with the social responsibility value orientation

(Ennis & Chen, 1995). The VOI enables researchers to measure teachers’ belief systems. It

stimulates curricular decision making by requiring teachers to make decisions on priorities for

PE programmes. A limitation of the VOI is that it does not enable the importance of a

teacher’s outcome goals to be explored (Kulinna & Silverman, 2000).

In 1991, Ennis and Zhu used the VOI to examine the extent to which physical educators made

consistent decisions regarding goals for student learning within the five VO’s. They established

a moderate positive relationship between discipline mastery (DM) and learning process (LP)

(0.49) which was possibly due to the overlap of subject matter content within the domains.

There was a strong negative relationship between DM and self-actualization (SA) (-0.35) as

well as a strong negative relationship between DM and social responsibility (SR) (-0.65).

Therefore teachers who gave a high priority to DM and LP were likely to give low priority to SA,

ecological integration (EI) and SR. In other words, they found an inverse relationship between

then content focussed domains (DM, LP) and the affective domains (SA, EI, SR) (Ennis & Zhu,

1991). They found no significant difference in the results when comparing gender, teaching

level and experience (Curtner-Smith & Meek, 2000; Ennis & Chen, 1995; Ennis & Zhu, 1991).

In 1995 Ennis and Chen described physical educators’ VO in urban and rural settings using the

VOI-2. Results indicated that there was a difference in the way urban and rural physical

educators at different grade levels theorised their goals for PE. Urban teachers placed a higher

priority on affective goals (cooperation, respect for others, self-efficacy and self-concept).

36

Rural teachers declared a stronger emphasis on knowledge-based goals associated with skill

development and fitness. The differences in curricular decisions of urban and rural teachers

could be explained by the lower levels of violence and crime in rural schools and

neighbourhoods, when compared to urban schools. The teachers in urban schools explained

that they believe the students can learn skills, sport and fitness activities outside of the school.

However, they rely on the school to teach skills such as cooperation, respect as well as

personal and social responsibility. The difference in curriculum priorities between urban and

rural schools is a result of the varying opportunities and constraints within each school setting.

Teachers have designed the curricular to meet the specific needs of the students (Ennis &

Chen, 1995).

Limited research has taken place to examine the relationship between teaching actions,

curriculum and VO. Very little is known about teacher’s attitudes towards PE/PA (Kulinna &

Silverman, 1999). Chen and Ennis (1996) examined the extent to which content of two PE

teachers who had received state awards for teaching excellence, differed because of their

value orientation. Through the use of teacher and student interviews as well as observations

using constant comparison (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) researchers established that educational

value priorities influence the content of their teaching. Therefore, when curriculum is

consistent with a teachers beliefs and values, the curriculum will be implemented, however

when there is a discrepancy, the teacher is likely to struggle and result in compromised

teaching effectiveness (Chen & Ennis, 1996). A number of limitations of this research need to

be considered. The sample size is limited to two, male teachers of excellence. This could not

be considered a representative sample of teachers, given that the majority are female

(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006) and most have not been awarded for teaching

excellence. The qualitative nature of the research places restrictions on the potential for this

research to be compared with the results of other similar studies. From a study of more than

1100 elementary and secondary teachers, Behets ( 2001) concluded that the VOI-2 paper and

pencil survey needs to be triangulated and validated with observation studies in order to

support curriculum changes and to meet the needs of the students (Behets, 2001).

Consistency between Theory and Action

Currently, there is a paucity in the body of knowledge regarding the consistency between

theory and action of VO and the impact of VO on student outcomes of PE participation.

Indeed the relationship between teacher VO, teaching practice and student outcomes is yet to

be examined.

37

In 2000, Kulinna, Silverman and Keating, examined the relationship between teacher’s belief

systems and actions towards teaching physical activity and fitness (n= 42 PE teachers

consisting of 18 males, 21 females). The researcher in this study established that there was

not a relationship between a teacher’s belief system and teaching behaviours. A possible

explanation of this is that although, teachers may have high PA and fitness belief systems,

barriers are in place that prevent them from implementing a curriculum that is consistent with

their beliefs. Perceived barriers were space available, class size, limited knowledge base, lack

of skill to incorporate fitness into class time (Kulinna, Silverman, & Keating, 2000).

In 2003, Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan conducted a study to describe the relationship between

educational theories held by PE teachers and to what extent do these theories guide their

practice. The sample size for the study was limited to four elementary and secondary teachers

of PE with at least 10 years teaching experience. Their ball sports lessons were observed by a

non-participatory observer. Each lesson was videotaped. The central outcome goal of all four

teachers was motor skill development. A limitation of this study is the degree of homogeneity

found in the theoretical views of the four participants. However, a conclusion made from this

study is that educational theories can act as a promising variable in promoting effective

teaching and learning. This can lead to teacher education and development programmes

being created to enable teachers to learn new knowledge as well as clarify their own

professional theories and use these as a basis from which to develop their teaching practices

(Tsangaridou & O'Sullivan, 2003).

In 1995, Solomon and Ashy examined the relationship between VO (using the VOI) and teacher

behaviours of 16 PE pre-service teachers. Each teacher’s classes were videotaped twice. As

well as this, teachers were required to provide written evaluations and reflections of the

videotaped lessons. The videotaped lessons were coded for evidence of VO and management

effectiveness. To enable comparison between lessons to be made, frequency of teacher

behaviour was tallied and converted into rate per minute. A considerable limitation of this

study is the lack of stability in VO of the sample teachers. Fourteen out of 16 teachers

expressed a differing priority level from pre-test to post-test in at least two orientations. The

lack of consistency in VO’s as well as issues relating to class management and discipline

confound the interpretation of the teaching behaviours (Solomon & Ashy, 1995).

Although limited research does exist, examining the relationship between teacher theories and

teaching action, there are vast paucities in the studies and conclusions gained. Researchers

acknowledge the importance of understanding the theoretical belief systems. However, the

38

impact of these belief systems on teaching behaviours is a recommendation central to the

conclusions of many research papers (Behets, 2001; Behets & Vergauwen, 2004; Ennis & Zhu,

1991; Kulinna & Silverman, 2000; Kulinna & Silverman, 1999; Solomon & Ashy, 1995;

Tsangaridou & O'Sullivan, 2003). This research project aims to address the relationship

between teacher theories and teaching actions, as well as determine the impact of these on

student outcomes.

2.3.2.3 Dialogue

Gusthardt and Sprigings, (1989) examined the effect of two experienced teachers of PE on the

student outcomes of second grade students over a three week period. They established that

when teachers clearly explain specifically what students are expected to learn and

demonstrate the steps needed to accomplish this, students learn more. Their findings were

supported by Rink and Hall (2008) who have explained that expert teachers provide both visual

and verbal explanations of a task. Therefore, effective instructions and feedback are essential

elements of a quality PE programme. Teachers with rich PCK are able to select relevant

information and clearly communicate it to students in a variety of forms.

Instructions

“Children learn by moving— not by listening” (Rink & Hall, 2008, p. 241). Effective instruction

communication results in students comprehending the information enough to allow them to

commence the task that has been described. When teachers deliver instructions efficiently,

only as much time as is necessary is used to ensure effective communication (Siedentop &

Tannehill, 2000). Successful instruction targets the positive behaviours the teacher wishes to

develop and rather than assuming that learning will be an automatic outcome of the lesson

(Rink & Hall, 2008).

Key features that enable effective communication of instructions have been described as:

1. Lengthy instructions reduce the amount of activity time, therefore instructions should

last no longer than two or three minutes.

2. To allow the students to process the information, teachers should speak slowly, using

a clear voice. Too often teachers make the mistake of wanting to give a thorough

explanation that children cannot possibly understand. Teachers should only give

enough information to get the activity started then add further details as the activity

39

continues by observing the children and allowing their actions to show what they

understand.

3. Teachers are able to avoid passive observation by engaging students actively in the

delivery of instructions, this is likely to result in an increased likelihood of the students

understanding the instructions.

4. Knowing and understanding the content allows the teacher to ensure that the most

important information is imparted to the students in an accurately explained manner.

5. Effective teaching involves the teacher checking that the students understand what

they have heard before they commencement the activity.

(Prusak, Vincent, & Pangrazi, 2005; Rink & Hall, 2008; Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000)

Therefore, teachers need to be good managers and present instructions clearly in order to

facilitate opportunities for students to participate positively (Rink & Hall, 2008).

Feedback

Feedback is commonly defined as “telling people how they are doing” (Mosston & Ashworth,

2002). The purpose of all feedback is to either recognise changes that need to take place and

provide a correction to improve performance or offer scaffolding for the student to identify

and change their actions (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). It is essential for learning as without it,

no learning can take place (Siedentop, et al., 1984). Feedback has the potential to; improve

learning if the teacher gives feedback that results in the learner making some changes to what

it is that they are doing, be assuring and motivating (Silverman & Ennis, 1996).

A teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter being taught impacts on the feedback they are

able to deliver. Teachers with limited knowledge of the skill being taught may struggle to

identify and correct errors, therefore limiting opportunities for students to modify skills and

behaviours (Siedentop, 1991; Siedentop, Herkowitz & Rink, 1994). Research suggests that the

accuracy and quality of feedback is an essential element in student motor-skill learning and

incorrect feedback can be disadvantageous (Beukers, Magill & Hall, 1992).

When providing feedback, teachers hope that performance will be adapted and the student

will achieve the desired outcome (Silverman, Tyson, & Krampitz, 1992). Providing feedback in

PE lessons can be problematic due to the nature of the learning environment. Large classes

with students engaged in movement can complicate the provision of meaningful skill related

40

feedback (Silverman & Ennis, 1996). Silverman, et al. (1992), sought to investigate the

relationship between teacher feedback and student achievement in PE. They used a

systematic observation system for collecting data. From their observation of 200 students,

they concluded that most students received relatively little skill related feedback (about four

times each class). There results indicated that feedback alone did not relate to student

achievement. However, a noteworthy limitation of these findings is that the researcher was

only examining one variable of teaching (feedback) in isolation.

Another limitation of this study is the difficulties faced in comparing it with other work as

differences could be a result of discrepancies in; the coding system, motor skills used, selection

of participating teachers (Silverman, et al., 1992).

Mosston and Ashworth (2002) have identified four forms of feedback.

Each form of feedback has its own criteria, purpose, focus and implications... All forms

can; affect behaviour, affect learning results, motivate, challenge, inspire or reject,

frustrate, confuse, reinforce or change standards, show respect or disrespect,

encourage or discourage, exhilarate or humiliate, expand or destroy emotional

connections. (p. 28-29)

1. Value Statements: Value statements can be identified by the presence of a judgement

word, either positive or negative. They can be specific (specificity activates cognitive

and/or emotional processes that allow learners to grasp and focus on the statements

intention) or non-specific (generalities, do not indicate what was good or bad, convey

and overall message of approval or disapproval). For example, “You did an excellent

job maintaining a strong kick for the freestyle drill”. A shortcoming of value

statements is that the teacher can become dependent on the feeling of power that can

be derived from giving value judgements, this can also result in the learner becoming

dependent on the teacher who is the source of constant approving or disapproving

statements.

2. Corrective Statements: Corrective statements refer to the identification of an error

and the necessary correction of that error. The focus is on the student’s error without

value judgements. For example, “That is not the correct position for your head when

swimming freestyle”. An overuse of corrective statements can result in the student

lacking a feeling of achievement and success, leading to the student being unwilling to

try.

41

3. Neutral Statements: Neutral statements acknowledge an action without judging or

correcting. Neutral statements encourage the student to interpret the statement and

respond accordingly. Cognitive and emotional development is encouraged by allowing

the student to take responsibility to respond appropriately. An example of a neutral

statement would be repeating the student’s response or nodding.

4. Ambiguous Statements: Ambiguous statements require the student to make their own

interpretation of the statement. This leads to the opportunity for the statement to be

interpreted or misinterpreted. These statements do not project a specific value, do

not identify an error or make a clear correction, nor do they factually acknowledge

events. For example, “That’s okay, but you could have done it differently” or “Try

harder next time”. Misinterpretation can be a result of ambiguous statements due to

the responsibility on the learner to interpret and statement.

Meaningful and constructive feedback has the potential to enhance learning, make students

more aware of their performance and increase opportunities for achievement, it can be

assuring and motivating (Siedentop, et al., 1984). Conversely, feedback can result in the

student becoming reliant on a response from the teacher for everything they do. For highly

skilled and confident students, too much teacher feedback can be detrimental to learning

(Silverman & Ennis, 1996). In addition, from the research it appears that the quality of

feedback is more important than the frequency of feedback (Lee, Keh & Magill, 1993).

2.3.2.4 Teaching Styles

Successful teaching and learning depends on the teacher’s ability to engage students in

meaningful, sustained contact with the content (Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000). The teaching

style employed by the teacher is a result of the decisions a teacher makes about teaching

behaviour and the decisions a student makes about his/her learning behaviour. The patterns

that have emerged from these decisions making behaviours have been defined by Mosston

and Ashworth as “Teaching Styles” (Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000).

The theory behind the spectrums of teaching styles is based on decision making. Each

behaviour is derived from the shifting of decisions from teacher centred focussed approach to

student centeredness. A cluster of decisions in each teaching style creates a set of learning

objectives. The styles are related and connected by the progression of decisions from one

style to another. The spectrum is not a hierarchy of teaching skills, it merely offers a spectrum

42

of styles that can be called upon by a teacher to suit the specific learning experience (Mosston

& Ashworth, 2002).

Mosston and Ashworth’s (2002) model for instruction in PE has had a significant impact on

teaching and learning in the HPE learning area. This model is based on the assumption that

the focus of PE experiences should move from being teacher centred to student centred

(Siedentop, et al., 1984). Student centred approaches are seen as a more inclusive, more

enjoyable and useful alternative to the traditional, direct instruction approach that continues

to govern PE. A more student centred approach to teaching and learning in PE also has the

potential to impact on games processes through the development cognitive processes (Light &

Georgakis, 2007).

Teacher centred approaches, such as the command style to PE that involve skill mastery are

still widely practised (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). However, for many students, they fail to

stimulate the lifelong positive attitudes to PE/PA that appear to be the ultimate goal of many

physical educators. Catherine Ennis (1999) investigated the impact of skill mastery (which is

related to the command style of teaching) techniques of teaching PE to girls. She discovered

that this teaching style marginalised and excluded girls and the less confident males, in

addition advanced skilled boys expressed frustration with low skilled players, especially girls.

Ennis changed the PE curricular in the participating schools (n=7 teachers) to a more student

centred programme that focused on peer tutoring. This resulted in girls becoming valuable

participants in PE, regardless of their ability. The outcome of this intervention was the

creation of a more positive sport environment in PE for girls. Given that many students do not

enjoy teaching centred styles such as the command style (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002),

teachers should consider changes that they can make to their teaching that may be more

appealing, such as the use of multiple strategies (Cothran & Kulinna, 2006).

2.3.2.5 Lesson Time Allocation

For some time, researchers have been trying to establish methods for determining teacher

effectiveness in PE. In 1982, Metzler adapted the Academic Learning Time model to suit the

PE learning area (ALT-PE). The ALT-PE method of examining PE enables researchers to

determine the amount of time allocated to students engaging in PE at an appropriate level. In

1986, Placek and Randall used the ALT-PE model to determine the effectiveness of specialist

and non-specialist PE teachers. They explored the difference of time spent in context and time

spent in motor engagement at an appropriate level. They concluded that teachers need to

plan lessons in order to provide students with the maximum opportunity for attainment of

43

student outcomes (Placek & Randall, 1986). Therefore, PE teachers need to provide

instructions that enable students to maximise opportunities for practise, whilst minimising

time spent transitioning between tasks and managing equipment, student behaviour and

matters extraneous to the PE lesson.

2.3.2.6 Opportunities provided for student to display learning – Curriculum Framework

Outcomes

The Curriculum Framework (Curriculum Council, 1998) is the working document that all

schools within WA adhere to when planning their curriculum. The Curriculum Framework

document (Curriculum Council, 1998) refers to the HPE Learning Area as one that:

...develops an understanding of health issues and the skills need for confident

participation in sport and recreational activities. It enables students to make

responsible decisions about health and physical activity and to promote their own and

others’ health and well-being. (p. 113)

The framework assists teachers to develop programmes and assess their teaching

effectiveness by the outcomes students achieve.

Health and Physical Education Learning Area Outcomes

Five strands have been identified and are seen to contribute to the development of active,

healthy lifestyles for students. These five outcomes are presented under the following

headings.

1. Knowledge and Understanding (K&U): Aims to provide accurate information about a

healthy lifestyle. This includes an appraisal of PA levels and diet and how these can

assist in the prevention of ill health. It differentiates between different types of

fitness. Movement skills can be improved through knowledge of the principles of

movement and why the body moves in certain ways. Sports and games; encompasses

an awareness of tactics, rules, safety procedures and ways to minimise injury.

2. Skills for Physical Activity (SPA): Aims to develop the mastery of movement skills,

confidence and competence in skill development. Emphasis is on fundamental

movement skills and object control in free and structured settings. Students

participating in this project would be expected to perform at either SPA level 2 or 3.

i. Level 2: “The student demonstrates a wide range of fundamental

movement skills and an awareness of the rules and other participants

44

in simple games and physical activities” (Curriculum Council, 2005, p.

27).

ii. Level 3: “The student performs controlled movement skills and

demonstrates basic game strategies within rules in minor games and

physical activity” (Curriculum Council, 2005, p. 27).

3. Self-Management Skills (SMS): This learning area outcome uses feedback and advice to

extend decision making skills, understand consequences of actions, set goals, manage

stress and time and compare own PA and fitness levels with others.

4. Interpersonal Skills (IPS): This learning area outcome focuses on communication and

cooperation, contributing to group goals, speaking assertively, showing initiative and

displaying empathy. These skills are demonstrated in different roles such as

participant, leader, player or coach. Time needs to be provided to develop leadership

and initiative as well as conflict resolution skills.

5. Attitudes and Values (A&V): This learning area outcome is seen as implicit in any

teachings. The attitudes and values developed by students should demonstrate an

accepted responsibility for the health and well being of themselves and others. They

are able to identify the value of PA. Collaboration and cooperation is recognised as

being beneficial. This is demonstrated through fair play, conflict resolution, team

work, following rules, caring for equipment.

Four observed lessons do not provide enough information for judgements to be made

regarding the level and extent to which children are learning. Therefore, the teachers will be

observed for the opportunities they provide for the students to learn. This may occur in the

instructions and feedback they provide, teaching styles employed or the activities they

present. The opportunities they provide for learning may be enhanced by their allocation of

lesson time.

45

2.4 THE STUDENT – STUDENTS OUTCOMES OF PCK


Activity and enjoyment are key outcomes of a quality PE Programme. Achievement of these

outcomes will enable students to participate more successfully in a healthy, active lifestyle as

they progress on to adolescents and adulthood. Research regarding these outcomes has

enabled researchers to determine factors that affect student achievement. As Figure 2.4.1

illustrates, this research project aims to assess the relationship between student outcomes,

the teacher and the school.

2.4.1 Activity

Physical inactivity is considered to be a significant risk factor for obesity (Australian society for

the study of obesity, 2004; Morgan, 2004; Salmon, Telford & Crawford, 2004; Telford, Salmon,

Timperio, & Crawford, 2005; United States Surgeon General's Report, 1996; World Health

Organisation, 2000). This has lead to a significant interest in measuring and assessing physical

activity levels in children. In Western Australia, The Premiers Physical Activity Taskforce

(Premier's Physical Activity Task Force, 2002) administered a questionnaire to primary school

students in Western Australia (n=1341). They found that 95.1% of students participated in PE

and school sport, of these students, most were very active or quite often or always during

organised PE or sport at school. If school is the only place where students take part in PA, it is

essential that the PE lesson time is used as effectively as possible, to allow the students to be

active.

Studies have shown that when teachers minimise time spent in management, instructions and

transition, MVPA levels are able to be as high as 40 – 50% of lesson time (Simons-Morton et

al., 1993). In addition, Faucette and Patterson (1990) examined the teaching behaviours of 11

Teacher

PCK

Student

Student

Outcomes

The

School

46

elementary school PE teachers. They established that effective teachers provide significantly

higher levels of student activity than less effective teachers. Furthermore, Rink and Hall (2008)

have explained; ‘Effective teachers know how to anticipate events, make smooth transitions,

and maximize ALT-PE’. From the literature reviewed, it appears that effective teachers can be

expected to maximise activity. By measuring activity levels of students during PE lessons, it

will be possible to correlate activity levels with teacher PCK and other student outcomes.

In 2008, the Children’s Physical Activity Coalition launched ‘The Charter for Active Kids – A

blueprint for healthy and active children in Western Australia’. This publication was developed

to identify strategies that will promote participation in daily PA for good social and physical

health. The document states that all West Australian children have the right to “Receive a

minimum of 150 minutes of quality physical education per week” (CPAC, 2008, p. 5) and “Be

taught by teachers who are well-trained, supported and resourced to deliver physical

education” (CPAC, 2008, p. 5). Similarly to the CPAC document, in 2010 the Department of

Education, Western Australia (DET), prescribed a mandatory two hours of moderate to

vigorous, quality physical activity for all school students in years 1 – 10 as part of the student

learning programmes. From these two documents it can be concluded that primary school

students in Western Australia should be provided with opportunities to receive quality physical

education that enables them to be active at a moderate to vigorous level of physical activity

for at least 150 minutes per week.

For some time, there have been difficulties experienced by researchers when measuring PA

levels of children. Historically, PA patterns of children have been assessed by direct

observation, heart rate monitors, self-report, questionnaires, diaries and interviews (see Table

2.4.3.1.1) (de Vries, Bakker, Hopman-Rock, Hirasing, & van Mechelen, 2006; Puyau, Adolph,

Vohra, & Butte, 2002; Trost, 2007). However, when asking children to recall their PA in a

written or verbal journal, many struggle to recollect the events accurately (de Vries, et al.,

2006). In the Children’s Leisure Activities Study (CLASS) (Salmon, et al., 2004), 1200 families

were asked to take part in a study of the influence of family environment on children’s physical

activity and sedentary behaviour. This study was the first in Australia to examine PA levels

objectively using activity monitors. This study found that in surveys and questionnaires (self-

report methods), children indicated that they were highly active (Boys 85%, Girls 75%), yet the

objective findings (from accelerometers) indicated that most children were involved in only

low levels of activity.

47

Over the past decade, there have been considerable developments in the area of PA

assessment in response to the lack of consistency of self-report instruments, the invasiveness

of direct observation and the difficulty of heart rate monitoring (Puyau, et al., 2002). This has

led to the increase of accelerometer-based activity monitors that provide real-time estimates

of the frequency, intensity and duration of PA (Freedson & Miller, 2000). The ActiGraph (2007)

is the most studied motion sensor in children and adolescents. The ActiGraph (2007) has been

examined in numerous studies, using other instruments (as detailed in Table 2.4.1.1) as

reference methods. There is extensive evidence for a good reproducibility (4-18 years),

validity (3-18 years) and feasibility in healthy children (de Vries, et al., 2006). High correlations

between activity counts and activity energy expenditure and heart rate demonstrate that the

ActiGraph (2007) strongly reflects energy expended in activity (Puyau, et al., 2002).

Table 2.4.1.1

Summary of Key Attributes for Current Methods to Measure Physical Activity in Children and

Adolescents (Trost, 2007)

Valid Affordable Objective Ease of administration

Measure: Patterns, modes and dimensions

of PA

Suitable for ages < 10y

Suitable for ages > 10y

Interview Diary Heart rate monitoring Accelerometer-based activity monitors ActiGraph

Pedometer Observation

Poor or inappropriate Acceptable Good Excellent

The ActiGraph (2007) is small and lightweight. It measures vertical acceleration ranging in

magnitude from 0.05G with a frequency response of 0.25 0.5 Hz (Trost, McIver, & Pate, 2005).

The period of time between readings (Epoch) is variable. Activity level cut point is adjustable,

allowing for parameters to be set for low, moderate and vigorous activity. In order for accurate

recordings of Energy Expenditure, it is essential that the monitor is worn on the side of the hip

using the elastic belt (ActiGraph, 2007).

The amount of physical activity as measured by the ActiGraph (2007) can be presented as

mean counts per activity count and the amount of time spent in different levels of physical

activity according to count thresholds. The age specific thresholds are determined from

calibration studies that relate accelerometer counts to measured activity expenditure

(Troiano, et al., 2008). These age specific count ranges are derived from the energy

expenditure prediction equation developed by Freedson, Pober and Jansz (2005).

48

METs= 2.757 + (0.0015*counts) – (0.08957*age [yr]) – (0.000038*counts*age[yr])

A limitation of the Actigraph is that it is insensitive to movement such as non ambulatory

physical activities with arm and or limb movements (Trost, et al., 2005). For example, if the

students are stationary and practising throwing and catching a ball or passing and trapping a

ball, the Actigraph may not detect movement. A small number of studies have been carried

out on adults to determine the impact of wearing multiple monitors (on wrist and ankle or hip

and wrist). The results from two studies indicated that a more accurate prediction of energy

expenditure was obtained during treadmill walking and running. The impact of this has not

been investigated on children, taking part in organised school PE lessons. Another limitation of

the accelerometer-based activity monitors is their inability to detect short bursts of vigorous

PA. If a child alternates between vigorous activity and rest within a minute, the accumulation

of counts for that minute will only reflect average activity level during that period (Trost, et al.,

2005). This limitation can be overcome by increasing activity counts from 60 seconds to either

30 or 15 seconds. Despite these potential limitations, the ActiGraph Gt1M has been included

in this study, due to the valid data it is able to supply, the extensive evidence that supports

good reproducibility of results and the ease of use when the monitors are used with children

(10-15years).

2.4.1.1 Factors Influencing PE Participation

Australian children of today are positively disposed toward sport (Australian Sports

Commission, 2004) and many children report liking PE (Booth, et al., 1997; Whipp & Taggart,

2003). Children still engage in PA primarily for fun, to get fit, to be with friends and to feel

good (Brown & Brown, 1996). If teachers of PE are able to increase students perceived

competence and enjoyment of the PE experiences, these affective outcomes of PE will transfer

into motivation to adopt a lifelong commitment to being physically active (Wallhead &

Buckworth, 2004). Students who feel confident and comfortable in the learning environment

are more likely to demonstrate a greater interest in achieving a learning task, this could be said

of all learning areas. Therefore, establishing a positive learning environment influences

student learning and student enjoyment or attitudes (Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007).

Although the majority of children enjoy PE and PA, there are some personal barriers to

participation. The fear of injury, bullying and put downs are all seen as obstacles (Australian

Sports Commission, 2003). Other reasons given for non-participation in sport include lack of

fun, boredom, perceived lack of skill improvement, and an overemphasis on competition

(Gould, 1987). A competitive learning environment may not suit the ‘non-sporty’ student and

49

may lead to the student choosing to not participate if they feel they are not good enough at

sport and are not given an equal chance to play (Taggart & Sharp, 1997). A performance-based

focus on PE and PA has also been consistently criticised. Cecchini, et al. (2001) found that

performance-based competency is detrimental to one’s enjoyment in PE. Consistent with

Horn and Weiss (1991), a mastery orientation should be emphasized when young and then

performance orientation should be acknowledged as students get older.

Researchers Mckenzie, Marshall, Sallis and Conway (2000) established that students were

found to be more physically active during outdoor lessons, when compared to PE lessons

conducted indoors. In addition, researchers Chow, Mckenzie and Louie (2008), cited other

factors influencing PE activity levels such as; lesson context (game or drill), size of teaching

space, use of equipment, student disruptive behaviour.

Ensuring that students are skilled in the given sport has been widely reported as an essential

element in ensuring enjoyment (Hashim, Grove, & Whipp, 2007; Martens, 1996; Morgan,

2005; Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007). Without motor proficiency, children find it extremely

difficult to experience success and enjoyment in many physical and sporting activities and

many choose not be active or place themselves in situations in which they risk failure. Feeling

incompetent in performing motor skills can lead to low self-esteem, self-consciousness, a

dislike for PA and an avoidance of sport related activities altogether. In a study carried out,

children with poor motor skill ability were found to be less active, played less on large

playground equipment and spent less time in social interactions with their peers (Bouffard,

Watkinson, Thompson, Causgrove Dunn, & Romanow, 1996). Researchers Martens (1996) as

well as Subramaniam and Silverman (2007) have established that self-worth can be derived

from participation in PA and can enable student to develop lifelong PA habits and enhance

positive attitudes towards the learning area if it is ensured that:

1. Activities are developmentally appropriate.

2. Students are skilled in a sport and psychologically ready before they are placed in

competitive situations.

3. Small steps of progress are recognised and students are not compared.

4. Achievement is rewarded and students are not openly criticised for inadequate

performance.

50

2.4.2 Enjoyment - Students’ Attitudes Toward PE/PA

Enjoyment has been defined by researchers Scanlan, Carpenter, Schmidt, Simons and Keeler

(1993) as “a positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalised

feeling such as pleasure, liking and fun” (p. 6).

Children are motivated to have fun and an educator’s highest priority should be to make

learning as enjoyable as possible (Martens, 1996). A student who is motivated intrinsically to

persist in school-based PA is more likely to learn and develop a lifelong commitment to PA. If

teachers can understand what makes students want to learn, they will be in a better position

to engage students to facilitate that learning. Therefore, intrinsic motivation in PE/PA is an

essential element of developing lifelong learning.

If a programme is teacher centred, students may feel controlled and pressured, thereby

reducing their motivation to participate in the activity (Kilpatrick, Hebert, & Jacobsen, 2002).

In addition, it is difficult for students to take responsibility for the process of learning to play if

they are told how to perform various skills and drills. A skills-based approach to PE may leave

students bored as they cannot see the connection with the skill practise and its broader

meaning (Greenwood Parr & Oslin, 1998). An effective teacher is one who is sensitive to the

goals of his/her students and desires, is able to empower students to take control of their

learning and provide clear feedback. When the learning experiences become intrinsically

rewarding, students motivation is engaged and they are aware of how much fun learning can

be (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002).

Attitudes are formed through the cognitive and affective domains (Subramaniam & Silverman,

2007). This two component perspective of attitude was used by Subramaniam and Silverman

(2007) as the theoretical basis of their construction of an instrument to determine middle

school students’ attitude toward PE. The affective component measures the degree of

emotional feeling towards PE or PA. The cognitive component examines the beliefs about the

PE. Attitude is formed as a result of cognitive and affective components. Students (n=995)

had a moderately positive attitude (70.74 out of a possible 100 points). The researcher found

that as age increased, there was a decrease in the affective component of attitude. In this

particular study, there was no difference in gender results. However, many other studies have

found gender to be and influencing variable on attitude (Biddle & Mutrie, 2001). When the

two components were separated, enjoyment (35.94), perceived usefulness (34.79) out of a

total possible score of 50. Enjoyment was a main indicator of student attitudes, regardless of

gender (Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007).

51

Hashim, et al. (2007) constructed a questionnaire to measure youth sport enjoyment.

Responses to teach item number were categorised into one of six measures of PE enjoyment

that have been found to positively correlate with PE enjoyment (Wiersma, 2001).

1. Teacher generated excitement: Predictors of enjoyment associated with teacher

behaviour.

2. Activity generated competency: Predictors of enjoyment associated with activity

involvement. Teaching strategies that utilize these processes could lead to an increase

of student enjoyment and PA levels.

3. Peer interaction: Predictors of enjoyment associated with positive peer interaction.

4. Parental involvement: Predictors of enjoyment associated with parental having

interest and encouragement for PE involvement.

5. Self-referent competency: Perceptions of mastery derived through attainment of

personal performance standards (Wiersma, 2001).

6. Other referent competency: Perceptions of mastery derived through demonstrating

ability in comparison to others.

The questionnaire was completed by students in years 8-10. Mean scores were obtained for

each measure with one representing lowest enjoyment and five representing highest

enjoyment. The mean results from the study can be seen in Table 2.4.2.1. The results from

their study supported previous studies that found a positive relationship between mastery-

oriented competence and PE enjoyment (Carroll & Loumidis, 2001). As previously stated,

researchers have argued that performance-based competency is detrimental to one’s

enjoyment in PE (Cecchini, et al., 2001). From Hashim, et al’s. study (2007), it was concluded

that a mastery orientation should be emphasized from a young age, but a performance

orientation should by implement as students get older. The highest correlation obtained in

this study was from activity-generated excitement and PE enjoyment. This reinforces the

importance of providing stimulating and exciting activities for students in school-based PE

programmes. A limitation of this study is the age of participants. It is difficult to apply

conclusions from a youth focussed study (12-15 years), to that of a primary school age focus

(10-12 years).

52

Table 2.4.2.1

Mean Scores from Student Enjoyment Questionnaire (Hashim, 2007)

Measures of Enjoyment Mean Score (Min = 1, Max = 5)

PE Enjoyment 3.93

Teacher Generated Excitement 3.55

Activity Generated Competency 3.67

Peer Interaction 4.02

Parental Involvement 3.64

Self-Referenced Competency 3.62

Other Referenced Competency 2.86

By identifying factors that influence achievement, educators are able to create learning

environments that have the potential to maximise learning outcomes. In addition, this also

enables educators to minimize negative influences on the learning process (Subramaniam &

Silverman, 2007).

2.5 THE SCHOOL


The school community plays a key role in the success of a PE programme. A review of relevant

literature has revealed three areas whereby the school may impact on the success of the PE

programme. These are:

1. PE Programmes

2. PE Programme rationale

3. Socioeconomic status

Teacher

PCK

Student

Student

Outcomes

Outcomes

The

School

53

As Figure 2.5.1 illustrates, the school has the potential to influence the teacher as well as the

students’ opportunities for outcome attainment which therefore affect their likelihood of

developing positive lifelong PA habits.

2.5.1 Time Allocated to PE/PA

In 2010, The Department of Education and Training (Western Australia), released a policy

regarding student participation in PE. The policy requires all students in Years 1 – 10 to

participate in a minimum of two hours of quality PE each week, during the school day as part

of the PE student learning programme. Furthermore, to meet the minimum requirement,

students need to engage in at least 120 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity each

week (DET, 2010). The Charter for Active Kids (CPAC) document was released in 2008. The

document was designed to promote participation in physical activity for Western Australian

children and adolescents. Similarly to the DET (2010) policy, the CPAC (2008) states that “All

Western Australian children have the right to 150 minutes of quality physical education each

week” (CPAC, 2008, p. 5). In line with the DET (2010) policy, the CPAC (2008) document also

suggests that children need at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity daily.

Furthermore, in 2004, recommendations for physical activity for 5 – 12 year old children were

released by the Department of Health and Ageing. They have advocated for children to

participate in a minimum of 60 minutes of physical activity every day. A combination of

moderate and vigorous activities is recommended (Trost, et al., 2005). This research concurs

with the DET (2010) and CPAC (2008) policies. Guidelines in the United Kingdom indicate that

children should do at least one hour each day of moderate to vigorous exercise (Cavill, Biddle,

& Sallis, 2001). Therefore, from the research conducted and government policies created, it is

clear that Western Australian children should be taking part in at least two hours of quality PE

each week and at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity daily in order to

work towards achieving good health.

2.5.2 School Support

The context of the PE learning area is greatly different from that of the classroom teacher.

This can potentially create many issues for the PE teacher. These issues often relate to the

support provided by the school which directly impacts on the profile of the learning area.

Issues faced by PE teachers relating to school support can include; the marginal status of the

PE learning area, lack of resources, isolation, lack of communication with administration

(Macdonald, 1995).

54

In research carried out, the support provided by the school has appeared to influence the

development of a teacher’s PCK (Amade-Escot, 2000; Rovegno & Bandhauer, 1997). In

longitudinal studies, it has been established that the school community, principal and

colleagues are valuable stake holders in a teacher’s success in implementing curriculum

change. Conversely, teachers who are teaching in unsupported, difficult conditions are likely

to limit their curricular to a small repertoire of safe teaching practices, therefore it is likely that

a teacher in this situation is not demonstrating rich PCK in his/her teaching and therefore

limiting opportunities for student outcomes (Amade-Escot, 2000).

In 2008, Morgan and Hansen explored the perceptions of teachers teaching physical education

from 72 primary schools in NSW. Teacher interviews and questionnaires were used to

established that when teachers experienced barriers to teaching PE, the result was reduced

time spend teaching PE and delivering PE lessons of questionable quality. The barriers that

these teachers sited included; lack of time and lack of departmental assistance. From this

study, it appears that teacher support is impacting on the quality of PE being taught in primary

schools.

The challenges of curriculum change have been detailed previously. Cuban (cited in Chen and

Ennis, 1996, p. 353) has explained that whilst curriculum change may be implemented by

school administrators, the actual change will not take place until the teacher decides to do so.

Additionally, PE teachers are more likely to implement change when they feel they are

autonomous and responsible with regards to their programme (Reitzug, 1994). It is then the

role of the school community, principals and colleagues to ensure that the PE teacher is

supported to gain a sense of autonomy and willingness to implement curriculum change that

can potentially lead to development of PCK and greater opportunities for student outcomes.

Research conducted by Butler and Mergadt (1994) concurs with the work of Rovegno and

Bandhauer (1997). They have detailed the role of the school principal in supporting the PE

teacher. Their role includes:

1. Allowing the PE teacher to be autonomous

2. Encouraging participation in professional development opportunities

3. Keeping the teacher informed

4. Getting actively involved in PE events

5. Supporting change and decisions implemented by the PE teacher

55

6. Providing financial support

7. Being a problem solver

In summary, it is clear that school support is a key element in enabling a teacher to display

his/her richest PCK in his/her teaching. With school support, a teacher is encouraged to

present a PE curriculum that maximises opportunities for student outcomes. Conversely, a

teacher who feels he/she is not supported by the school is likely to limit their teaching

strategies and therefore reduce opportunities for outcome attainment.

2.5.3 PE Programme Rationale

The construction of the PE programme is a complex matter, influenced by many factors. The

support provided by the school community is a key issue in a teacher constructing and

implementing a learning programme that reflects his/her philosophical view point. As

previously mentioned, when a teacher is able to teach consistently with his/her beliefs,

research suggests he/she is more likely to embrace change and curriculum improvement.

Additionally, assessing the interests of the students and designing a learning programme that

appeals to the interests of the students appears to be linked with student learning. Therefore,

the influences on the PE programme can greatly impact the opportunities for students to

attain outcomes.

The following review of relevant literature details two key influences on the programming of

the PE LA.

2.5.3.1 Student Interest/ Choice

“A fundamental assumption for developing physical education curriculum is that students will

be interested and motivated to learn the activities” (Chen, 1996, p. 424). However,

establishing student interest is a complex matter. The concepts of enjoyment and interest

may appear to be interchangeable, yet research suggests that interest tends to be associated

with the meanings and values entrenched in the activity. Whereas enjoyment tends to refer to

the sense of satisfaction a student may derive from success or competence (Reeve, 1989).

Therefore, physical educators need to be aware of interest and enjoyment being independent

paradigms.

Providing choices for students is an influencing factor on many effective teachers’

programmes. The choices that the students make indicate areas of interest. These choices or

areas of interest may refer to a programme focus (such as the ball sport to be played) or tasks

56

within a programme. By gauging student interest, teachers are able to determine a

programme that will engage and motivate students. The logical outcome of this is improved

learning (Flowerday & Schraw, 2000).

In a study of high school students (n = 170) in the United States of America, a choice-based PE

programme was delivered to the students. The central themes obtained from student

interviews at the conclusion of the programme were that they liked the opportunity to choose

and choice encouraged motivation and effort (Condon & Collier, 2002).

Therefore, from the literature reviewed, it would appear that student choice is an important

factor in developing student motivation and effort. The outcome of this is greater

opportunities for attainment of student outcomes.

2.5.4 Socioeconomic Status

Socioeconomic status (SES) is commonly measured by household income, educational

attainment or occupation (Council, 1999). Lower SES is associated with increased prevalence

of physical inactivity and poor diet which leads to an inverse relationship between SES and

obesity. A number of Australian studies have examined the link between SES and; obesity,

BMI, fundamental movement skills and diet.

Attainment of fundamental movement skills (FMS) allow students to participate successfully in

games, sports and other physical activities. If a student lacks FMS, they are less likely to enjoy

taking part in organised sports. The fear of failure due to lack of necessary skills may

encourage them to avoid physical activity. The NSW Schools Fitness and PA Survey (n=5518)

randomly selected students in years 4, 6, 8 and 10. Performance of six FMS was assessed

qualitatively. The researcher found that the prevalence of mastery or near mastery of each

FMS was generally low. Skill mastery was directly associated with SES more consistently with

girls than boys. The findings from this study suggested that there should be a focus on

programmes to develop FMS in girls from low SES areas (Booth, et al., 1999). The NSW Schools

Fitness and PA Survey (n=5518) also examined the relationship between overweight/obesity,

age, gender and SES. There was no relationship found with SES and overweight boys, however

high SES girls displayed significantly lower proportions of girls who were overweight/obese and

a higher incidence of girls with acceptable BMI. The study concluded that the relationship

between SES and overweight/obesity was statistically significant for girls but not for boys

(Booth, et al., 2001).

57

A South Australian study explored the relationship between adiposity and SES in year six

students (n= 194). SES was found to be negatively associated with waist girth and skin folds in

girls and waist girth in boys. The study identified clear gradients in measures of adiposity

among girls, in particular, girls from a low SES background (Dollman, Ridley, Magarey, &

Hemphill, 2007).

Physical activity levels among adolescents in NSW was measured in 1997 (n=2026) and again in

2004 (n= 1771). Time spent in MVPA was measured by self-reported participation. The study

concluded that during the two data collection periods, overall MVPA had increased. There

were larger increases among children from high and middle SES groups when compared with

low SES students (Hardy, Okely, Dobbins, & Booth, 2008).

Participation in PE classes and SES by high school students (n=1871) was examined by

researchers in San Diego, California. These findings concur with other studies previously

mentioned. Overall, boys were more active than girls (total frequency of vigorous activity

males = 6.9 females = 4.9). Students from high SES were more likely to participate in vigorous

activity in PE lessons (high SES= 3.7, low SES= 2.8). In this study, it was reported that high SES

students received PE more frequently and of a higher quality of instruction than lower SES

students. This could be viewed as a limitation of the study as due to the higher frequency and

quality of PE, the high SES students appeared to have more opportunities to take part in

vigorous PA when compared the lower SES students. Therefore, from this study, it would

appear that participation in vigorous PA in school PE programmes is beyond the control of the

students (Sallis, Zakarian, Hovell, & Hofstetter, 1996).

From these studies, it would appear that there is a considerable interaction between SES and

gender. All studies noted that girls from a low SES background were less active than boys from

the same background. In addition, low SES girls were reported to have lower attainment of

FMS, higher BMI and rates of obesity when compared to middle/higher SES girls.

2.6 SUMMARY

A plethora of recent research clearly details the mounting crisis regarding Australia’s burden of

chronic disease (Booth, et al., 2004; CPAC, 2008; Eckersley, 2001; Margery, Daniels, & Boutlon,

2001). Children are at the centre of this issue, if not due to their current health issues, but for

the health issues they will face as they reach adulthood if changes are not made to their

lifestyles. Children are less active, less coordinated and less fit than ever before and

alarmingly, as they get older, their involvement in PA tends to decline (Morgan, 2004).

58

2.6.1 The Teacher

The teacher is in an immensely influential position to either turn a student on to or off from PE

for life. A teacher’s beliefs about teaching and learning PE (Value Orientation) are believed to

influence how they teach (teaching style) and what they teach (content decisions) (Ennis &

Chen, 1995). The students respond to this depending on the choices made by the teacher in

combination with their personal experiences and attitudes towards the teacher, teaching style

and the particular sport being taught (Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000).

Whilst beliefs about teaching and learning PE greatly influence student engagement (Morgan,

et al., 2002), there are other factors that impact on student outcomes. For example, teachers

who have confidence in their ability to teach PE, utilise a greater variety of strategies and are

more successful in changing the knowledge, skills and attitudes of their students (Bandura,

1977). The pedagogical content knowledge held by the teacher also influences their ability to

teach specific content in specific contexts (Mellado, et al., 1998). Consequently, whilst teacher

attitude influences student attitude, it can also be concluded that teacher skill influences

student skill.

It is the combination of subject specific content matter and teaching skills that evidence PCK in

teaching practice. Teachers with rich PCK are able to use their extensive knowledge of the

subject matter and present in a variety of formats that acknowledges the prior knowledge and

current needs of the students (Good, 1990). Teachers with high PCK utilise a variety of

instructional techniques to maximise opportunities for student outcome attainment whilst

minimising time spent listing to instructions (Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000). These teachers

also clearly communicate their goals to the students (Jewett & Bain, 1985). As a result these

teachers are able to assist their students to maximise outcome attainment (Siedentop &

Tannehill, 2000).

2.6.2 The Students

It has been established that students who feel confident and comfortable in the learning

environment are more likely to demonstrate a greater interest in achieving a learning task

(Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007). In particular, a student who is motivated to persist in

school-based PA is more likely to learn and develop a lifelong commitment to PA (Martens,

1996). Therefore, establishing a positive learning environment influences student learning and

student enjoyment or attitudes (Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007). This positive learning

environment can be achieved by all teachers of PE. For example, teachers who reflect on their

59

planning and teaching processes are able to identify their value orientation and teaching

styles. This metacognitive process enables teachers to enhance practice and potentially lead

them to curriculum improvement.

2.6.3 The School

Whilst schools are ideally placed to support the provision of quality PE, there are many factors

that contribute to the impact of the school community on the PE programme. The school has

a responsibility to provide enough time for PE and PA. DET (2010) and CPAC (2008) documents

state that Western Australian primary school children should take part in at least two hours of

quality PE each week, including moderate to vigorous PA. The support provided by the school

can influence the profile of the learning area, and by supporting the PE teacher, he/she is well

placed to maximise PCK in his/her teaching (Amade-Escot, 2000; Rovegno & Bandhauer, 1997).

Therefore, whilst the school is ideally placed to ensure the provision of quality PE, the

achievement of this is a complex issue that requires support from the entire school

community.

2.7.4 Conclusion

Figure 2.7.4.1 PCK and Primary PE Outcomes

As Figure 2.7.4.2 illustrates, this project aims to determine the impact of the relationship

between;

The Teacher - The pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) evident in a teacher’s PE

teaching

The School - The impact of the perceived support of the PE teacher provided by the

school .

Teacher

PCK

Student

Student

Outcomes

Outcomes

The

School


60

Figure 2.7.4.2 Conceptual Framework for PCK in Primary School PE

THE SCHOOL

Supported provided to PE teacher

Socioeconomic status

Time allocated to PE/PA

PCK IN PRIMARY SCHOOL PE

STUDENT

Student Outcomes of PE

Enjoyment (Hashim, Grove, & Whipp, 2008)

Activity Counts - ActiGraph GT1M monitors

TEACHER

Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework for PCK

Observable and practical elements of PCK

Teaching Styles (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002)

Goals – VOI-2 (Ennis & Chen, 1993)

Opportunities provided for students to learn

HPE Curriculum Framework (Curriculum

Council, 1998)

Qualifications and Experience

Lesson time allocation

Dialogue

RESEARCH AIMS To operationalise a theoretical framework for PCK

To determine the extent to which a theoretical framework for PCK is evidenced in the field

To explore the relationship between PCK and student outcomes

To investigate the relationship between PCK and the school

RESEARCH QUESTIONS Q1 How was Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework evidenced in the primary school PE ball sports unit?

Which elements of the theoretical framework did not relate to PCK in the primary school PE ball sports unit?

Which elements of the theoretical framework did relate to PCK in the primary school PE ball sports unit?


61

CHAPTER 3: METHODS AND PROCEDURES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 3.1.1 illustrates the conceptual framework drawn for the review of the literature. The

methods and procedure used for data collection are presented in response to each element of

this diagram (Figure 3.1.1).


This research involved a combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods to draw

together information from students and physical education (PE) teachers. Questionnaires

were administered to all teachers and students participating in the project. Lesson

observations, teacher interviews and physical activity data gathered from a selected sample of

students, formed the basis for evaluative responses relating to the research question. This

enabled the construction of five descriptive case studies. Each case study is an intense,

detailed analysis of the data collected from each school.

3.2 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design was used to provide a variety of ways to facilitate the generation of new

knowledge. It allowed triangulation of the data, such that the results could be examined from

different aspects and results could be compared and contrasted. Integrated points of view

from the teacher, students and non-participatory observer were considered.

The analysis focused on both the perceptual (Carney & Chedzoy, 1998) and operational

(teacher and student practice) dimensions of PE/PA. The use of qualitative data supported the

quantitative data by attributing meaning to circumstances and providing interpretation of the

perceptions of experiences. Qualitative methods included semi-structured interviews with PE

teachers. Quantitative methods included teacher questionnaire, student questionnaire, case

study observations and activity intensity measurements.

Teacher

PCK

Student

Student

Outcomes

Outcomes

The

School


62

Empirical and analytic research methods in the form of case study observations and interviews

were used to establish reliability, replicability and consistency of findings. The PE classes were

evaluated through descriptive case studies.

3.3 PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Approximately 125 primary school students from a non-government education sector, in the

metropolitan region of Perth participated in the project in term two of 2008. Lessons were

conducted by five female teachers who were specialists (responsible for the planning, teaching

and assessing of PE in primary schools) within the learning area of PE.

Each participating teacher chose one class to participate in the project. All student

participants were from year five, six or seven. Age range for the student participants was 9 –

13 years of age.

Each teacher was observed on three or four occasions in term two, 2008. The teacher was

instructed by the researched to select a ball sport to be the focus of the learning for the four

lessons.

Four students (two girls and two boys) were selected by the teacher to wear the ActiGraph

GT1M monitors. These students were as requested by the researcher to be of class average

ability and participation. These four students acted as a representative sample of activity for

the PE class. ActiGraph data were gathered from the same four students for each of the four

observed lessons. These students were also focus students for timed observations that took

place during the lessons.

3.3.1 Ethics and Rapport

In considering social research involving people, it was important to consider the ethical issues.

Spradley (1979) confirmed such a need when suggesting that, no matter how unobtrusive,

research techniques such as ethnography and interview can reveal information which could

violate the participant.

Prior to the commencement of the data collection, ethics approval was gained by the Human

Research Ethics Committee at The University of Western Australia (Ref: RA/4/1/1953)

(Appendix K). In addition, all school principals received a written invitation to participate. This

included information and procedure documents, statement of disclosure (Appendix L),

informed consent return slip ensuring anonymity and privacy, identification of support

agencies and contact details of researchers (Appendix M). Teacher participants received a

63

written invitation to participate. This included a statement of disclosure and information and

procedures for participation prior to the commencement of lesson observations (Appendix N).

Following this, teachers received a second statement of disclosure and informed consent

regarding the lesson observations (Appendix O). Students were requested to take home and

deliver to parents a passive permission form (Appendix P). This outlined the project aims and

procedures and offered, through a return slip, the opportunity to decline participation in the

study at any time. No students chose to withdraw from the study during the term two data

collection period.

Neither the schools nor the participants used were identified by name. Any specific reference

to a school or a person protected confidentiality and anonymity by the use of pseudonyms.

Prior to the commencement of the observed lessons, the researcher visited each teacher at

her school. The aim of this meeting was to develop rapport with the teacher and to discuss;

the researcher’s role in the observed lessons, any queries or concerns the teacher may have

and to ensure the confidentiality of the teacher, students and school. The selection of ball

sport was also discussed. All teachers informally commented that they would teach the ball

sport that they had programmed, therefore indicating that this request was not requiring them

to adjust their programme to suit the research project. This meeting enabled the researcher to

confirm the likely location for the lesson and then arrange placement of the video camera to

ensure it would be as inconspicuous as possible.

At the completion of each observed lesson, each teacher was asked to complete a very brief

questionnaire to determine if the lesson was an accurate reflection of her teaching (see

Appendix I). This enabled the researcher to ensure that the teacher had not presented a

lesson that was different to her normal teaching.

3.4 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES

For the purpose of this research, Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) was defined as;

knowledge of how to teach specific content in specific contexts (Mellado, Blanco, & Ruiz,

1998). The terms ‘PCK’ and ‘teacher effectiveness’ are somewhat interchangeable. However,

in this research project, the distinction between the two terms lies in the specific sport being

taught. In other words, teacher effectiveness is a somewhat broad term, however PCK is more

specific. A teacher may possess PCK in one sport, but not in another (Grossman, 1990).

As detailed in the review of literature, Grossman (1990) has defined four elements of PCK.

These four theoretical elements have been made operational in this research project through

64

the use of a rigorous, practical data collection process that is detailed below and in Appendix

A. Each element of the data collected, relates directly to Grossman’s elements of PCK, as

detailed in Appendix A.

The method of data collection was chosen to verify evidence of PCK in teaching, based on

previous relevant research.

In 1999, Hastie and Vlaisalvljevic explored the relationship between Australian PE teachers’

(n=9) subject matter expertise and instructional strategies. The researcher used teacher

interviews to determine experience and qualifications specific to the sport being taught. In

addition, the researcher conducted observations of the teachers teaching PE. They observed

for task detail, teacher accountability as well as teacher and student responses. This research

makes connections with Grossman’s (1990) elements of PCK. They concluded and concurred

with Grossman (1990); teachers with PCK display strong subject matter expertise. Moreover,

this research validates the use of elements of observation and teacher interview as a

meaningful method for gathering data to provide evidence of PCK.

In 1989, researchers Gusthardt and Sprigings, analysed the effect of teachers (n=2) on student

learning. The researcher videotaped lessons and analysed these using a systematic

observation instrument over a three week period. They analysed teacher dialogue, selection

of tasks, opportunities to practise new skills and use of demonstration and student attainment

of learning outcomes. They concluded that expert teachers communicate clearly both the

intent and nature of the task and they provide sufficient practise of skills at an appropriate

level. The researcher was keen to point out that teaching behaviours should not be

considered in isolation, rather teaching behaviours should be considered as a part of the

ecological teaching situation (Gusthardt & Sprigings, 1989). This final conclusion made by

Gusthardt & Sprigings (1989) is evident in the multi-method design of this research project.

The research described above justifies many elements of the data collection process used in

this research project. However, this particular project is unique given the rigour in which the

data were collected from students and teachers, using multiple methods in order to gather

evidence of the extent to which each teacher is able to teach specific content in the specific

context.

The data collection methods are detailed below.

65

3.4.1 Value Orientation Inventory-2

The philosophy supporting curricular choices made by teachers has been defined by Ennis and

Chen (1995) as the Values Orientation Inventory (VOI-2) (Appendix B). The VOI-2 is a method

of identifying a teacher’s theoretical belief system and examining teachers’ priorities for PE

curriculum decisions by requiring teachers to make decisions on priorities for PE programmes.

The VOI-2 is a 90 item paper and pencil instrument (Appendix B). Each item reflects goals and

objectives for PE within one of the five orientations. There are 18 items in each VO sub-scale.

Teachers are asked to rank statements reflecting each of the five orientations using a five point

Likert-type scale (5= highest priority, 1= lowest priority). Composite scores of item rankings

are presented for each value orientation. Each individual score is compared with the group

mean for that orientation. A teacher’s value profile includes a score for each value orientation.

Teachers needed to rank items consistently across the 18 item sets to achieve a high or low

priority score (Ennis & Zhu, 1991).

The theoretical framework of educational beliefs influencing teachers’ decision making most

widely accepted in PE is that of Jewett, et al., (1995). They have proposed five different

orientations, each describing a philosophy or ideology for constructing curriculum. The priority

a teacher places on components of the teaching and learning process determines the value

orientation.

In term one, 2008 the VOI-2 was posted to principals of a non-government sector of primary

schools in the Perth metropolitan area (n=27). The principals were asked to read the

information regarding the project and after providing consent for the school to take part in the

project, pass the VOI-2 onto the female PE specialist teacher in the primary school. Six VOI-2’s

and principal consent’s were returned to the researcher in reply paid envelopes.

3.4.2 Case study classes

Observations were one of the primary methods for examining the PE class and evaluating the

student outcomes of the PE programme. Five classes were observed three or four times

during term two, 2008.

In total, 18 lessons were observed throughout the term. On two occasions, a lesson was

cancelled due to bad weather and timetable constraints at the school. Wet weather impacted

on three lessons. On each occasion, the analysis was stopped whilst the lesson was paused

and the analysis recommenced when the weather permitted and teaching resumed.

66

The researcher adopted the role of non-participatory observer throughout the lessons, a

technique confirmed in literature (Brause & Mayher, 1991; LeCompte & Preissle, 1993) where

the activities themselves were not experienced, but close and detailed ‘focused observations’

were made (Spradley, 1979). An observation schedule (Appendix C) and a list of criteria to

support evidence of the five HPE LAO’s displayed in the lessons was used in the data collection

process. Use of the observation schedule and an audiotape containing prompting cues at one-

minute intervals ensured observation were systematic.

3.4.2.1 Observation schedule

A combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches were used to gather observational

data using the modified observation schedule designed by Whipp, Grove and Hutton (2006)

(Appendices C and D). The observation schedule allowed for systematic and deliberate

observations to be made which were appropriate to the class setting (Wiersma, 1995). The

researcher maintained a deliberate distance to minimise the disruption to the class (Scott,

1996). Positioning was constantly maintained to minimise distraction. To ensure both

objectivity and a consistent approach to the observations the schedule was designed using

both duration and interval recording techniques. Interpretation of the observations was made

on the basis of the expertise of the observer. To expand the observation recordings and

alleviate restrictive criticisms, additional specific and generalised field notes were taken that

related to variables impacting on the pedagogy, curriculum and lesson outcomes.

These observations formed a powerful tool and allowed the research to maximise knowledge,

see the work as the subjects saw it, be a data source and build on the implicit knowledge of

the researcher and the subjects (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

To ensure consistency, a tape recorded prompt was used throughout the lesson observations.

The pre-recorded verbal prompt was heard at one minute intervals stating the target

observation and length of time the observation was to take place. Another auditor recorded

verbal cue was received at the conclusion of each observation. Results were then noted

immediately on the observation schedule.

Target student and whole class observations

Each target student (all of average ability and participation as determined by the participating

PE teacher) was observed for a period of 10 seconds, once every four minutes. The behaviour

that best described the students was recorded on the observation schedule (Whipp, Grove &

Hutton, 2006) (Appendix C). On task/off task behaviour was further categorised into activities

67

that were motor-appropriate or motor-inappropriate, waiting time, instructional time or

interim/transition time. The whole class was observed every fourth minute. Whole class

observations involved scanning students once only from left to right for on-task or off task

behaviour, with the number of each behaviour recorded.

Interval recording and group sampling techniques were used to record representative

behaviours during the class for target students and whole class. Duration recording

techniques were used to record the time spent on different activities, the activity focus and

the different teaching styles demonstrated.

3.4.2.2 ActiGraph GT1M

Prior to the commencement of the observed lessons, each participating teacher was asked to

select four students (two boys and two girls) who were considered to be representative of the

average participation and ability level. The same four students wore the monitors for each

lesson. At the beginning of each observed lesson, the ActiGraph GT1M monitors were given to

each of the four teacher selected students. Each monitor was numbered and each student

was given the same numbered monitor for each observation. This enabled the observer to

ensure that the data on the monitor corresponded with the correct student. As recommended

by Trost (personal communication, May 9, 2008) and based on previous work (Trost, 2007;

Trost, Mclver, & Pate, 2005), the monitors were preset to record activity intensity and duration

at 15 second epochs. This enabled the researcher to gather data, even from short bursts of

exercise, data that was consistent with PE lessons.

Each student was asked to place the monitor on his/her iliac crest using the elastic waist belt

with clip. Before each student joined the class, they were asked to show the observer that the

monitor was placed correctly and each student was asked to confirm that the monitor was

fitting firmly, but comfortably as recommended by ActiGraph (2007) and Trost (2007).

The ActiGraph GT1M is an accelerometer-based activity monitor, used to measure:

1. Individual activity levels

2. Duration/intensity of sustained activity

3. Distance travelled and steps taken (ActiGraph, 2007)

At the conclusion of each observed lesson, the students were asked to remove the monitors

and each student was asked to comment on any distraction or discomfort that the monitors

68

created. Throughout all observed lessons, there were no comments made by students with

regards to discomfort felt or distraction as a result of wearing the monitor.

The data from each monitor were downloaded into Microsoft Excel, using the Actigraph GT1M

software. Age specific cut points were used to classify the activity intensity as low, moderate

or vigorous as specified in the Freedson Child equation (2005). This enabled the researcher to

determine the amount of time spent in each of these activity intensities. In addition, total

activity counts, mean activity counts, peak counts and total epochs were calculated after each

observed lesson for each student (Appendix Q).

3.4.2.3 Voice data

A digital voice recorder was attached to the arm of the PE teacher, prior to the

commencement of each observed lesson. The digital voice recorder recorded all teacher talk

for the entire lesson. At the completion of the lesson, the voice recorder was removed and the

data were downloaded, transcribed and analysed (Appendix E).

Each lesson was transcribed verbatim and the transcription was analysed by coding each

comment made by the teacher into the following categories (Appendix F).

Instructions

Effective instruction communication results in students comprehending the information

enough to allow them to commence the task that has been described (Siedentop & Tannehill,

2000).

a) Learning: Instructions given to an individual or group that relate to lesson

content/learning objectives. Instructions could be presented in the form of standard

teacher instructions; teacher generated questions or based on responses to student

questions or actions.

b) Management: Instructions given to an individual or group that involve issues other

than learning. For example; allocation of equipment, grouping and placement of

students, turn taking.

Feedback

The purpose of all feedback is to either recognize changes that need to take place and provide

a correction to improve performance or offer scaffolding for the student to identify and

change their actions (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002).

69

a) Value: Can be identified by the presence of a judgement word, either positive or

negative. They can be specific or non-specific.

b) Corrective – Learning/Task related: Refer to the identification of an error and the

necessary correction of that error. The focus is on the student’s error without value

judgements.

c) Corrective – Discipline: Refer to the identification of inappropriate behaviour and the

necessary correction or consequence of that behaviour.

d) Neutral: Acknowledgment of an action without judging or correcting. The statements

encourage the student to interpret the statement and respond accordingly.

e) Ambiguous: Requires the student to make their own interpretation of the statement.

This leads to the opportunity for the statement to be interpreted or misinterpreted.

(Mosston & Ashworth, 2002)

The coded data were then analysed. The total number of words spoken and the number of

words spoken in each category was calculated as well as the total number of feedback and

instruction words spoken. The percentage of each category was also calculated in order for

comparison to be made between lessons and teachers (Appendix R).

3.4.2.4 Digital Video Footage

A digital video camera was used to record each observed lesson. This enabled the researcher

to clarify judgements and gather additional information from the lesson that may have been

missed due to the rigorous data being gathered using the observation schedule.

3.4.2.5 Post lesson Self-Evaluation

At the completion of each lesson, the teacher was asked to complete a short self-evaluation to

determine the extent to which their teaching was a fair representation of their approach to

teaching PE (Appendix I). Only one teacher on one occasion felt that the learning activities

presented throughout the lesson resulted in student participation being unrepresentative of

her teaching. This was documented on the post lesson self-assessment, however the data

were not removed from the study as the analysis of the data from this lesson was consistent

with the other three lessons observed.

70

3.4.3 Student Enjoyment Questionnaire

A modified version of the PE enjoyment questionnaire constructed by Hashim, Grove & Whipp

(2007) was used to assess six domains of PE enjoyment (Appendix G). The original instrument

consisted of 37 items using a five point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 2= agree; 3= neither agree

nor disagree; 4= agree, 5= strongly agree). Through the evaluation of six processes related to

PE enjoyment, the original instrument appeared to display sound psychometric properties. In

addition, it displayed strong construct and face validity in a PE setting. The questionnaire

served to evaluate multiple process of enjoyment related to PE through the use of a relatively

brief assessment instrument.

The original instrument was designed for use with students in years 8, 9 and 10. Given that

the student population for this project was student from years 5, 6 and 7, changes were made

throughout the piloting process to ensure that all items were relevant and easily

comprehended by all students within this age range. The final questionnaire consisted of 39

items (including demographic information) and required approximately 30 minutes to

administer.

The researcher, in the presence of the class teacher, facilitated the questionnaire for all

student participants (Appendix G). After changes as a result of the piloting process, wording

was set as a level for the intended participants. The researcher clarified any comprehension

difficulties that the students encountered and read each question to the class before students

responded.

Two items from the instrument directly related to student enjoyment. These were item

numbers 11 (PE is fun) 18 (I enjoy PE very much).

3.4.4 Teacher Interviews

All interviews were audio-taped using an unobtrusive digital voice recorder then transcribed

verbatim. An example of one of the transcripts is presented in Appendix H. The interviews

were business like and efficient, friendly but not ‘chummy’, as was recommended by Wiersma

(1995). Although semi-structured, the interview transpired in a relatively standardised format

for easier comparisons, with the same questions in the same order, the wording varied slightly

(LeCompte & Preissle, 1993). Questions were constructed on the understanding that the

interviewer does not serve to put ideas into someone’s mind, but to elicit the participants’

perceptions and feeling about themselves and their settings (Choi, 1992). Furthermore, theses

71

procedures allowed information to be placed in the perceptual dimension, that being what

exists in the participants mind (Choi, 1992).

All participating PE teachers were interviewed at the conclusion of the observed lessons.

Interviews lasted for approximately 15 minutes. The starting time and venue for the teacher

interviews were selected by the teacher to minimise the level of disruption and maximise the

level of ease and comfort. Opinions were sought regarding various aspects of their teaching

(with consideration to the ball sport observed in the lessons). These included:

1. Perceived level of comfort teaching the sport

2. Personal and professional background in the sport

3. Rating of expertise

4. Changes they would like to make to their teaching

5. Barriers faced that prevent teaching in an ‘ideal’ way

6. Perceptions of support gained from school community

7. Basis for programming (e.g. carnivals, student interest, school priorities etc)

3.4.5 Summary of Data

Table 3.4.5.1 summarises the multi-method design used in this project to describe the PE

classes within the participating schools as well as to draw relationships of elements within

each PE class.

72

Table 3.4.5.1

Summary of Data: Piloting, Collection Methods and Analysis

Data Instrument No. of times collected

Data analysis

Pilot Modified

Value Orientation Value Orientation Inventory – 2

1 Z scores

Observation:

Time

Activity

Activity Focus

Student Behaviour

Learner Involvement

HPE outcomes

Teaching Styles

Notes

Observation Schedule (Whipp, Grove & Hutton, 2006)

3-4 observations per school

Parametric and Non-

parametric analysis

-

Activity Intensity AcitGraph GT1M

4 students (2 boys, 2 girls) 3-4 data collections per school

Parametric Analysis

-

Teacher Dialogue:

Instructions

Feedback

Digital Voice Recorder

3-4observations per school

Transcribed & coded

-

Student Enjoyment Student Enjoyment Questionnaire (Hashim, Grove & Whipp, 2007)

1 Parametric analysis

Teacher Interview Semi-structured interview

1-2 per teacher Transcribed & coded

Digital Video Footage Digital Video Camera

All observed lessons

Viewed checked

Post lesson self-evaluation Questionnaire 1 per observed lesson

Checked for

consistency

3.5 PILOTING PROCEDURES

Prior to use in the participating schools, instruments were piloted to ensure validity and

reliability. All piloting took place in consultation with an experienced researcher. At the

conclusion of each piloting process, dialogue occurred between researchers to ensure that a

consensus had been reached. The piloting procedures are detailed below.

73

3.5.1 Piloting of Values Orientation Inventory-2

The VOI-2 was developed by researchers to determine the philosophical PE curriculum

preferences of specialist PE teachers (Appendix B). The VOI-2 has shown psychometric

properties of reliability and validity in the population, in which it was intended, primary

physical educators (Ennis & Chen, 1993). Ennis and Chen established reliability and validity

through the administration of the VOI-2 to university and public school teachers (n=298).

Participants were asked to evaluate the extent to which each item represented its

corresponding domain sentence, using a five point scale. Respondents rated 80.9% of the

items acceptable for inclusion in the VOI-2.

In 2006, Lockhart and Whipp administered the VOI-2 to primary PE teachers in Western

Australia (n=127, 64 male, 60 female, 3 did not disclose gender). Prior to the implementation

of the instrument, Lockhart and Whipp piloted the VOI-2 to ensure its suitability for PE

teachers in Western Australian. This process involved primary school teachers completing the

questionnaire in the presence of a researcher. They were asked to comment on their

understanding of each question. This process resulted in changes to the wording of one item

as the participating teachers were not familiar with the work ‘kinesiology’. The changes are as

follows:

Table 3.5.1.1

Changes Made to the VOI-2

Original Item I include grade-appropriate information about moving and exercise from such

areas as anatomy, kinesiology and exercise physiology.

Revised Item I include grade-appropriate information about moving and exercise from such

areas as anatomy a, biomechanics and exercise physiology.

The VOI-2 was found to be valid and reliable (Whipp & Lockhart, 2008). In addition, this

instrument has been used extensively by researchers in America, Belgium and Australia. It has

been consistently considered to provide reliable data that describes the curricular priorities of

teachers completing the instrument. Furthermore, the VOI-2 was administered to an

experienced PE teacher as part of the piloting process for this project. The teacher was given

the opportunity to ask questions whilst completing the questionnaire. As a result of the

74

feedback given by the teacher and the work of Whipp and Lockhart (2008), the questionnaire

was considered to be suitable for use with the participating teachers (Appendix B).

3.5.2 Piloting of Case Study Classes

Prior to the commencement of the data collection process in the participating schools, all case

study instruments were piloted extensively. The piloting process was conducted with an

experienced PE teacher and a variety of PE classes at an independent school in the Perth,

metropolitan area. Digital video footage of all pilot classes was recorded. This enabled the

researcher to clarify and confirm judgements and made after the actual lesson. The video

camera was piloted to ensure adequate footage of each lesson was gathered. The piloting

processes for each instrument are as follows.

3.5.2.1 Observation Schedule - Target student and whole class observations

Prior to the commencement of the data collection, observer reliability was determined by

comparing observations with an experienced researcher. During the observations the

researched adopted a non-participatory role, maintaining a deliberate distance to minimise

disruption to the class environment (Scott, 1996). The observations were conducted

independently, with researchers conferring after each lesson, making comparisons between

data recorded. The results that were obtained from one introductory lesson and six

subsequent lessons in 2007, during the pilot period revealed minor conflicting or contrasting

observations (5% of total observations). After each observed lesson, dialogue took place

between the researchers to resolve the differing points of view. Points of discussion

concerned the assessment of Curriculum Framework Outcome Levels for Skills for Physical

Activity observed in individuals and groups of students throughout the timed observations. All

discrepancies in observations were resolved by means of discussion between researchers at

the conclusion of the observed lesson.

In 2008, prior to the commencement of the data collection period, the observation schedule

was re-piloted. The observations were conducted in the same environment as previously

documented. The observation schedule (Appendix C) was used to record three lessons. On

discussion at the end of each lesson, 100% agreement between researchers was confirmed.

3.5.2.2 ActiGraph GT1M

For each of the six lessons piloted, the PE teacher was asked to select four students of relative

class average ability and participation (two boys and two girls) to wear the ActiGraph GT1M

75

monitors. The students were given clear instructions regarding the placement of the

monitors. At the conclusion of each lesson, each student was asked to comment on the

comfort of the monitors. All students stated that the monitors were comfortable and did not

provide any distraction throughout the PE lesson.

After the pilot lessons, the data from the monitors were downloaded and analysed with the

assistance of an experienced researcher. All data were found to be reflective of the lessons

observed.

3.5.2.3 Voice Data

The pilot teacher was asked to wear the digital voice recorder whilst teaching a series of PE

classes. In the observed lesson, the recorder was removed from the teacher’s arm during the

lesson to check for quality of recording and to ensure that the voice recorder was set at an

appropriate volume level to detect all voice data. The recorder was then replaced on the

teacher’s arm.

At the conclusion of each lesson, the teacher was asked to provide feedback regarding the

level of comfort and any distraction experienced as a result of wearing the voice recorder. The

teacher felt that it was comfortable, lightweight and unobtrusive.

The transcribed voice data from the pilot lessons were independently analysed by two

researchers (one of which was an experienced researcher). The coded transcriptions were

examined for consistencies in coding. They revealed no conflicting or contrasting judgements.

3.5.3 Piloting of Student Enjoyment Questionnaire

Late in 2007, the instrument was piloted using 15 year five students (age 9 – 11) with low to

average comprehension skills (as identified in the Western Australian Numeracy and Literacy

testing, 2007). Each item was read and discussed to ensure that there was a common and

accurate understanding. This was assessed through the researcher questioning individual and

groups of students after each item had been read aloud. Questions were asked such as “What

does that word mean?”, “What do you think that question is asking you?” and “Can you put

that question in to your own words?” This allowed the researcher to establish a sound

comprehension of the items. After the first pilot, minor changes were made to the wording of

some items (Table 3.5.3.1). The most noteworthy change was made to the third item on the

likert scale. As a result of the initial pilot process, the students appeared to struggle to

demonstrate a sound understanding of the term ‘neither agree nor disagree’. After much

76

discussion, the students suggested the term ‘middle of the road’ to replace ‘neither agree nor

disagree’ (Table 3.5.3.2). In addition, the students suggested formatting changes such as

placing the Likert descriptors at the top of each page, rather than only at the top of the first

page. This formatting change allowed the increased the ease of use of the questionnaire.

After these changes were made, the instrument was re-piloted a second time with the same

sample group and the same process was followed. There were no changes made as a result of

the second pilot process. Finally, the entire year five cohort (29 students) was asked to

complete the questionnaire. Each pilot took place four weeks after the previous. This process

enabled the researchers to ensure that after the changes, all items were reliable and

consistent. Data analysis confirmed that the instrument was reliable. The results from the

initial group of 15 students who completed the second pilot as well as the final whole class

questionnaire were compared. A paired t-test established that there was no significant

difference in the results of the second pilot and final whole class questionnaire t (12) = -2.85,

p< 0.014 from this group of 15 students.

Table 3.5.3.1

Changes Made to the Items on the Enjoyment Questionnaire

Process Original Item Current Item

Other Referent Competency

No changes made

Teacher Generated Excitement

2. My PE teacher is helpful and friendly during PE classes

1. My PE teacher is helpful during PE classes 16. My PE teacher is friendly during PE class

Peer Interaction

No changes made

Parental Involvement

No changes made

Self Referent Competency

16. Compared to last term, I am getting better at PE activities

10. Compared to last year, I am getting better at PE activities

Activity Generated Competency

No changes made

77

Table 3.5.3.2

Changes Made to the Five Point Likert Scale on the Student Enjoyment Questionnaire

Original Likert scale

1 Strongly Disagree

2 Disagree

3 Neither Agree

Nor Disagree

4 Agree

5 Strongly Disagree

Revised Likert Scale

1 Strongly Disagree

2 Disagree

3 Middle of the

Road

4 Agree

5 Strongly Disagree

3.5.4 Piloting of Teacher Interview Questions

Late in 2007, after all other piloting procedures had taken place, the pilot teacher was asked to

take part in a semi-structured interview. The interview was recorded using a digital voice

recorder. All questions were presented to the pilot teacher and responses were given. The

following questions were posed:

1. Perceived level of comfort teaching the sport

2. Personal and professional background in the sport

3. Rating of expertise

4. Changes they would like to make to their teaching

5. Barriers faced that prevent teaching in an ‘ideal’ way

At the end of the interview, the researcher discussed the level of comfort and distraction

experienced as a result of using a digital voice recorder to record the interview. The pilot

teacher explained that the digital voice recorder did not impact on his comfort during the

interview. On consultation between the researchers and the pilot teacher, it was decided that

the interview questions enabled the teacher to deliver responses that reflected his

background, expertise and any issues that he faced teaching PE at the particular school.

In 2008, after the data collection had commenced, it was apparent that the school was having

more of an impact on the teaching and learning than had been anticipated. Therefore, two

questions were added to the semi-structured interview format that enabled teachers to

communicate their perceived support from the school. The additional questions were:

78

1. Perceptions of support gained from school community

2. Basis for programming (e.g. carnivals, student interest, school priorities etc)

Upon further consultation with expert researchers, it was decided that the list of seven

questions provided the researcher with ample information to add detail and clarity to the

information gathered regarding the PE class.

3.6 DATA ANALYSIS

All quantitative data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (Version

14, Coakes, 2007). Screening of the data was done using selected descriptive statistics prior to

analyses to check for errors in data entry and missing values. All errors in data entry detected

by the screening process were corrected and verified. The number of missing values in the

student enjoyment questionnaire was minimal.

3.6.1 Value Orientation Inventory – 2

To ensure that reliable standardised data could be gathered from the small data set, the raw

VOI-2 data gathered from the five participating teachers were inserted into the data set

constructed by Lockhart and Whipp (2008). Lockhart and Whipp’s (2008) data set consisted of

specialist and generalist teachers of PE. To ensure homogeneity, only the specialist teachers

from Lockhart and Whipp’s data set were used. This resulted in the data set of 57 specialist

teachers of PE.

The raw data were used to obtain Z scores for each VO domain for each teacher. This enabled

the results of the two populations to be standardised. Z-score quantifies the raw data in terms

of the number of standard deviations that that score is from the mean of the distribution

(Burns, 2000). As Figure 3.6.1.1 illustrates, Z Scores >1.0 were considered to represent a high

priority, Z scores -1.0 → 1.0 were considered to represent a neutral priority and Z scores <-1.0

were considered to represent a low priority (see Appendix S).

79

Figure 3.6.1.1 Z score graph detailing priority cut offs (Adapted from Bourne, 2009)

As figure 3.6.1.1 demonstrates, a neutral priority (-1.0 - +1.0) encompasses 68.26% of the bell

curve which would indicate that the teacher has not consistently ranked the items within the

domain either high or low. To achieve a high priority or low priority, a teacher needed to rank

items consistently in the VOI-2 to attain a Z score of at least one standard deviation above or

below the mean. This was considered to represent a high or low priority as only 15.87% of

results represent the tail of the bell curve. Therefore, a teacher would need to rank an item

consistently high or low to achieve a high or low priority for the domain.

3.6.2 Parametric Analysis

All data were screened to verify normal distribution (skewness < 2.0, kurtosis < 2.0). The

normally distributed data were assessed using parametric analysis. One way ANOVA’s were

used to examine effects related to each school. Variables assessed in this way were the

previously identified factors pertaining to enjoyment, activity, elements of the observation

schedule and coded voice data.

3.6.3 Non-Parametric Analysis

Due to the small sample size, the nature of the data gathered (nominal and ordinal) and the

violation of the distribution assumptions, non-parametric techniques were utilised. Chi

Square, Kruskal-Wallis tests were completed to allow possible differences between two or

more groups to be examined (Voice Data – Words per minute, value feedback given,

Observation Schedule – Time allocated to activity). The Kruskal-Wallis tests is equivalent to

the one-way between-groups ANOVA and allows possible differences between two or more

groups to be tested.

80

3.6.4 Descriptive Analysis

All open ended responses (such as voice data from the observed lessons and responses to

interviews) were analysed for their content and coded into similar categories for analysis.

According to Bell, (2006), coding enables the researcher to gather key issues and which then

enables conclusions to be drawn.

To ensure reliability and rigour, the piloting process involved an independent experienced

researcher coding an interview and lesson transcript. This was then compared with the

researcher’s coded transcript and 100% agreement in coding was achieved. Furthermore, the

independent experienced researcher provided ongoing confirmation of the coding process

throughout the data collection and analysis phases.

Consistent with the work of Morgan and Hansen (2008), data were organised according to

categories in the interview schedule inductively and codes were formulated. Continual

reflection on this process led to transparency in this process.

The themes for coding the lesson transcripts were a result of the relevant literature reviewed.

The lesson transcripts were coded, using the feedback categories defined by Mosston and

Ashworth (2002). These were; value, corrective, neutral and ambiguous. Instructions were

coded. The instructions were coded as either learning or management.

The themes for coding the interview transcripts were selected to provide further evidence of

PCK as well as perceived barriers and support to their teaching. Therefore, the interviews

codes were; positive PCK, negative PCK, barriers to teaching and supporting factors to

teaching.

81

CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDIES OF A PRIMARY SCHOOL PE BALL SPORTS UNIT

The following descriptive case studies are a description of the teaching and learning processes

that occurred throughout the 18 observed PE lessons in multiple sites in term two, 2008. To

ensure that all ethical requirements relating to confidentiality and anonymity were met, all

school names have been given pseudonyms. The work was reviewed through three headings;

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), Student Outcomes and The School (Figure 4.1). This

has enabled a systematic and comprehensive description of the PE class to take place.

Figure 4.1 PCK and Primary PE Outcomes

Grossman (1990) has identified four central components of PCK that have enabled the

researcher to make judgements regarding the extent to which a teacher is displaying PCK in

her teaching. These are:

i. Knowledge and beliefs about the purpose of teaching

ii. Knowledge of students’ understanding of subject matter

iii. Knowledge of curriculum content

iv. Knowledge of instructional strategies

Given the method of data collection, each case study is not structured to match the four

components of PCK as defined by Grossman (1990). This is due to each element of PCK as

identified by Grossman (1990) not being able to be observed in isolation as they are

inextricably linked. As a result, each element of PCK will be clearly and comprehensively

addressed throughout each case study.


Teacher

PCK

Student

Student Outcomes

The

School

82

Student outcomes of activity and enjoyment. Student activity was determined through the use

of ActiGraph GT1m accelerometer based activity monitors. Student enjoyment was

established from the data collected from the Student Enjoyment Questionnaire (Hashim,

Grove, & Whipp, 2008).

The impact of the school was determined from a series of informal interviews with

stakeholders such as the PE teacher and in comes cases, the School Principal or Deputy

Principal. In addition, anecdotal notes were taken from observations. Quantitative data

regarding the SES of the school when compared to other schools in the sector was provided by

the director of HPE in the sector. The combination of this data as well as the literature

reviewed has enabled a description regarding the impact of the school on PCK to be made.

Five PE teachers were observed. Each teacher selected a class to take part in the project. All

classes were years 5-7. Each teacher was asked to present a series of lessons from a ball

sports programme. Teachers were asked to ensure that the observed lessons were an

accurate reflection of their ‘normal’ teaching as well as student participation.

All participating schools were from one education sector in WA. The director of HPE in the

sector facilitated the initial contact with all primary schools who were potential participants in

the project (located in the Perth metropolitan area and female PE specialist teacher).

The following five descriptive case studies describe the teaching and learning that occurred in

each of the participating schools.

83

4.1 GEORDIE BAY PRIMARY SCHOOL

4.1.1 Background Information

Geordie Bay Primary School was located approximately 13km from the Perth Central Business

District. The school accommodated 540 students, 30 teaching staff and an average class had

30 students.

Melanie was an enthusiastic and dynamic specialist teacher of PE at Geordie Bay Primary

school. She recognised the need for a diverse and engaging PE programme that allowed

students to engage in sports they were particularly interested in as well as increase their

repertoire of known sports. Whilst Melanie participated in baseball out of school, she

recognised that she needed to ensure that she was skilful in all sports that she taught. This led

to her taking time and effort to develop and improve her physical skills as well as teaching

skills, which led to the most fulfilling learning programme for all ability and interest levels that

she was able to provide.

4.1.2 Overview of Observed Lessons

Observations of Melanie’s teaching at Geordie Bay Primary School took place on four

occasions in term two, 2008. Soccer lessons were observed on all occasions. Due to wet

weather, two of the lessons were held in the undercover sports area. This was a large

undercover space with an all weather surface, however it did impact on the opportunities the

students had to be active, when compared to their use of the outdoor soccer oval in other

lessons.

Melanie was observed teaching soccer to year six students on four occasions in term two.

Each lesson lasted an average of 27 minutes. Each lesson commenced with warm up activities

that involved the students moving whilst revising previously taught skills. For example,

students worked in pairs, jogging and passing the ball with short, controlled passes. This was

followed up in some lessons with a short stretching activity. On one occasion, Melanie used

the time while the students were stretching to introduce and explain the details of the lesson.

When demonstrating skills to the class, Melanie used students to display the necessary skills

and Melanie provided verbal instructions and prompts to add detail to the visual

demonstration.

The majority of the lesson time was used to acquire and develop soccer skills through the use

of partner and small group drills as well as games. Skills and techniques taught in the four

lessons included; trapping and passing, throwing and headers, goal kicking, tackling and

84

defending. Melanie ensured that all students were active during the drills and she used the

time to circulate amongst the students to provide corrective feedback (16% of total words

spoken) and value feedback (7% of total words spoken) (Figures 4.1.4.3.1 and 4.1.4.5.1). Each

lesson concluded with a game that encouraged the students to apply the skills they had

focussed on in earlier drills and modified games. Melanie appeared to be conscious of

ensuring that all students had a turn when games were played. In contrast, on some

occasions, the concluding games provided opportunities for only two or three students (out of

the whole class)to be active at one time. Melanie concluded each lesson by giving positive

value feedback to the whole class, commending various students on their skills acquisition,

participation or behaviour.

4.1.3 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

In a post lesson interview, Melanie identified that soccer was not a sport that she possessed a

great deal of personal experience or teaching knowledge. However, she believed that it was

imperative that the needs of the students were catered for and prioritised over teacher

interest or experience. For example, in an interview, she stated:

It’s more about the fact that it is a sport that the children are interested in and you need to look at what the children are interested in and you can’t just decide that ‘I don’t know how to do that sport so too bad’. It’s an interest so you have to fill the need. (Interview, p. 1)

Given this, over the years Melanie made a considerable effort to ensure that her teaching skills

and performance skills were at a level that allowed her to implement a programme that

catered for both the students who have a particular interest and talent in the sport as well as

those who were less interested or able. Overall, Melanie conservatively rated her expertise for

teaching soccer as “6” (out of ten with ten representing ‘most comfortable and expert’)

(personal communication, May27, 2010).

Therefore, Melanie was constantly working to improve her PCK and was aware of the need to

provide an enriching programme to address all ability and interest levels. This awareness of

the need to improve and evolve produced a programme that engaged all students. She was

able to provide challenges at all levels and her corrective feedback was both constructive and

appropriate. In addition, Melanie was always keen to praise all students for their progress.

Melanie’s desire to constantly improve her teaching and the quality of the PE programme was

also evident in her use of her PE budget. Each year, she aimed to purchase new equipment for

the school that facilitated the introduction of a new sport, “So each year I try and purchase

85

something that is going to introduce a new sport or look at what I’ve got and see what needs

replacing” (Interview, p. 1). This enabled the students to expand and develop skills in sports

of particular interest (soccer) as well as acquire skills that allowed them to expand their

knowledge of other sports, with the hope that either option would lead to lifelong PA habits.

4.1.3.1 Qualifications and Experience

Melanie confirmed herself to be 31 -40 years old and had been teaching for 10 years. She held

a Bachelor of Education as well as a Graduate Diploma in Early Childhood Education. For the

past six years, she has taken on the role of PE specialist at Geordie Bay Primary School.

Throughout this time, she has made many innovative changes to the whole school PE

programme. As well as this, she has become a leader of PE teachers within the education

sector of schools in the local area. She has facilitated professional development days and

worked in consultation with HPE advisors within the education sector. For example:

I am also the chairperson for a sports assoc. We have 12 schools. So, we have the opportunity to give feedback and tooing and froing between each other. We have at least one meeting a term which is a collegial meeting to discuss carnivals, events, programming and assessment, anything like that. At the beginning of this term, I ran a PD day here. The whole day was on reporting techniques and assessment tools, programmes, resources. (Interview, p. 1)

Melanie has also taken on a role of advisor to teachers at other schools where PE was an

undervalued learning area. She has worked to improve the profile of PE both at Geordie Bay

Primary School as well as surrounding schools.

4.1.3.2 Goals

Researchers Jewett and Bain (1985) have explained that goals should reflect the teacher’s

value orientation, the local curriculum, student development and necessary subject matter

content. This was clearly evident in Melanie’s teaching and in informal discussions. Evidence

of Melanie’s PCK was apparent in her communication of both broad and narrow learning goals.

Narrow Goals

At the commencement of each lesson, Melanie clearly communicated her goals for the lesson.

For example, “Today we are going to concentrate on some tackling. A very important part of

the game” (Transcribed from third observed lesson). This is consistent with the work of Jewett

and Bain (1085) who have detailed the importance of focussing on motor skills when

communicating narrow goals. By explaining the goal for the lesson, the students immediately

gained an understanding of the lesson focus.

86

Value Orientation – Goals for Student Learning

Prior to the commencement of the observed lessons, Melanie completed the VOI-2. After

analysing her responses, it was possible to conclude that she held a high priority for discipline

mastery, neutral priority for social responsibility and a low priority for the domains of learning

process, self actualization and ecological integration. Melanie’s VOI-2 profile (Figure 4.1.3.2.1)

supports the data from other large studies (Ennis, Chen, & Ross, 1992). She possessed a high

priority for DM (Z=1.92), neutral priority for SR (Z=0.44), SA (Z=-0.69) as well as LP (Z=-0.14)

and low priority for EI (Z=-1.48) (Figure 4.1.3.2.1). In other words, Melanie appears to have a

high priority for the content focussed domains and a low priority for the affective domains.

The only exception to this was her neutral priority for LP which given the work of Ennis and

Zhu (1991), would expect to positively correlate with the DM domain and therefore be given a

high priority given that it was a content focussed domain.

Figure 4.1.3.2.1 Melanie’s VOI-2 Profile

When comparing Melanie’s value orientation profile as described by her responses to the VOI-

2 with her observed teaching, it was possible to suggest some conclusions. Firstly, Melanie

demonstrated a strong focus on skills, rules and strategies, consistent with her high priority for

discipline mastery. Secondly, consistent with her VO profile, there was little evidence of

student autonomy, opportunities to develop self-understanding and problem solving that may

suggest a self-actualization or ecological integration foci. From the data analysed in Melanie’s

VOI-2 and the observed lessons, it could be proposed that Melanie was teaching consistently

with her teaching and philosophical priorities.

Z score

Value Orientation Domain

87

Broad Goals

In the informal interview, Melanie clearly explained her reasons for selecting and presenting a

soccer programme to this group of students. She felt that this would meet the interest level of

the students. Melanie explained that in creating the programme, she needed to work out

which drills and skills that the students needed to develop. This was evidence of Melanie using

her PE programme to set skill goals for the unit.

Melanie gave further evidence of broader, whole school goal setting in the informal interview.

She explained that each year she aimed to purchase new equipment to expand the sports she

was able to teach. This was evidence of Melanie’s broad goal setting for the whole PE

programme at Geordie Bay Primary School.

Further indications of Melanie’s broad goals were observed in the evidence of her VOI-2

profile in her teaching. As previously mentioned, Melanie was teaching consistently with many

aspects of her VOI-2 profile. This indicated that Melanie’s beliefs and understandings

regarding how children learn within the PE learning area were actually influencing how she

was teaching.

Confirmation of Melanie’s detailed narrow goals for individual lessons as well as extensive

evidence of her broad goals relating to her curriculum priorities, programmes for classes as

well as the whole school were confirmation of her PCK. In other words, she was aware of the

needs of the individuals, groups and whole school.

4.1.3.3 Dialogue

Melanie’s desire to constantly improve her knowledge of the sport and her teaching skills

resulted in the students demonstrating a great deal of admiration for her advice and opinions.

Melanie spoke on average, 111.47 words per minute throughout all four lessons. This was one

of the highest scores attained across all participants (mean of all study participants = 94.53,

range= 64.44 – 115.56 words per minute). This was a statistically significant difference F(4,13)

= 10.547, p < 0.05.

The respect that she has earned from the students has resulted in a very compliant and

cheerful class of students (researcher field notes). Melanie used very little time to discipline

students (0.4% of total words spoken) and she was therefore able to use almost all of the

lesson time for learning instructions (28% of total words spoken), feedback (25.1% of total

words spoken) and opportunities for activity (53% of total lesson time) (Figures 4.1.3.3.1 and

88

4.1.3.5.1). Melanie evidenced high PCK, in particular her subject matter knowledge in the

frequency and quantity of corrective feedback she provided for the students (Siedentop, 1991;

Siedentop, Herkowitz & Rink, 1994). The students were always willing to participate and did

not appear to have any sense of a fear of failure when attempting new skills. This was

observed when students commenced tasks and explored new skills (researcher field notes).

Rink and Hall (2008) have explained that expert teachers provide both visual and verbal

explanations of a task. This was clearly evident in Melanie’s teaching. She utilised a

combination of effective verbal instructions as well as teacher and student demonstrations of

specific skills being taught. The quantitative analysis of Melanie’s lessons supports the

researcher’s observations. What was most interesting to note was that, whilst Melanie

obviously said a great deal, she was able to combine this with the highest rates of opportunity

for activity (53% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants= 48.38%, range =39.86% –

52.99%). However, this was not a statistically significant difference F(4,13) = 1.759, p = 0.19.

Furthermore, the four students in the class wearing the Actigraph GT1M monitors, produced

one of the highest rates of Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA) (37.1% of all

activity counts, mean of all study participants = 32.16%, range= 21.07% – 39.74%) of all

participants observed throughout the project (Appendix T). This was a statistically significant

difference 2(4, N = 8470) = 3812.51, p<.05. With a closer analysis of what Melanie actually

said during the lessons, it can be concluded that what she was saying was directly related to

the lesson outcomes rather than management of equipment and students. Learning

instructions accounted for 47% of all words spoken by Melanie, whilst management explained

28% of all words spoken (Figure 4.1.3.3.1). This was further evidence of her PCK.

89

Figure 4.1.3.3.1 Transcribed Voice Data (mean % of total words spoken by Melanie)


The teaching style employed by Melanie for all of the lessons observed was the practise style.

She made the pre-impact and post-impact decisions and the students were provided with time

to practise the skill or activity. This teaching style was evident in teachers with a skills focussed

curriculum priority such as was evident in Melanie’s VOI-2 profile (Mosston & Ashworth,

2002).


Metzler, 1982 explored the features of ALT-PE in the effort to maximise learning outcomes in

PE. He explained that in order to maximise outcomes, teachers need to decrease management

and transition time, provide frequent feedback and deliver short, sequential instructions.

Melanie, undoubtedly achieved all of the elements listed here.

Melanie was able to highlight her PCK through her allocation of lesson time (Figure 4.1.3.5.1).

When compared to the other teachers, not only did she achieve this highest amount of time

allocated to activity (53% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants= 48.38%, range

=39.86% – 52.99%), but she also achieved the least time in transition between activities

(11.63% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants = 14.76%, range 11.63% – 17.67%).

Of the lesson time allocated to activity, all students were observed to be motor appropriate

and ‘on task’ on all timed observations. In addition, she achieved the lowest amount of lesson

90

time allocated to management, yet the highest amount of time allocated to instructions. This

was supported by the research conducted by Hastie (1994). He explored time allocation

characteristics of effective teachers, concluding that effective teachers spent more time

interacting with the students by providing feedback and instructions whilst less effective

teachers spend more time observing. Furthermore, effective teachers are able to engage a

greater percentage of students in motor appropriate activity than less effective. The result of

Melanie’s teaching was that the students spent more time engaged in motor appropriate

activity, feedback or instructions than the students from other schools. This is consistent with

the work of Placek and Randall (1986) who state that optimum lesson time allocation lies in

the maximisation of practice and the minimisation of transition as well as management.

Furthermore, Melanie was timetabled 30 minutes for each of the observed lessons. The

average lesson time was 27 minutes, indicating that Melanie was able to efficiently collect the

students, commence the lesson and prepare the students for the next teacher in as little as

three minutes. From this data, it is possible to conclude that Melanie’s allocation of lesson

time was strong evidence of her PCK.

Figure 4.1.3.5.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Melanie’s Lessons

4.1.3.6 Opportunties provided for students to Display Learning

Melanie provided opportunities for students to display learning related to performance at

Curriculum Framework SPA outcome level 3 through the use of games where students were

required to apply skills as well as implement strategic thinking (Curriculum Council, 1998).

Evidence of level 3 outcome attainment was seen mostly in the more able soccer players.

Most of the teaching was focussed at level 2. Almost all students managed to display skills

91

that were evident of level 2 achievement such as fundamental movement skills, rules in simple

games and awareness of others in games (Curriculum Council, 2005).

The majority of the teaching and learning was focussed on the Skills for Physical Activity (SPA)

CF outcome strand this was evident in the drills and games. On occasions, students were

asked to work in pairs to practise skills such as tackling and defending. However, team work

skills were not made explicit in the instructions and so this was not evidence of opportunity for

student attainment of Interpersonal Skills.

Melanie was able to utilise her PCK when delivering instructions and feedback in order to

prompt students to work towards achieving level 3 outcomes. For example, Melanie discussed

team tactics such as:

Think about where you’re going, if you’re kicking the ball this way and you’re going to try and score, what direction are you going to try and kick the ball towards your player, your partner, your team mate? (Student response) Fantastic. So we want to keep the ball in front of our partner or our player or team mate. If we keep the ball in front, they’re not having to stop, back peddle and get the ball behind them. Ok, so it’s handy to know your team mates preferred feet. (Melanie: Transcribed from first observed lesson)

When the students were involved in a drill, Melanie constantly circulated amongst the

students to provide corrective and value feedback (researcher field notes). This enabled the

students to modify their performance.

4.1.4 Student Outcomes

The students chosen by Melanie to participate in the project were year six students. They

were all 11 years of age at the time of the observed lessons. The class of 25 students

comprised of 17 boys and 8 girls.

All students appeared to be highly engaged in the lessons. At all times, they were willing to

stop what they were doing and listen to the teacher’s instructions (researcher field notes). The

students were always compliant participated enthusiastically in all aspects of the lessons.

When a new skill was demonstrated, all students were keen to practise (researcher field

notes). When given corrective feedback by the teacher, they appeared to accept this and

there was evidence of students putting in a great deal of effort to show the teacher their skill

accomplishment or progress. Even the most able soccer players in the class demonstrated an

interest and admiration for the feedback given by the teacher. As a result, almost all students

were observed to be on task and motor appropriate on almost all occasions. It was difficult to

92

comment on whether the cooperative and enthusiastic students were a result of Melanie’s

PCK or whether the student’s enable Melanie to display her PCK.

4.1.4.1 Activity

Melanie selected four students (two boys and two girls) of average participation and ability to

represent the activity intensity for the whole class. Each of the four students wore an

ActiGraph GT1M on his/her iliac crest.

Using the recently released Charter for Active Kids as a guide to MVPA data for primary school

aged children in WA, it would appear that the students at Geordie Bay Primary School would

have found it very difficult to meet the recommended ‘60 minutes of MVPA per day’ and

‘receive 150 minutes of quality physical education per week’ (CPAC, 2008). The Geordie Bay

Primary School timetable allocated 30 minute lessons. Melanie demonstrated efficient use of

the time by teaching for an average of 27 minutes from the given 30 minutes across all lessons

observed. Given that the average lesson time for the observed lessons at Geordie Bay Primary

School was 27 minutes, the students would need at least five PE lessons, taught by Melanie

per week. Moreover, given the data received from the observed lessons, it could be assumed

that there was a trend for approximately 11 minutes of the lesson time where the students

were engaged in MVPA. To achieve the recommended 60 minutes (or 300 minutes in the

school week), the students would need to derive the majority of their MVPA from lunchtime

(30 minutes in total) and recess (25 minutes in total) activity as well as before and after school

sport.

In summary, from the lessons observed, it can be suggested that the activity data was

evidence of Melanie’s PCK and the students at Geordie Bay Primary School were therefore

receiving high quality PE instruction. This is consistent with the research of Faucette and

Patterson (1990) who have established that effective teachers are able to provide more PA

opportunities than less effective teachers. However, the relatively low lesson time, coupled

with the low percentage of lesson time where students were engaged in MVPA render it

impossible for the children to achieve the recommended 150 minutes of quality PE instruction

per week and 60 minutes of MVPA per day.

4.1.4.2 Enjoyment

The Student Enjoyment Questionnaire (Hashim, Grove & Whipp, 2007) was administered to 25

students at Geordie Bay Primary School. When examining the results of all participating

schools, it appears that Geordie Bay Primary School students have demonstrated the highest

93

levels of enjoyment across all measures (with the exception of ‘other referenced competency’)

(Figure 4.1.4.2.1). The enjoyment data contradicts the work of Kilpatrick, Herbert and

Joacobson (2002) who established that a teacher centred approach to teaching results in lower

student enjoyment.

Figure 4.1.4.2.1 Schools Measures of Enjoyment (mean scores)

4.1.5 PE at Geordie Bay Primary School

In informal discussions with Melanie as well as the school principal, it was clear that PE was a

highly valued learning area at Geordie Bay Primary School.

4.1.5.1 Time allocated to PE/Structured PA

The only barriers to teaching and learning outcomes at Geordie Bay Primary School identified

by Melanie were related to time constraints. She felt that with more time, she would be able

to achieve greater student outcomes. This concern appears valid, given that the average

length of lesson time during the observations was 27 minutes (from a 30 minute lesson),

Score

Measures of Enjoyment

94

therefore making it impossible to achieve the recommended “150 minutes of quality PE

instruction per week” (CPAC, 2008).

In addition to the 30 minute lessons observed, the students also participated in a 60 minute

‘games’ focussed lesson once a week. The whole school fitness programme was coordinated

by Melanie, but carried out each day by the other (non- PE specialist) teachers. The students

participated in 20 minutes of the fitness programme every day.

Whilst the fitness programme could probably not be considered to be ‘quality PE instruction’,

it did increase the amount of structured PA that the students participated in weekly. Whilst

not observed as part of this study, it could be argued that the students at Geordie Bay Primary

School were achieving the DET (2010) guidelines for 120 minutes of quality PA each week,

(DET, 2010). Furthermore, the school was achieving the CPAC (2008) recommendation of 150

minutes per week, however these guidelines suggest ‘quality PE instruction’ (CPAC, 2008).

4.1.5.2 Teacher Perception of School Support

When interviewed, Melanie was very keen to express her positive feelings towards her

teaching position at Geordie Bay Primary School. She felt very well supported by the school

principal and the teaching staff. Furthermore, the school gave Melanie autonomy over the PE

programme. For example, Melanie said:

I have the principal who is very involved in the sport and is very supportive. He loves his sport. I really have that as a benefit because anything that I want to do he says ‘excellent, let’s do that, what’s the reason for that, excellent. (Interview, p. 2)

This concurs with the work of Reitzug (1994) who has established that PE teachers are more

likely to implement change when they feel they are autonomous and responsible with regards

to their programme.

She was able to purchase new equipment as well as replace existing equipment to ensure that

the students were able to use the best equipment that the school was financially able to

provide. In addition, her colleagues supported the changes to the school timetable that have

allowed the implementation of a morning fitness programme. The morning fitness

programme requires the enthusiasm and support of all teachers to ensure its success.

Melanie’s display of PCK in her teaching concurs with the work of Butler and Mergadt (1994) as

well as Morgan and Hansen (2008) who have established that school support was a factor in

building and maintaining outstanding programmes. Furthermore, it could be suggested that

the whole school respect and enthusiasm for the PE learning area also eliminated the issue of

95

PE being considered a marginal learning area (Macdonald, 1995). Perhaps it could then be

concluded that the support Melanie received from the school administration and staff

facilitated her to display her rich PCK.

4.1.5.3 PE Programme Rationale

When interviewed, Melanie cited student interest as a key factor that influenced her

programme.

Student Interest

As previously mentioned, Melanie’s foremost motivation for the PE programme observed was

student interest. This resulted in her working to improve her personal content as well as

teaching skills to ensure her proficiency in teaching all ability levels. By gauging student

interest, Melanie was able to determine a programme that will engage and motivate her

students. The logical outcome of this was improved learning (Flowerday & Schraw, 2000). This

was evident in the opportunities and support that Melanie provided her students to display

learning outcomes.

4.1.5.4 Socioeconomic status

Geordie Bay Primary School was the lowest ranked school for Socioeconomic status (SES) of

the five schools participating in the project (D.E.E.W.R., 2008). Given the literature

surrounding SES, Body Mass Index (BMI) and Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS), it could be

hypothesized that students (particularly girls) would be less active and derive less support

from parents, when compared to schools of a higher SES (Booth, et al., 1999). However, this

did not appear to be the case.

Sallis, Zakarian, Hovell and Hofstetter (1996) explored the impact of SES on physical activity

among 1871 adolescents in San Diego. They established that, students with a high SES had

more frequent PE classes and spent more time in vigorous exercise in those classes when

compare to students of low SES. With this in mind, it might be that that students from high

socio economic backgrounds participate in more vigorous activity in PE lessons. When total

MVPA from all schools was compared by ranking, Geordie Bay Primary School (lowest socio

economic school in the project) produced one of the highest counts across the four observed

lessons (37.14% of lesson time). In addition, the higher SES ranked schools generated the

lowest MVPA data out of all five schools (Figure 4.1.5.4.1).

96

Figure 4.1.5.4.1 MVPA Comparisons and SES Score of Participating Schools

Therefore, it could be surmised that SES had little impact on the teaching and learning in the

observed PE lessons.

4.1.6 Conclusion

From the data gathered from the observed lessons, student questionnaires and teacher

interview, it can be surmised that Melanie was providing quality PE instruction to the year six

class observed at Geordie Bay Primary School. If the enjoyment data as well as the observed

data from the lessons were observed together, it could be concluded that she was engaging

the students in learning opportunities that foster a sense of intrinsic motivation. This was

achieved through the combination of corrective feedback given as well as the value feedback.

It was hypothesized that the students admired Melanie’s soccer knowledge as she was able to

communicate this to the students effectively. Furthermore, she was able to provide

meaningful feedback to students when they experience success. This resulted in a highly

engaged class of students that have clearly expressed the sense of enjoyment they derive from

their PE programme, the teacher and the learning activities she presents.

Whilst there were many positive aspects to Melanie’s teaching, student outcomes and the

whole school attitude to PE at Geordie Bay Primary School, some concerns were evidenced in

the data gathered. As previously mentioned, the lesson time (average 27 minutes) was

alarming, given the recently released recommendations for PE (150 minutes of quality PE each

95 100 98 119 127

Mean Percentage

of MVPA

Schools and Socioeconomic status Score

97

week) (CPAC, 2008). Furthermore, the amount of lesson time where the students were

engaged in MVPA was also concerning (mean = 37.14% or 10 minutes of total lesson time).

Given the recent recommendations (60 minutes of MVPA per day (DET, 2010)), the students at

Geordie Bay Primary School needed to derive most of their MVPA from lunchtime, recess time

as well as before and after school sport.

The lessons observed demonstrated evidence of Melanie’s rich PCK. She displayed an

impressive ability to transform content knowledge into a form that facilitates attainment of

student outcomes. She was able to use the lesson time effectively in order to deliver a large

amount of information to the students in a variety of forms. Her teaching skills allow her to

provide learning opportunities to a diverse range of abilities and interests. In addition,

Melanie’s self-expressed value for all students was evident in her teaching where she was able

to engage a diverse range of abilities and interest levels. This resulted in a particularly

enthusiastic, compliant and respectful class of students.

Melanie felt well supported by her colleagues and the school administration at Geordie Bay

Primary School. The PE LA was highly valued and enabled the whole school fitness programme

to run successfully. This support played a significant role in enabling her to display her PCK.

It would appear that Melanie’s teaching and lesson offerings facilitated the year six students at

Geordie Bay Primary School to access the necessary skills, strategies and understandings in

their quest to develop lifelong PA habits.

98

4.2 LONGREACH PRIMARY SCHOOL


Longreach Primary School was a relatively new school, having been in operation for nine years.

The school was located approximately 30km, from the Perth, central business district. There

was a population of 368 students from k-7. The school consisted of 19 teaching staff and the

average class size was 24 students.

When the observations were conducted, the school was structured into ‘multi-age’ classes

(MAG) that focus on “stage not age” (Longreach Primary School, 2006). According to the

mission statement (2006), the philosophy behind the MAG style of teaching and learning was,

“At Longreach, we strongly believe that all learning is developmental – that children learn at

different rates and they should be able to grow in all areas with continuous progress without

fear of failure.” This resulted in students being grouped together in the following year group

clusters; P-2, 3-4 and 5-7. Therefore, in any one class, the age range of the students may have

been three years. In 2009, the school changed the structure to straight year groups in each

class.


Kate was the PE specialist at Longreach Primary School. Her teaching was observed on three

occasions throughout term two, 2008. Each lesson involved class participation of an average

of 46 minutes of a timetable 50 minute lesson. The students worked individually, in pairs,

small groups and teams. Rain interrupted two of the observed lessons. During the second

observed lesson, Kate stopped the lesson while the students sheltered from the rain. The

lesson was resumed as soon as the rain eased. In the third observed lesson, rain caused the

lesson to be completed in the school hall. This resulted in the focus sport changing from AFL

to tunnel ball as the school does not allow balls to be kicked in the hall. All rain interruptions

were recorded on the observation schedules.

Each lesson commenced with a warm up activity. This often involved running to a particular

landmark and returning. This was followed by drill activities that utilised skills previously

taught and relevant to AFL. Although all students were encouraged to be active, there was

frequently a small group of students who chose to not participate either by displaying off task

behaviour or failing to participate with enthusiasm (researcher field notes). Prior to the

commencement of the drills, Kate gave some specific skills instructions such as “Your laces

have to be pointing up, hands either side and when you go to kick it you just drop the ball onto

your foot but, the thing that I’ve noticed in lots of the classes is that people are pointing their

99

toes up.” (Transcribed from first observed lesson). Kate did not demonstrate skills for the

students. This could be a result of a combination of her limited PCK as well as her injury.

For the PE lessons observed, Kate had the use of a large oval. She utilised this space by;

warming up with runs to landmarks on the far side of the oval, conducting kicking activities

where the students were encouraged to kick as long as possible and encouraging students to

use as much as space as necessary when taking part in partner and small group passing drills.

Kate used markers and goals to set boundaries for some games/drills.

Kate used activities such as partner drills and small group games to develop and revise skills.

Each lesson saw the implementation of drills whereby only one student was actively involved

at a time. She also used modified AFL games in all observed lessons to allow students the

opportunity to apply the skills from the drills. The effectiveness of the modified games was

somewhat questionable. As a consequence of the inequality of skills evident in the large age

range and interest level of the students, the more able students appeared to ‘dominate’ the

game whilst the opportunities for others were impacted. This resulted in the most able

students receiving the most practise and some other students being excluded from the activity

and asked to wait until it had finished. Many of the students that were waiting for the game to

finish were then off task and often engaged in motor inappropriate behaviour which

eventually led to disciplinary action from the teacher. On occasions in all observed lessons,

Kate’s discipline approach was to exclude students from the next game/activity. This further

heightened the student’s lack of opportunity to develop the skills necessary to take part and

enjoy AFL.

Many students commenced an activity enthusiastically. However, for many, skill success was

not immediate and as time progressed the students displayed a loss of interest and motivated

in practising the skill. Consequently a progressive proportion of the class displayed off task

behaviours. In contrast, the more competent students were able to display and practise the

skill immediately. These students appeared to be bored with the task due to the absence of

challenge and choosing to take part in inappropriate behaviour whilst they waited for the

activity to conclude.

The conclusion of each lesson realised relatively lengthy management of various PE related

issues. Kate commented on positive and negative student participation and behaviour

observed throughout the lesson.

100


In the post lesson interview, Kate declared that she possessed limited experience teaching

Australian Rules Football (AFL). The observed lessons were the first time she had taught the

sport. To compensate for her lack of AFL PCK, Kate had taken part in Auskick workshops for

teachers conducted by the Australian Football League. As a result of these workshops, she felt

well prepared and supported by the programme. The programme provided Kate with a series

of lessons to follow.

I have had some PD’s in it and I feel I am supported by the AFL cos a lot of the stuff I have taught in the programme has come from a Fremantle book that they have put out with the Freo (Fremantle) competitions, the quick kick and that. It actually has a six set lesson steps of how to do it. I’ve modified it how I’ve wanted to do it but a lot of those ideas have come from that and the AFL PD (professional development) I have done. (First Interview, p. 1)

Kate explained her husband and son’s participation in AFL had also added to her experience

and developed her confidence to teach the ball sport. Overall, Kate rated her expertise for

teaching AFL as “6 or 7” (out of ten, with ten representing ‘most comfortable and expert’)

(First Interview, p. 1).


Kate was a relatively young (26-30 years) and enthusiastic teacher of PE at Longreach Primary

School. She held the qualification of a Bachelor of Education (primary) with a specialization

pathway in PE. She has been teaching for 9 years. In addition to her teaching position, she

was also a mother to two small boys. Prior to the commencement of the observed lessons,

Kate injured her knee whilst playing netball. Throughout the observations, she was awaiting

surgery on her knee. Prior to the commencement of the observed lessons, in an interview,

Kate explained that the discomfort caused by the injury impacted on her teaching by

preventing her from moving around as much as she would have liked to.

4.2.3.2 Goals

In 1984, Ashton explored the teaching characteristics of effective PE teachers. It was

concluded that effective teachers plan for student learning, set goals for themselves and their

students and identify strategies to achieve them.

101

Narrow Goals

Limited evidence supported Kate’s short term goal setting. The most explicit lesson goal that

she communicated throughout the observed lessons was “We’re doing AFL today”

(Transcribed from first observed lesson). Kate didn’t attempt to explain why particular skills

were being taught or how they related to the game of AFL or the needs of the students. This

could be evidence of Kate’s lack of PCK. Perhaps with richer PCK, she would recognise the

need to communicate her goals to the students in a meaningful manner.


Kate completed the VOI-2 prior to the commencement of the observed lessons. As a result of

analysing her value orientation profile (Figure 4.2.3.2.1), it was possible to conclude that she

held a neutral priority for ecological integration (Z=-0.07), social responsibility (Z=0.44), self

actualization (Z=-0.69) and discipline mastery (Z=-0.04). However, she demonstrated a high

priority for the learning process domain (Z= 1.06) (Figure 4.2.3.2.1).

Figure 4.2.3.2.1 Kate’s VOI-2 Profile

From the observations made of Kate’s teaching, it was difficult to draw conclusions regarding

the presence or absence of her VOI-2 profile in her teaching. It could be suggested that her

lack of expertise when teaching AFL prevented her from teaching consistently with her VOI-2

profile. In her teaching there was an absence of the elements of a learning process focus such

as corrective feedback, skills focus and process skills. In the post lesson interviews, Kate

demonstrated a priority in student participation. For example “We just have a go at all of the


Z score

102

different sports” (Second interview, p. 2) and with reference to the circus programme, “We’re

doing it (circus programme) from pre-primary to year seven and every child is active, every

single child is doing something.... You don’t have kids sitting out and not wanting to

participate” (Second interview, p. 2). From the discussions with Kate, it may be possible to

suggest that her teaching was perhaps more focussed on the affective domains, all of which

failed to achieve a high priority in her VOI-2 profile. It could therefore be concluded that Kate

did not teach consistently with her VOI-2 profile.

Broad Goals

Evidence of Kate setting broad goals for the students at Longreach Primary School was evident

in the second interview where Kate detailed her reasoning for her year long programme. She

explained that exposure to a wide range of sports as well as some preparation for carnivals

was important. Additionally, she commented on introducing particular sports such as netball

to encourage more girls to participate in the sport outside of school. Therefore, Kate displayed

strong evidence of broad goal setting.

Whilst Kate was able to verbalise the broad goals for her programme, it would appear that her

personal philosophy of teaching and learning in PE as described by the VOI-2 was not

impacting on her teaching. This, combined with the absence of short term goals suggests that

Kate was lacking PCK in her teaching. This concurs with the work of James, Griffin and Dodds

(2008) who established that effective teachers set goals that are compatible with their

teaching.

4.2.3.3 Dialogue

Kate spoke an average of 91.24 words per minute throughout the observed lessons (mean of

all study participants = 94.53 words per minute, range = 87.36 – 115.56 words per minute).

The majority of Kate’s dialogue was categorised as ‘management’, accounting for 52.83% of all

words spoken by Kate. Although Kate described her expertise as “6 or7” (out of ten, with ten

representing ‘most comfortable and expert’) (First interview, p. 1), there was little evidence of

expertise in her teaching. For example, she was unable to provide frequent corrective

feedback (Figure 4.2.4.3.1). Feedback is essential for learning as without it, no learning can

take place (Siedentop, Herkowitz, & Rink, 1984). In fact, Kate provided the least amount of

feedback when compared to the other participating teachers (25.14% of total words spoken,

mean of all study participants = 26.38%, range= 25.14% - 28.47%). However this was not a

statistically significant difference F(4,13) = 0.211, p = 0.928. Furthermore, on average, Kate

103

spoke 91.24 words per minute across the three observed lessons. According to Siedentop and

Eldar (1989), “Experts are able to respond in more ways to what they see, experts respond

more quickly and experts are able to ‘see things’ than non experts don’t see”. In the observed

lessons, there was little evidence of Kate responding to the students and providing corrective

feedback (9.12% of total words spoken, mean of all study participants = 15.37%, range = 9.12%

- 20.93%). This concurs with the work of Silverman et al., (1992) who established that most

student receive very little feedback.

Discipline accounted for 8% of the total words spoken by Kate (mean of all study participants =

2.38%, range = 0.42% – 8.00%) which was the highest percentage of discipline given by all

teachers in the study. This is a statistically significant difference 2(2, N = 44) = 27.86, p<.05. It

could be surmised that this was another impact of her limited PCK. As previously mentioned

the activities implemented in the observed lessons often engaged one student at a time and

tended to disadvantage the less able students. An average of 20% of students were observed

as being off task and/or motor-inappropriate at each timed observation. It was observed that

general student behaviour diminished when students were not personally engaged in the

lesson as a result of waiting for a turn or being eliminated from a game. In addition, when the

students were working in pairs or small groups, many were observed to be off task and/or

motor inappropriate. This could be explained by Kate’s lack of involvement such as moving

amongst the students during the activity and the limited skill-based feedback she was able to

provide. Kate rarely responded to the negative student behaviour by providing prompts to

students who were beginning to behave inappropriately. Instead, she excluded students when

their behaviour was particularly unacceptable. For example, in the first observed lesson, a

student was talking whilst Kate was giving instructions, he continued to talk and Kate

responded by excluding him from the following activity “Ok – you need to go sit on the other

side of the wheelie bin for five minutes thank you” (Transcribed from first observed lesson).

This student did not hear the instructions as he was talking, then he was not allowed to

participate, which resulted in him missing an opportunity to practise the skill. When he was

allowed to return to the class, he then disrupted the group he was meant to be working with

as he didn’t know what he should have been doing. This resulted in more time taken for his

peers to explain the activity to him and therefore less practise time for all group members.

104

Figure 4.2.3.3.1. Transcibed Voice Data (mean % of total words spoken by Kate)


Of Mosston and Ashworth’s (2002) spectrum of eleven teaching styles, only the practise style

was evident in Kate’s teaching. For example:

Kate made all of the pre-impact and post-impact decisions and gave the students many

opportunities to practise specific skills. This was particularly evident in the drills were Kate

explained what was required and gave the students time to practise.

Grossman (1990) explains that teachers with rich PCK possess a vast repertoire of teaching

strategies. This is supported by Cothran and Kulinna (2006) who confirm that teachers should

use multiple teaching strategioes in order to appeal to the widest audience of students.

Kate’s use of only one teaching style could be further evidence of her limited PCK.


Further evidence of Kate’s limited PCK was gathered in the examination of the time allocation

of her lessons (Figure 4.2.3.5.1). The observed lessons at Longreach Primary School displayed

the lowest percentage of time allocated to activity (39.86% of total lesson time) when

compared to the other participating schools (mean of all study participants = 48.38%, range =

39.86% - 52.99%). However, analysis of the data indicated that this was not a statistically

significant difference F(4,13) = 1.759, p = 0.19. It could be suggested that the large amount of

time allocated to management (52.83% of total words spoken, mean of all study participants =

105

34.87%, range = 27.99 – 52.83%) and discipline (8% of total words spoken, mean of all study

participants = 2.38%, range = 0.42 – 8.%) detracted from the opportunities for the students to

be active.

In addition, she allocated more time to transition than any other teacher (17.67% of total

lesson time, mean of all study participants = 14.51%, range = 11.63% - 17.67%). However, this

was not a statistically significant difference F(4,13) = 2.280, p = 0.12. From the observations, it

was possible to note that much of the transition time was used to wait for students who were

off task/motor inappropriate to join the group before Kate delivered an instruction.

Furthermore, Kate allocated more time to management and instructions than any other

participating teacher (41.41% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants =37.17%,

range = 30.16 – 41.41%). This can be partly explained by the discussion that was carried out

prior to the conclusion of each lesson. Kate stopped the activities and spoke to the whole class

regarding management issues such as; carnivals, lunch time activities and rewards for good

behaviour. In the observed lessons, Kate allocated an average of 6 minutes of the total lesson

time to these discussions. This served to increase the average time Kate allocated to

management/instructions. In addition, it was also observed that Kate spent a considerable

amount of time allocating students to groups, placing students and distributing equipment.

Therefore, it could be surmised that Kate’s PCK impacted on her use of lesson time as she

lacked the pedagogical knowledge to engage students in the lesson in the most time effective

manner possible.

Figure 4.2.3.5.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Kate’s lessons

106

The observed PE lessons were timetabled into a 50 minute lessons. On average, the lessons

were of 46 minutes duration from the commencement of teaching to the conclusion of the

lesson which coincided with the end of the school day.

4.2.3.6 Opportunities Provided for Students to Display Learning

Kate provided opportunities for students to display learning related to performance at

Curriculum Framework SPA outcome level 2, Skills for Physical Activity (SPA) (Curriculum

Council, 1998). Given Kate’s limited PCK, there was no evidence of teacher prompts to display

skills associated with level 3 such as game strategy (Curriculum Council, 2005). However, in

game situations, some students demonstrated attainment of level 3 outcomes. It could be

assumed that these students had gained skills outside of Kate’s PE programme.

SPA was the only outcome observed in the lessons. An explicit teaching focus on interpersonal

skills was not evident, even though students worked in partners, small groups and teams.


Kate chose the year 5-7, MAG3 class students to participate in the project. The class consisted

of 20 students. This was made up of 9 boys and 11 girls. The students were aged 9-12 years at

the time of the observed lessons.

As previously described, negative/inappropriate student behaviour was observed in all lessons.

However, many students did appear to be enthusiastic and relatively engaged in the lesson

content. It was difficult to determine the relative impact of student behaviour on Kate’s ability

to deliver quality PE or Kate’s limited PCK.

4.2.4.1 Activity

Prior to the observed lessons, Kate selected four students (two boys and two girls) who were

considered to be representative of the average participation and ability of the whole class.

Each of the four students wore an ActiGraph GT1M on his/her iliac crest.

It could be surmised that Kate’s lack of PCK impacted on the student’s opportunities for

activity as well as their activity intensity. For example, when Kate gave instructions, she waited

for the students to stop what they were doing and move to the designated area (transition =

17.67% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants = 14.76%, range = 11.63 – 17.67%).

Once the instructions were given, Kate then allocated time to re-explain the instructions to the

students who were off task throughout the initial explanation. A combination of the time used

107

to wait for the students to stop and move to the teacher, in addition to the time taken to

explain and re-explain instruction, all detracted from the time available for the students to be

active throughout the lesson. This concurs with the work of Chow, McKenzie and Louie (2008)

who explain that disruptive student behaviour can influence opportunities for PA.

The students at Longreach Primary School were engaged in MVPA for 35% of the total lesson

time. This data was relatively positive given the low percentage of total lesson time allocated

to opportunities for physical activity. When the lesson time was considered (46 minutes), the

students were involved in MVPA for approximately 16 minutes. This was considerably less

than the recommended 60 minutes of MVPA per day (CPAC, 2008). The low MVPA data could

be accounted for by the time spent in management and transition as well as the off task and

motor inappropriate behaviour of many students. In contrast the students had opportunities

to engage in MVPA given the relatively large amount of space available. The limited teacher

feedback could also have increased opportunities for MVPA as the teacher did not stop the

students to provide prompts and correction whilst they were engaged in an activity.

4.2.4.2 Enjoyment


students at Longreach Primary School. When comparing the results with the other

participating schools, the students at Longreach Primary School were ranked 5th on the

measure of ‘PE enjoyment’ (mean PE enjoyment = 4.3, mean of all study participants = 4.61,

range = 4.3 – 4.79). Moreover, students at Longreach Primary School were ranked 5th on

three out of the seven measures of enjoyment. The students at Longreach Primary School

participating in this project enjoy PE less than the students at the other participating schools.

The generally lower enjoyment scores for the students at Longreach Primary School could be

explained by Kate’s PCK. Given her limited PCK for AFL, she appeared to be unable to provide

adequate skill-focussed feedback to the students (corrective feedback =9.12% of all words

spoken, mean of all study participants = 15.37% of all words spoken). Therefore, there was a

lack of skill focus inherent in her teaching. Many researchers have suggested a strong

relationship between skill attainment and enjoyment in PE (Booth, et al., 1999; Hashim, Grove,

& Whipp, 2007). It could then be concluded that lower levels of student enjoyment could

potentially be explained by the absence of a skill focus in Kate’s teaching. As the students do

not possess the necessary skills to participate in the sport, they were possibly unable to derive

enjoyment from their participation.

108

4.2.5 PE at Longreach Primary School

Interviews with Kate and observations enabled the researcher to make judgements regarding

the impact of Longreach Primary School on Kate’s teaching.

4.2.5.1 Time allocated to PE/Structured PA

Kate said that Longreach Primary School places a high priority on physical activity. The year 5-

7 students were allocated 15 minutes of morning fitness every day of the week. The morning

fitness programme was designed by Kate, but implemented by the classroom teachers.

Therefore, the year 5-7 students at Longreach Primary School potentially undertook 95

minutes of timetabled physical activity each week. The school appears to not be achieving the

CPAC (2008) recommended 150 minutes of quality PE each week. However, if vigorous activity

was encouraged in the morning fitness programme, students would be well on their way to

achieving 60 minutes of MVPA daily (CPAC 2008), however observation and confirmation was

beyond the scope of this project. Still, the limited opportunities for the students to be active in

Kate’s PE lessons (Figure 4.2.4.5.1) provide the students with a challenge to achieve this daily

recommendation.

However, it would appear that the opportunities provided for structured PA (such as the

morning fitness programme) were somewhat limited by a number of generalist teachers. In

the second interview, Kate explained that about half of the teachers were enthusiastic and

ensured that the students took part in a varied and engaging fitness programme. However,

the other half of the teachers either; involve the students in the same activity every morning,

only take the students out to fitness if time permits, or cut the fitness time short if they feel

that they can’t offer 15 minutes. Therefore, whilst the students should be taking part in 95

minutes of PE/structured PA each week, for about half of the classes, this may not be the case.

In 2010, the students at Longreach Primary School participated in 115 minutes of

PE/structured PA each week. This falls short of the CPAC recommendation and does not meet

the DET (2010) mandatory requirements. Furthermore, when only half of the staff were

implementing the morning fitness programme, there appeared to be cause for concern at

Longreach Primary School.

109


In the second interview, Kate detailed her perceived level of school support. Whilst Kate was

relatively optimistic about her situation, she expressed concerns for the profile of PE and


As a result of timetable restructuring at Longreach Primary School, PE was the first learning

area in the school to receive a reduction in teaching time. In 2010, Kate’s PE lessons would be

reduced from fifty minutes to forty minutes. The reduction in PE teaching time was a result of

the implementation of a weekly whole school hymn singing session. This was concerning given

that this was the only PE lesson that the students took part in throughout the week. It could

be surmised from this that PE was not valued at Longreach Primary School.

Further concerns were raised with regards to the support that Kate receives from her

colleagues. Kate created the morning fitness programme, however she believed that

approximately only half of the teachers consistently implement the morning fitness

programme. For the other teachers, morning fitness was the first activity that would be

removed from the timetable if they felt they needed to allocate more time to other learning

areas. Therefore, whilst Kate facilitated the morning fitness programme, she did not feel she

had the support of the entire staff in its operation.

Whilst many of the generalist classroom teachers did not appear to support the PE

programme, Kate did feel well supported by two of the assistant principals. Kate felt that they

worked hard to ensure that Kate’s timetable maximised her use of time and equipment.

Macdonald (1995) as well as Morgan and Hansen (2008) have investigated issues faced by PE

teachers relating to school support. These can include; the marginal status of the PE learning

area, lack of resources, isolation, lack of communication with administration. From the data it

could be suggested that PE was not a well supported learning area at Longreach Primary

School and Kate was facing many of the issues detailed by Macdonald (1995) as well as

Morgan and Hansen (2008). Although Kate displays a positive attitude towards these issues, it

does raise some questions regarding the impact of the lack of perceived support on the profile

of the LA. This could be contributing to the behaviour issues Kate faces as well as her PCK.


In interviews and discussions, Kate described the following factors that influenced her PE

programme:

110

Carnivals

Longreach Primary School combinesdwith other local primary schools for a number of

interschool carnivals throughout the year. Whilst the carnivals did influence Kate’s

programming to some extent, she did not focus on the small range of carnival sports

throughout every year. Kate said:

Term two we have a football, soccer, netball carnival. So, each year I try to pick one of those sports and focus on it. We did really bad at soccer the last couple of years, so this year we focussed on soccer. (Second interview, p. 2)

Kate liked the students to be prepared for the carnivals, but did not want to concentrate all of

her teaching on these sports, at the expense of exposing the students to other new sports.

Exposure to new sports

Exposure to new sports was a major influencing factor in Kate’s programming. Whilst she

taught popular ball sports such as soccer, AFL and netball each year, she was also keen to

introduce new sports that many of the students would not previously have been exposed to.

For example, in 2009, Kate implemented a popular circus programme and in 2010 plans to

introduce soft-cross. Kate said:

We’re doing circus at the moment and it’s purely because I don’t want the kids doing the same sports every term, every year and I get bored. So I try to bring in at least two news sports every year that they’ve never done before and circus was one of those. (Second interview, p. 2)

These sports were new to Kate and she appearedto enjoy the challenge of teaching new

sports. This was evident in the observed lessons where Kate taught AFL for the first time.


Longreach Primary School was ranked 100th school by socio-economic rank in WA in the sector.

Longreach Primary School was ranked third highest SES ranked school when compared to the

other schools in this study (D.E.E.W.R., 2008). Given this data, it was difficult to predict

whether Longreach Primary School would display attributes associated with a high SES schools

or those of low SES schools. For example, students from high SES schools are more likely to

participate in vigorous activity in PE lessons and high SES students receive PE more frequently

and of a higher quality of instruction than lower SES students (Sallis, Zakarian, Hovell, &

Hofstetter, 1996).

111

When total MVPA from all schools was compared, Longreach Primary School was ranked third

(Figure 4.2.5.4.1). It was difficult to draw conclusions in relation to the above mentioned

literature, given that Longreach Primary School was ranked 3rd highest SES school as well

producing the as 3rd highest mean rate of MVPA .

Figure 4.2.5.4.1 MVPA comparisons and SES rank of Participating Schools

Therefore, it could be surmised that SES had little impact on the teaching and learning in the

observed PE lessons.

4.2.6 Conclusion

In summary, from the data gathered from the observed lessons and interview, it was possible

to draw a number of conclusions. Whilst Kate was a cheerful and enthusiastic teacher, she

lacked the PCK necessary to deliver a quality AFL programme to the year 5-7 students at


Kate was unable to provide frequent corrective feedback that would be indicative of a teacher

with rich PCK. Much of the dialogue from the observed lessons was categorised as

‘management’ and was unrelated to the learning objectives of the lessons. Perhaps her

limited delivery of corrective feedback was a result of her lack of content knowledge in the

sport of AFL.

Student enjoyment was concerning, given that they were the lowest of all schools participating

in the project. Once again, this could possibly be explained by Kate’s limited PCK. Possibly,

these students may derive more enjoyment from a teacher who provides a greater skill focus

Schools and Socioeconomic status Rank

Mean Percentage

of MVPA

95 100 98 119 127

112

and was able to offer more feedback that will lead to skill attainment and potentially

heightened student enjoyment.

Furthermore, the relatively low activity data gathered from the three lessons could be

explained by Kate’s pedagogical skills. It could be surmised that if Kate’s AFL PCK was stronger

she would be able to provide an engaging programme. This could lead to the students being

motivated to listen to her instructions and therefore possibly reduce the amount of off task

and motor inappropriate behaviour observed. The result of this could be higher levels of

student activity, enjoyment and outcome attainment.

The impact of Kate’s perception of school support may partly justify student behaviour and her

PCK. There appeared to be limited support for the PE LA at Longreach Primary School

community. This may be lowering the profile of the LA which, in turn impacted on the

students perception of PE. This may have resulted in the behaviour issues observed in Kate’s

teaching. The limited support for PE may also have impacted on Kate’s PCK.

It should be noted that Kate’s motivation for presenting the AFL unit of lessons was a response

to student interest in the sport. It was commendable to see Kate accept the challenge of

teaching a sport that she has very limited understanding or experience with. It would be hoped

that as Kate persists with AFL, she will develop and acquire a set of teaching skills and content

knowledge to enable her to present a valuable unit of lessons for students of all interest and

ability levels.

In conclusion, Kate’s lack of PCK could be considered to be impacting on the students in the

following ways; behaviour, learning outcomes, opportunities for physical activity as well as

enjoyment. Therefore, it may be suggested that from the observed lessons, Kate’s PCK was

currently inhibiting the ability of these students to acquire lifelong physical activity and

enjoyment habits.

113

4.3 BATHURST PRIMARY SCHOOL


Bathurst Primary School was a small primary school, located 9km from the Perth Central

Business District. In term two 2008, there were 269 students from k-7 attending the school,

with 13 teaching staff and an average class size of 29 students.


Sarah was the PE Specialist at Bathurst Primary School. Observations of her teaching at

Bathurst Primary School took place on three occasions throughout term two, 2008. A class of

year six students were chosen by Sarah to participate. Basketball lessons were observed on all

instances.

The observed lessons took place on an outdoor basketball court, with surrounding paved areas

used as well. Each lesson commenced with warm up activities that focussed on basketball

movement and developing familiarity with the lines on the basketball court. For example, the

students were asked to move from one end of the basketball court to the other, practising the

sideways movements, often used in basketball. All students were encouraged to be as active

as possible. Sarah used this time to provide corrective and value feedback to the students.

Two of the observed lessons followed the warm up with a partner stretching activity that

required students to work together. Evidence of a teaching focus on team skills was seen in all

observed lessons. In the first observed lesson, there were some interruptions such as a fire

truck visiting the school and wanting to use the basketball court to park the trucks. This

interruption had minimal impact on the running of the lesson and the activities were quickly

resumed once the fire trucks had found an alternative area to park (Appendix D).

The majority of the lesson time was used to develop and acquire basketball skills associated

with being involved in a game of basketball. Skills and techniques focussed on games

strategies such as; passing, placement of team mates, avoiding fouls, team play to provide

options when passing. To ensure all students were as active as possible throughout the lesson,

Sarah chose to separate the students into basketball teams and then place two teams on the

basketball court whilst the other students took part in a simple modified basketball/volleyball

game. This basketball/volleyball game was undertaken without direct teacher supervision,

although Sarah explained that she could see all students at all times as it was located

approximately 5 metres from the edge of the basketball court. The students were then

rotated through the basketball game and the modified volleyball/basketball game. Sarah

114

chose to concentrate her teaching on the basketball game and adopted a role of coach and

umpire.

At the conclusion of all observed lessons, Sarah facilitated a whole class discussion that

focussed on the rules of basketball and various scenarios that can occur throughout the game

(jump balls, fouls). Once again, she was able to involve the students by questioning them to

elicit responses and then further their understanding by providing more detailed information

and on some occasions, using students to demonstrate the skill/strategy being discussed.


In a post lesson interview, Sarah said she was confident and comfortable teaching basketball

due to her personal experience playing the sport, coupled with the teaching strategies that she

has acquired and refined throughout her career. She rated her basketball teaching expertise

as a “7 or 8” (out of ten, with ten representing ‘most comfortable and expert’) (Interview, p.

1).

Sarah’s confidence and expertise relating to the instruction of basketball was evident in her

observed teaching. She was able to provide extensive corrective feedback (20.43% of total

words spoken, mean of all study participants = 15.37%, range = 9.12 – 20.93%). This was

achieved by closely monitoring the students and frequently stopping the game/drill to provide

feedback to individuals and groups of students. Sarah was able to provide meaningful and

clear corrective feedback by involving the students in the recognition of their errors and

facilitating corrections by once again encouraging the students to identify ways to

improve/change their skills and strategies.


Sarah held a Bachelor of Physical Education and a Diploma of Education. She had been

teaching for 10 years. According to Kulinna and Silverman (1999), teacher’s with 10 -20 years

of experience generally have stable belief systems and were less likely to change. Therefore,

Sarah’s VO profile was possibly well established and it could be expected to be reflected in her

teaching.

4.3.3.2 Goals



content.

115

Narrow Goals

Narrow goals were communicated to the students. For example, at the commencement of the

first observed lesson, Sarah explained the lesson goals to the students “We will do lots of

passing again, some shooting, some small games and one other activity and next week we will

start with half of you will play a game” (Transcribed from first observed lesson). By Sarah

clearly stating the goals for the lessons, the students immediately gained an understanding of

what they would be doing and how it relates to previously skills as well as future lessons.


Sarah completed the VOI-2 prior to the commencement of the observed lessons. As a result of

analysing her values orientation profile (Figure 4.3.3.2.1), it was possible to conclude that she

held a high priority for discipline mastery (Z=1.82), a neutral priority for ecological integration

(Z=-0.07), social responsibility (Z=0.44) and learning process (Z=-0.74) as well as a low priority

for self-actualization (Z=-1.38). Sarah’s profile supports the work of Ennis and Zhu (1991) who

established a negative correlation with discipline mastery and self-actualization (-0.35).

Figure 4.3.3.2.1 Sarah’s VOI-2 Profile

After observing Sarah’s teaching, it was possible to make some judgements regarding the

evidence of her VOI-2 profile in the observed lessons. Many aspects of Sarah’s curriculum

priorities as described by the VOI-2 were evident in her teaching. She demonstrated a

consistent focus on skills, rules and strategies through the frequent use of corrective feedback

(20.43% of all words spoken, mean of all study participants = 15.37%, range = 9.12% – 20.93%)

and instructions focussed on learning (41.32% of total words spoken, mean of all study

participants = 38.59%, range = 21.06% – 46.87%). This was consistent with the key foci of the


Z score

116

discipline mastery domain. Given that Sarah made all of the content decisions throughout the

lessons, there was little evidence of student autonomy or opportunities to develop self-

understanding that may suggest a self-actualization focus. This was consistent with the self-

actualization domain receiving a low priority ranking from Sarah in the VOI-2. Finally, Sarah

did include a minor focus of teamwork, group participation and respect for others in her

teaching. For example; partner stretching, modified basketball games whereby students were

asked to give corrective feedback to their partner and basketball games where peer

interaction and team skills was a focus of the teacher instructions:

Year sixes, tell me one thing you might think about today when you’re on the court that might help you improve your game or help your team to get more points...Ok, lots of talking, lots of talking, yelling out if you’re free. (Transcribed from third observed lesson)

The frequent and explicit evidence of team skills in Sarah’s teaching could be considered to be

evidence of an affective focus in her teaching. However this was not given a high priority by

Sarah in her VOI-2. From the VOI-2 data and observed lessons, it could be suggested that

Sarah was teaching consistently with the discipline mastery domain as highly prioritised by her

in the VOI-2.

Broad Goals

Sarah was able to communicate evidence of broad goals during discussion with the researcher.

She explained that the purpose of the basketball programme was to prepare the students for

the forthcoming carnival. In addition, Sarah explained that when constructing the PE

programme, “I ask them but I also I gauge what interests them and I gauge their needs”

(Transcribed from second interview, p. 2). This was further evidence of Sarah’s awareness of

student interest and needs.

It can be said that Sarah was achieving Jewett and Bain’s (1985) recommendations. She was

displaying many aspects of her VO profile in her teaching. In the second interview, she

explained that she uses the Fundamental Movement Skills programme in the junior primary

years. Furthermore, in the second interview, she detailed her awareness of the Curriculum

Framework HPE learning outcomes (1998) when planning and assessing. This could be

considered to be evidence of her awareness of the local curriculum. Her desire to determine

the interests and needs of the students displays an awareness of student development and her

planning to ensure students were suitably equipped for carnivals was evidence of Sarah

teaching the necessary subject matter. Therefore, it can be concluded that Sarah was setting a

117

variety of broad and narrow goals for her students. This was further evidence of Sarah’s PCK in

her planning, teaching and assessing.

4.3.3.3 Dialogue

On average, Sarah spoke 87.36 words per minute across the three observed lessons (mean of

all study participants = 94.53 words per minute, range 64.44 – 115.56). As previously

mentioned, 32% of the words spoken were concerned with management of students and

resources (Figure 4.3.4.3.1). This could possibly be justified by the lack of basketball courts,

resulting in Sarah using time to rotate children between the basketball court and the other

activity. In addition, time was used to allocate bibs, teams and positions.

The teacher centred and skills focussed nature of the observed lessons resulted in Sarah

delivering the second highest rates of corrective feedback of the participating teachers

(20.43% of total words spoken, mean of all study participants = 15.37%, range = 9.12% -

20.93%) (Figure 4.3.4.3.1). This could be considered to be evidence of Sarah’s PCK. She was

able to stop the children and give specific feedback because she possessed the subject matter

knowledge of the skills and strategies as well as appropriate methods of delivering the

feedback to the students (Siedentop, 1992; Siedentop, Herkowitz & Rink, 1994). Sarah

delivered the second lowest rate of value feedback (2.92% of total words spoken, mean of all

study participants = 6.18%, range = 1.99 - 7.31%) (Figure 4.3.4.3.1). This did not appear to

impact on student enjoyment results as the students at Bathurst Primary school achieved the

second highest results for the measures of PE enjoyment (PE enjoyment = 4.61, mean of all

study participants = 4.74, range = 4.30 – 4.79) and teacher generated enjoyment (teacher

generated enjoyment = 4.44, mean of all study participants = 4.46, range = 4.23 – 4.78). From

this data it could be inferred that Sarah’s extensive delivery of corrective feedback and limited

value feedback has not negatively impacted on student enjoyment and was further evidence

of her rich PCK.

118

Figure 4.3.4.3.1 Transcribed Voice Data (mean % of total words spoken by Sarah)


Of Mosston & Ashworth’s (2002) spectrum of eleven teaching styles, three were evident in

Sarah’s teaching. The practise, reciprocal and command styles were all observed. These were

exemplified by the following:

Practise: Sarah made all of the pre-impact and post-impact decisions and gave the students

many opportunities to practise specific skills. This was particularly evident in the drills where

Sarah explained and demonstrated what was required, gave the students time to practise and

then provided follow up feedback.

Reciprocal: Students were asked to work in pairs where one student was an active participant

and the other was an observer, providing feedback. For example, students were asked to work

in pairs one was asked to take on the role of the teacher and give corrective feedback to

his/her partner who was practising goal shooting skills.

Command: Teacher makes all of the decisions. This was apparent in the stretching activities

where the teacher made all of the decisions and gave explicit instructions.

Sarah’s use of both teacher centred as well as student centred teaching styles was further

evidence of her rich PCK. This concurs with the work of Siedentop et al. (1994) who have

explained the importance of teaching styles shifting from teacher to student centred.

119


The lessons observed at Bathurst Primary School displayed one of the lowest percentages of

time allocated to being active (42.9% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants =

48.38%, range= 39.86 – 52.99%) when compared to the other participating schools. However,

this was not a statistically significant difference F(4,13) = 1.759, p = 0.19. As a consequence of

the lesson organisation, a significant amount of time was used to place students in teams,

place students in positions, allocate equipment and rotate teams throughout the two games

(40.63% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants 37.17%, range = 30.16 – 41.41).

Therefore, resulting in less lesson time available for activity. In addition, 16.4% of total lesson

time was used in transition (mean of all study participants 14.76% of total lesson time, range =

11.63% - 17.67%). Transition accounted for; moving from one game to the next and waiting

for students to arrive at the game before it could commence. Again, the transition time

detracted from opportunities for activity (Figure 4.3.3.5.1).

Figure 4.3.3.5.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Sarah’s Lessons

The lack of space available could account for the low opportunities for activity and the

heightened need for time allocated to management. This is consistent with the work of Chow,

Mckenzie and Louie (2008) who have established that the teaching space available impacts on

PA. From the analysis of the lesson time allocation, it could be surmised that the lack of space

available for Sarah’s teaching prevented her from displaying PCK. Perhaps with more space,

Sarah would use less time to allocate students to activities and equipment and more time to

activity.

120


Sarah provided opportunities for students to display learning related to performance

associated with basketball skills and game strategies at Curriculum Framework SPA outcome

level 3 outcomes (SPA) (Curriculum Council, 1998). However, although the prompts were

provided, very few students were observed to be attempting to implement the skills. Almost

all students were able to display attainment of level 2 SPA skills such as fundamental

movement skills and awareness of others when playing games (Curriculum Council, 2005).

While the majority of teaching was focussed on skill development, there was evidence of

explicit teacher talk, focussed of Interpersonal Skills. For example; partner stretching, partner

warm up activities, team skills in basketball.

Sarah’s evidence of teaching focussed on both SPA as well as Interpersonal Skills could be

considered to be further evidence of her PCK.


Sarah chose the year six class to participate in the project. This class consisted of 25 students

and was made up of 12 boys and 13 girls. The students were aged 9-11 years at the time of

the observed lessons.

All students demonstrated a positive and enthusiastic attitude towards PE (researcher field

notes, Appendix D). They appeared be excited about taking part in the research project and

were keen to be as involved as possible in the data collection process (researcher field notes).

Throughout the observed lessons, the students were highly engaged in the lessons. They were

compliant and displayed a mature and sensible attitude when asked to work without direct

teacher supervision. The lack of teacher instructions given and questions asked by students

indicated that the students appeared to be comfortable with the format and routine of the

lesson. It was evident that the students knew what they should be doing when working

independently.

The class were focussed and always seemed to be on task when Sarah gave instructions or

stopped the class to provide whole class feedback (researcher field notes, Appendix D). The

students demonstrated an interest and admiration for the feedback given. They responded

appropriately to her feedback and in all observed lessons, there was evidence of students

attempting to modify their skills in order to act on the feedback given. When instructions were

given, the class responded promptly and compliantly. When taking part in an activity, almost

all students in all lessons appeared to be on task and engaged in motor appropriate

121

behaviours. Throughout the observed lessons, there was a strong sense of desire to

participate and achieve. From observing the students, it was clear that they respected the

teaching style and expertise demonstrated by Sarah. Furthermore, the exemplary student

behaviour could be considered to have resulted in Sarah being able to maximise her evidence

of PCK and therefore teaching time, whilst minimising time spent delivering student discipline

(Figures 4.3.4.3.1 and 4.3.4.5.1).

4.3.4.1 Activity

Prior to the observed lessons, Sarah selected four students (two boys and two girls) who were



The students wearing the ActiGraph monitors were engaged in MVPA for 28% of the total

lesson time. When the lesson time was considered (47 minutes), it can be established that the

students were in MVPA for approximately 13 minutes. This was considerably less than the

recommended 60 minutes of MVPA per day for Australian children (CPAC, 2008). The low

MVPA data can be justified in a two ways. Firstly, the lack of available space, in particular

basketball courts. With only one basketball court, it was difficult to engage all students in a

game of basketball. Secondly, the teaching style employed by Sarah. She utilised a teacher

centred style for most of the observed lessons and gave a large amount of corrective feedback.

On most occasions, the game/activity was stopped so that Sarah could provide the feedback.

Obviously, every time the students were stopped, the opportunities to engage in MVPA were

reduced.

In summary, it can be suggested that a combination of restrictions on space (Chow, McKenzie

& Louie, 2008) and the extensive corrective feedback provided limited opportunities for the

students to achieve acceptable levels of activity in Sarah’s PE lessons. Whilst the corrective

feedback was intended to improve skills and strategies, it appeared to come at the expense of

activity.

4.3.4.2 Enjoyment


students at Bathurst Primary School. When comparing the results from Bathurst Primary

School with the other participating schools, the students at Bathurst Primary School (mean PE

enjoyment= 4.74) were ranked second out of the five participating schools on most measures

(mean PE enjoyment of all study participants = 4.58, range = 4.30 – 4.79).

122

It was interesting to note that, whilst Bathurst Primary School was ranked second when

comparing the PE Enjoyment measure across the five participating schools, Sarah delivered

one of the lowest percentages of value feedback of the participating teachers (2.9% of total

words spoken, mean of all study participants =6.18%, range=1.99% – 13.47%). It was therefore

possible that whilst she provided extensive corrective feedback (20.4% of total words spoken),

there was limited evidence of positive judgements conveyed to the students. From the

combination of the enjoyment and transcribed voice data statistics, it could be concluded that

the students appreciated the extensive corrective feedback and they did not appear to require

large volumes of positive reinforcement (value feedback). These findings conflict with the

work of Rink and Hall (2000) who explain that effective teachers identify positive behaviours as

part of the feedback they provide.

4.3.5 PE at Bathurst Primary School

Sarah believed that she was well supported by Bathurst Primary School. She acknowledged

that the school was “pretty well off” (Interview, p.1) which resulted in her having a well

resourced PE programme (with the exception of space). From the observed lessons,

discussions with Sarah and observations of other teachers interacting with the PE programme,

it was clear that in many respects, PE was a valued learning area at Bathurst Primary School.

4.3.5.1 Time Allocated to PE/Structured PA

Students at Bathurst Primary School participate in one, 45 minute PE lesson as well as a fitness

programme for two, 15 minute sessions each week. This provided a maximum of 105 minutes

of PE/structured PA each week. This was somewhat concerning given the DET (2010)

mandatory requirements for all students in years 1 – 10 participate in 120 minutes of quality

activity each week as part of the learning programme. Furthermore, the recent CPAC (2008)

recommendations strongly suggest that students need 150 minutes of quality PE each week.

On average, PE lessons for the observed class were 47 minutes in duration from the start of

teaching to handing the class to the next teacher. As previously explained, the 47 minutes

exceeds the timetabled 45 minutes. When analysing the time allocated to PE at Bathurst

Primary School, it can be concluded that, whilst the students were experiencing relatively long

PE classes (when compared to other participating schools), they still do not achieve the

recommendations made by the Charter for Active Kids (2008) of 150 minutes of quality PE

instruction each week. It was also of concern that the lessons and the teaching expertise

could potentially allow the students to be a great deal more active than students from other

123

schools that were allocated shorter lesson times. However, the lack of space and resources

inhibited opportunities for physical activity and increased the requirement for time to be spent

on management of students (team allocations etc) and resources (ensuring students were not

sitting on the side lines, observing).


Sarah believed that she was well supported by the whole school. When observing her lessons,

it was noted that on all occasions, her lessons ended after the bell had rung for the following

period. The teacher waiting for the students appeared happy to allow her to conclude her

teaching, rather than stop so that they could commence the next class on time.

A second example of the support Sarah gained from her colleagues was the discussions

observed in the staffroom, prior to the observed lessons. Teachers were asking Sarah about

details of planned carnivals. The teachers appeared to be interested in ensuring that they and

their students were well informed and prepared. The teachers did not display resentment at

the teaching time lost due to the carnivals.

Another example of the school support given to Sarah’s PE programme was evident in the

second interview. Sarah explained that the fitness programme was conducted on days that

she was not teaching at the school. The programme was run by the deputy principal of the

school and the year six students. Sarah explained that the classroom teachers take an active

role in the programme. Furthermore, many classroom teachers choose to take their classes

out for extra PE lessons. This was not a timetabled PE lesson, it was simply a choice made by

the classroom teacher to provide their students with extra PE.

When asked whether she felt supported by the other teaching staff at Bathurst Primary

School, Sarah stated “Yeah, definitely. They are really making an effort” (Transcribed from

second interview, p. 1).

In summary, Sarah’s colleagues appeared to value all aspects of the PE programme and they

exhibited a sense of admiration for her teaching. It can be concluded that Sarah was clearly

well supported by the Bathurst Primary School community. Moreover, the support provided

by the school was contributing to Sarah’s ability to display rich PCK in her teaching. This

concurs with the work of researcher Amade-Escot (2000) as well as Rovegno and Bandhauer

(1997) who have established that the support provided by the school can influence the

teachers’ PCK .

124

4.3.5.3 Programme Rationale

From the interviews conducted with Sarah, it was possible to detail three factors that influence

the construction of her PE programme.

Carnivals

In the second interview, Sarah explained that preparing the students for carnivals was an

influencing factor on her programming for students in years 4 – 6. For example:

Certainly to a point, they are based on carnivals because they have a winter carnival in term two so usually they’ll be playing football, soccer or netball is usually in term two but not always and then in term three we have the athletics and that’s also pretty time consuming that will demand quite a bit of the phys ed programme (Transcribed from second interview, p. 2).

From the interviews, it seems that Sarah was aware of the need to prepare students for

carnivals, however it was only one of many influencing factors on her PE programme.

Student Interest

As previously mentioned, student interest was a key motivator for Sarah’s PE programme. She

was aware of the variety of needs and interests within each class. For example Sarah said:

I ask them but I also I gauge what interests them and I gauge their needs. So there’s some kids who the traditional Saturday and Sunday sports are not their thing. So I sort of offer different sorts of sports that they can try. It levels the playing field. Sometimes they play modified games from netball or basketball that makes it easier for them to play (Transcribed from second interview, p. 2).

The data gathered from the students and Sarah concurs with the work of Codon and Collier

(2002). The positive data gathered from the student enjoyment questionnaire, combined with

Sarah’s evidence of using student interest and need to determine programme content,

supports Condon and Collier’s (2002) conclusions regarding student choice encouraging

motivation and effort.

125

Space

When asked about the construction of her programme in the interview, Sarah did not mention

the influence of space. However, earlier in the interview and in numerous discussions, Sarah

detailed the impact of the lack of space on her teaching. For example she said:

There would be more opportunities for them to do more shooting if there were more backboards and courts. They do a lot of 3 on 2 or 3 on 1 improvising in the little squares. But if we had all of the lovely courts we could do a lot more half court and whatever else, but we don’t. (Transcribed from first interview, p. 1)

From the observations of Sarah’s teaching it was clear that the lack of space impacted on her

teaching. In the observed lessons, Sarah had the use of only one basketball court for the

whole class. This resulted in Sarah needing to provide a second, less monitored activity for the

students to take part in whilst the rest of the class were involved in a basketball game on the

court. Obviously, with more than one basketball court, Sarah could provide more

opportunities for the students to practise skills which would be likely to lead to greater skill

outcome attainment and further opportunities for activity.


Bathurst Primary School was the highest ranked school by Socioeconomic Status (SES) of the

five participating schools (D.E.E.W.R., 2008). When observing the SES data of all schools in the

sector in Western Australia, Bathurst Primary School was the third highest ranked school in the

state. From the literature reviewed regarding SES and physical activity, it can be concluded

that students from high SES schools were more likely to participate in vigorous activity in PE

lessons (Sallis, Zakarian, Hovell, & Hofstetter, 1996). Therefore, it could be suggested that

students from Bathurst Primary School could be expected to more active (when MVPA was

measured) than the students from low SES schools participating in the project.

When total MVPA from all schools was compared by rank, Bathurst Primary School (highest

socio economic school in the project) appeared to have produced one of the lowest counts

across the observed lessons (Figure 4.3.5.4.1).

126

Figure 4.3.5.4.1 MVPA Comparisons and SES Rank of Participating Schools

The possible explanation of these low activity results would be the impact of the limited space

available and the frequent occurrence of the lesson being stopped for the teacher to deliver

corrective feedback.

4.3.6 Conclusion

In summary, from the data derived from the observed lessons, it could be suggested that the

students at Bathurst Primary School were receiving quality PE instruction from Sarah.

Consistent with the work of Tinning, Macdonald and Hickey (2001), she was a reflective

teacher who was providing a meaningful programme that the students appeared to be

enjoying. The quality of Sarah’s instruction could be considered to be a result of her PCK. In

other words, Sarah possesses basketball skills as a result of her experience playing the game

and she was able to combine this with her knowledge and understanding of effect methods of

teaching basketball to this age group.

The student’s responses to the enjoyment questionnaire confirmed that they enjoyed PE and

in addition, they were happy with the Sarah’s teaching, the activities she presented, peer

interaction and their personal performance. It may be possible to conclude that the students

were happy with the detailed, meaningful feedback and skills focus that was evident in Sarah’s

teaching. As a result of the student enjoyment and quality PE teaching, students were

observed to be highly engaged in all aspects of the lessons.


Mean

Percentage

of MVPA

95 100 98 119 127

127

From the observed lessons, some concerns regarding the PE programme at Bathurst Primary

School arose. The lack of space available to teach PE (basketball in particular) impacted

considerably on the opportunities the students have to achieve the recommended daily MVPA.

Another impact of the inadequate space available to teach PE wasthe increased time taken to

manage the students (41.32% of words spoken and 40.63% of total lesson time). Given that

there was only one basketball court and 25 students, Sarah needed to ensure that all students

were engaged in PA for most of the lesson. This resulted in a great deal of the lesson time

devoted to allocating activities, teams and equipment. It was important to note that this time

was not used to manage student behaviour. In addition, given that Sarah allocated students

to two different activities, there was a considerable amount of time allocated to transition

(16.4% of total lesson time). Again, this was a result of the students needing to swap activities

so that all students could have time on the basketball court with Sarah. A possible conclusion

of these concerns was evident in the data analysis, indicating that the students at Bathurst

Primary School were relatively inactive (when compared to the other participating schools).

The support that Sarah derived from the Bathurst Primary School community was an asset to

her PE programme. It was this support that enabled Sarah to have autonomy over the PE

programme and assist her to display her PCK in her teaching. PE was obviously a highly valued

learning area at the school.

From the lessons observed, it was possible to conclude that the Sarah was displaying many

elements of rich PCK in her teaching. This resulted in Sarah engaging students of all ability and

interest levels in the basketball lessons. She provided consistent and specific corrective

feedback that encourages students to constantly acquire and develop their basketball skills

strategic game play. The students demonstrated a strong desire to achieve and display their

skill attainment. Furthermore, they appeared to enjoy Sarah’s approach to teaching basketball

that facilitated a skill focus as well as valuing interpersonal skills. One would hope that they

were able to take the expertise and team skills developed as a result of Sarah’s teaching and

enjoy participating in team games such as basketball both at Bathurst Primary School as well as

out of school.

128

4.4 SALMON BAY PRIMARY SCHOOL


Salmon Bay Primary School was the largest of all schools participating in the project. The 700

student school was situated approximately 30km from the Perth central business district. The

staff included 45 teaching staff, with an average class size of 27 students.

Emma was a young PE specialist at Salmon Bay Primary School. Outside of school, Emma was

involved in Australian Rules Football, representing Western Australia. In discussions, Emma

expressed positive feelings of enjoyment and passion for Australian Rules Football.


Emma’s teaching was observed on four occasions throughout term two, 2008. AFL was the

focus sport for two of lessons. The final two lessons saw the introduction of a unit of netball

lessons. Each lesson was allocated 45 minutes, however the average actual lesson time for the

observed lessons was 38 minutes. Students worked with partners, in small groups and in

teams.

Emma used a similar format for the four lessons, even though the ball sport focus shifted from

AFL for two weeks, to netball for the final two weeks. The lessons commenced with Emma

explaining the format of the lesson. This was followed by a combination of drills and games,

utilising the skills necessary for the focussed ball sport. For example, students undertook ball

handling drills in the AFL lessons and passing drills in the netball lessons. A secondary focus of

the warm up activities was movement. There were games observed in all lessons that

focussed on running and tagging. In her instructions, Emma clearly encouraged the students

to be active, “Alright you need to run from this line here, you’ve got the entire netball court”

(Transcribed from first observed lesson).

As described in the interview, Emma chose to introduce a small number of skills for each

netball lesson. The skills were described (but not demonstrated) prior to the commencement

of the modified netball game. In contrast to the AFL games, there was an absence of evidence

of discussion of the rules for the modified game other than instruction given regarding

placement on the court. The students were then allocated to a team and one student on each

court was chosen to be the umpire.

Emma utilised the large space available. The AFL lessons took place on a large oval and two

grass courts were used for the netball lessons. In the netball lessons, it could be suggested

129

that the use of two courts reduced Emma’s ability to provide feedback as the students were

spread over a larger area. However, it was observed during these lessons, that Emma

provided little corrective feedback to the students on either court (mean corrective feedback

given for netball lessons = 8.75% of total words spoken, mean corrective feedback given for

AFL lessons = 12.05%). The corrective feedback given during these two netball lessons was

lower to that from all other observed lessons, across all participating schools (mean of all study

participants = 15.37% of total words spoken, range = 9.12 – 20.93%).

In all lessons, the majority of time allocated to activity was focussed on games (games

accounted for 35.22% of total lesson time, skill and techniques focussed activity as well as

warm ups, accounted for 17.62% of total lesson time). Prior to the commencement of these,

Emma revised the rules and the skills she expected to see, however the focus of her

instructions was on the rules of the game. For example,

Are you allowed to tackle today? Yes, you may. When you are tackling, what is the most sensible way to tackle? Bear Hug. Are you trying to get them to land on the ground as hard as you can? No. Are you allowed to smother the ball? (Girl’s name) are you allowed to throw? Not allowed to throw. What do you do instead, Jake? You handball. Are you allowed to kick it, (Girl’s name)? Yes. Alright, if you take a mark, what is the best thing to do after you’ve taken a mark? (Transcribed from first observed lesson).

All students were on the field at all times for the games in both sports observed. Emma

appeared to be very keen to encourage the participation of the girls in the AFL game. For

example in the first lesson observed, “Who’s going up? How about a girl? (Girl’s name). You

hop on this side, (girl’s name) and then you switch round. (Girl’s name) versus (girl’s name),

over here.” (Transcribed from first observed lesson). In addition, she gave positive feedback to

the girls who spread out on the field and were physically active. At the conclusion of the

game, she gave value feedback such as “Girls it’s probably your best involvement in football

during a game. So excellent work.” (Transcribed from first observed lesson)

At the conclusion of each lesson, Emma gave value feedback to the students for example:

Excellent game today, year sevens. The boys, in particular, who don’t play, well done, I can see how much you’re concentrating with not stepping. Alright, and an excellent job of defending, (Girl’s name), both of you worked well. Well done, very good (Transcribed from fourth observed lesson).

This was followed by an outline of the focus for the following lesson.

130


Emma was interviewed at the conclusion of the observed lessons. A juxtaposition of attitudes

existed when discussing the two ball sports evident in the observed lessons. Whilst Emma was

very comfortable teaching AFL, “Yeah, really comfortable, I really enjoy it” (Transcribed from

interview, p. 1), rating her expertise highly “Yeah, I love it, it would be a 10 out of ten, (with

ten representing ‘most comfortable and expert’)” (Transcribed from interview, p. 1). In

contrast, she appeared to lack confidence, expertise (rated as “not at all”, transcribed from

interview, p. 1) and enjoyment when teaching netball.

In the interview, Emma clearly described her extremely limited experience and knowledge

particular to the game of netball “I have no experience playing netball at all. We did netball

when I was at uni. I have played basketball all of my life so that has helped “(Transcribed from

interview, p. 1). However, she was observed using higher level skills of some of the girls to

demonstrate and only introducing a limited number of skills each lesson “The girls are really

good which helps, I just introduce a couple of new skills each week so it’s not too hard”

(Transcribed from interview, p. 1).

As Figure 4.4.3.1 details, Emma allocated more than half of the lesson time to activity. This

was one of the highest percentages seen in all participating schools (52.84% of lesson time,

mean of all study participants = 48.38%, range = 39.86% - 52.99%). Much of this time was

allocated to game play such as AFL and netball. Emma took on the role of umpire during the

AFL games and silently monitored the netball games whilst students took on the role of

umpire. This lack of involvement in the netball lessons could be considered to be another

example of Emma’s lack of PCK which appeared to impact on the quality of her teaching.

131

Figure 4.4.3.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Emma’s lessons


Emma declared herself to be 21-25 years of age. With three years teaching experience, she

was the least experienced of all teachers participating in the project. She held the

qualifications of a Bachelor of Physical Education with a major in Health and Physical Education

as well as Science.

4.4.3.2 Goals

Jewett and Bain (1985) have explained that goals should reflect the teacher’s value

orientation, the local curriculum, student development and necessary subject matter content.

Narrow Goals

Emma displayed limited evidence of narrow goals during her teaching. At the commencement

of lessons, Emma briefly explained the focus of the lesson, for example “Alright, for football

today, we are doing a bit of bouncing and then a game” (Transcribed from first observed

lesson) or “For today you are playing a full length game” (Transcribed form third observed

lesson). Whilst Emma’s focus was clear, the information provided could be described as vague

and brief. This concurs with the work of Jewett and Bain (1985) who explain that effective

narrow goals need to focus on motor content.

Therefore, it would appear that Emma was aware of the need to set narrow goals in order to

inform the students of the planned lesson. However, she did not demonstrate an awareness

132

of the need to communicate further details such as her expectations, the skills being revised or

introduced and details of the lesson format. This is supported by Ashton (1984) who explains

that effective teachers communicate goals clearly with students.


Emma completed the VOI-2 prior to the commencement of the observed lessons. The

analysis of her value orientation profile (Figure 4.4.3.2.1) enabled some suggestions to be

made regarding her possible curriculum priorities. She held a high priority for the domains of

discipline mastery (Z=1.82) and social responsibility (Z=1.44). This could be considered to be

an unusual aspect to her profile given that discipline mastery is a skill-focussed domain and

social responsibility is an affective domain. Another unusual aspect to her profile was the low

profile she held for the domain of self-actualization (Z=-1.94). Again, this domain is an

affective domain and she had indicated a high priority for another affective domain (social

responsibility). Emma held a neutral priority for ecological integration (Z=-.59) and learning

process (Z=-.86).

Figure 4.4.3.2.1 Emma’s VOI-2 Profile

A possible explanation of Emma’s unusual value profile could be her lack of PE teaching

experience. With only three years teaching experience, she was the least experienced teacher

participating in the project. According to researchers Curtner-Smith and Meek (2000),

teachers’ values generally form within the first 10 years of teaching and teachers with 10-20

years of experience tend to hold more stable values that are less likely to change. Therefore, it

Z score


133

could be suggested that Emma’s somewhat unconventional VO profile was the result of her

lack of experience and unstable curriculum values.

Given the unusual nature of Emma’s value orientation profile, there were some challenge in

establishing evidence of her profile in the observed lessons. She displayed a strong focus on

skills and content through the use of drills and skills-focussed instructions, indicating her high

priority for discipline mastery. However the limited corrective feedback delivered, which could

be indicative of the discipline mastery domain, would appear to weaken the skill focus.

Emma’s focus on game rules, particularly during the AFL lessons also support her discipline

mastery priority. Her other high VO priority was for the social responsibility domain. This

domain would be evidenced by an explicit teaching focus on cooperation, teamwork and

respect for others. Although the students worked in groups and teams, there was little

explicit evidence of Emma teaching the social skills associated with these settings. However,

as previously detailed, Emma appeared to place a high priority on all students being involved,

particularly the girls in the AFL lessons and the boys in the netball lessons. In addition, Emma

gave instructions relating to turn taking and sharing opportunities to be involved in various

aspects of the games. Therefore, it could be stated that Emma was displaying elements of

both of her highly prioritised domains.

Broad Goals

Evidence of Emma’s broad goal setting for student outcome attainment was limited. In

interviews, she explained that the focus sport for each year group was dependent on a

rotational whole school programme that ensured that students were exposed to a range of

sports, without focussing on the same sports each year. She explained that this was a

programme implemented by a previous PE teacher at the school and she was simply following

this programme. This could be perceived to be evidence of Emma setting goals based on

student interest, to prevent boredom resulting from repetition. However, there was no

indication of Emma actually determining the needs and interests of the students.

Emma’s lack of detailed broad and narrow goals could be explained by her lack of experience.

Perhaps she was continuing to implement the programme created by her predecessor as she

lacked the experience and expertise to create her own programme. Her limited evidence of

narrow goals further substantiates her lack of PCK, as with greater PCK she could be expected

to recognise the need to clearly communicate her lesson goals to her students (Grossman,

1990).

134

4.4.3.3 Dialogue

Figure 4.4.3.3.1 demonstrates the resulting disparity in elements of Emma’s PCK when the AFL

lessons were compared to the Netball lessons. From the voice data gathered from the four

lessons, it could be suggested that Emma’s diminished PCK for netball impacted on what she

said to the students. This was demonstrated by the corrective feedback given. The

percentage of words spoken concerned with learning instructions was similar across the two

sports. However, Emma has delivered more management instruction for the netball lessons

and provided more discipline feedback on the students in the netball lessons. From this data,

it could be suggested that Emma’s lack of PCK for netball impacted on student behaviour,

hence the increased use of discipline feedback. This concurs with the work of Gusthardt and

Sprigings (1989) who have established that when teachers clearly explain specifically what

students are expected to learn and demonstrate the steps needed to accomplish this, students

learn more. Therefore, it could be suggested that Emma’s lack of detailed learning goals,

instructions, demonstrations and feedback reduced the students’ opportunities to learn.

Figure 4.4.3.3.1 Voice Data from AFL Lessons Compared with Netball Lessons

From the voice data gathered from all four lessons, it was possible to suggest some

connections with what Emma has said and her PCK. Emma spoke approximately 64 words

per minute in the observed lessons. This was considerably less than any other participating

teacher (mean of all study participants = 94.53 words per minute, range = 64.44 – 115.56

words per minute). Analysis of the data indicates that this was a statistically significant

difference F(4,13) = 10.547, p < 0.05. Whilst Emma declared a high level of expertise and

Voice Data Gathered from Lessons

Mean Percentage

of Total Words Spoken

135

interest for AFL, the amount of corrective feedback given (10.40% of total words spoken) was

relatively low (Figure 4.4.3.3.1). This may suggest that Emma possesses sufficient content

knowledge, but lacks the pedagogical knowledge. In other words, Emma knows a lot about

AFL, but was inhibited when providing specific feedback that was aimed at correcting errors

and improving student performance. In contrast to this, Emma delivered the highest quantity

of value feedback when comparing participating teachers (Figure 4.4.3.3.2) (13.47% of total

words spoken, mean of all study participants =6.18%, range = 1.99 – 13.47%). Analysis of the

data indicated that this was a statistically significant difference F(4,13) = 16.869, p < 0.05. This

was evidenced in the transcription of the lessons, for example, “(Boy’s name) group, well

done. Group right at the end, excellent and the rest of you very well done” (Transcribed from

first observed lesson). Whilst this value feedback was not specific, it was a positive response

to student behaviour. In addition, when the voice data from Emma’s lessons were compared

with the other participating teachers, it could be suggested that Emma was providing one of

the lowest quantities of learning instructions (38.28% of total words spoken, mean of all study

participants = 38.59%, range = 21.06% – 46.87%) in combination with one of the highest rates

of management instructions (33.25% of total words spoken, mean of all study participants =

64.87%, range = 27.99% - 52.83%) (Figure 4.4.4.3.2). This resulted in Emma talking more

about organising equipment, placement of students and groups than providing instructions

(information) regarding the sport and the particular activities in which the students will be

engaged in.

Figure 4.4.3.3.2 Voice Data (mean % of total words spoken by Emma)

136


Of Mosston and Ashworths’s (2002) spectrum of eleven teaching styles, one was evident in

Emma’s teaching. The practise style was observed. For example:

Practise: Emma made all of the pre-impact and post-impact decisions and gave the students

many opportunities to practise specific skills. This was particularly evident in the drills in all

observed lessons where Emma explained and demonstrated what was required, gave the

students time to practise and then provided follow up feedback. Emma’s lack of repertoire of

teaching styles is evidence of her limited PCK, this is supported by Cothran and Kulinna (2006)

who explain that effective teachers use multiple teaching styles in order to appeal to a wide

range of students.


Metzler (1982) explored the features of ALT-PE in the effort to maximise learning outcomes in

PE. He explained that in order to maximise outcomes, teachers need to decrease management

and transition time, provide frequent feedback and deliver short, sequential instructions. It

would seem that Emma was achieving many of these elements. Indeed, when compared to

the other participating teachers, it would appear that she was maximising opportunities for

activity (52.83% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants = 47.68%, range 39.86 –

52.99%) whilst minimising time spent delivering management instructions (38.27% of total

lesson time, mean of all study participants = 37.17%, range = 30.16 – 41.41%). However,

Emma used one of the highest percentages of lesson time to allow students to transition

between activities (11.95% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants = 14.76%, range

= 11.63 – 17.67%).

As previously mentioned, 33.25% of the words spoken focussed on management of students

and resources. However, negative student behaviour was rarely evident in Emma’s PE lessons

(researcher field notes) and this resulted in discipline feedback accounting for just 1.8% of

words spoken. Emma allocated 52.8% of the lesson time to activity (Figure 4.4.3.5.1). This

could be explained by her use of the school facilities. The AFL lessons were conducted on a

large football oval and students were encouraged to use the available space for all activities.

In the netball lessons, Emma used two courts which resulted in all students being physically

engaged at all times. Emma’s lack of feedback and instructions also resulted in increased

activity time as she rarely stopped the class during a game to provide feedback or instructions.

137

Figure 4.4.3.5.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Emma’s lessons

4.4.3.6 Opportunities Porvided for Students to Display Learning

Emma provided opportunities for all students to display learning through demonstration of

attainment of Curriculum Framework level 2 outcomes (SPA) (Curriculum Council, 1998).

However, she did not provide explicit opportunities for students to work towards level 3 by

integrating game strategy into her teaching (Curriculum Council, 2005). The game situations

could be considered to be an adequate opportunity for students to display the strategic skills

evident in level 3 outcomes. However, attainment of level 3 outcomes were not made clear in

her instructions or feedback. Therefore, almost all students displayed attainment of level 2

outcomes (SPA) (researcher field notes). Although students worked in teams and small groups,

there was no evidence of a teaching focus or unambiguous instructions for the HPE Curriculum

Framework strand of Interpersonal Skills.

It could be concluded that the limited opportunities provided for the students to display

attainment of Curriculum Framework outcomes (Curriculum Council, 1998) was strong

evidence of Emma’s lack of PCK in her teaching.


Emma chose the year seven class to participate in the project. The class consisted of 31

students, comprising of 17 boys and 14 girls. The students were aged 11-13 years at the time

of the observed lessons.

138

Most students were observed to participate compliantly and enthusiastically in Emma’s PE

lessons (researcher field notes). However, as a result of discussions and the interview, it would

appear that this behaviour from year seven students at Salmon Bay Primary School was unique

to Emma’s PE classes. During an interview with the school principal, he strongly suggested

that the observations of generally positive behaviour and participation were surprising to him.

This view was supported by the data gathered from the interview with Emma. She stated that:

I’m lucky at this school. All of the kids are really good. You have the odd child who is hard. But you get the kids who are impossible in the classroom with all of the behaviour problems, but you wouldn’t even know who they are when they play sport cos they love sport. I am shocked when I hear teachers say this child is being difficult again. I think ‘That child? He’s an angel’. I am just lucky like that. (Transcribed from interview, p. 1)

Whilst most students were generally well behaved, it was interesting to note the changes in

student behaviour observed with the different ball sports (AFL and netball). During the AFL

lessons, the students appeared to be highly engaged (researcher field notes) and discipline

accounted for less than 1% of total words spoken (Figure 4.4.4.3.1). The students

demonstrated a sense of admiration for Emma’s AFL skills and knowledge. In contrast to this,

discipline accounted for 3% of total words spoken (Figure 4.4.4.3.1) in the netball lessons. The

student behaviour observed was less compliant and focussed when compared to the AFL

lessons (researcher field notes). Throughout the AFL lessons, almost all students appeared to

be on task and motor appropriate on all timed observations, however there was a higher

incidence of off task and motor inappropriate behaviour observed in the netball lessons

(researcher field notes) and as reinforced by the discipline feedback data.

4.4.4.1 Activity

Prior to the observed lessons, Sarah selected four students (two boys and two girls) who were



When total MVPA from all schools was compared, the students of Salmon Bay Primary School

recorded the highest average activity counts across the four observed lessons (average counts

=507.98, mean of all study participants = 423.61, range = 298.87 – 507.98). Chi-square analysis

of the data confirmed that this was a statistically significant difference, 2(4, N = 8470) =

3623.83, p<.05. This is consistent with the work of Chow, Mckenzie and Louie (2008) who

have established that lesson context as well as the teaching space available impacts on

opportunities for PA. The students wearing the ActiGraph monitors were engaged in MVPA

139

for almost 40% of the lesson time. In addition, the students were engaged in low levels of

activity for the least amount of time (60.25% of lesson time), when compared to the other

schools (mean of all study participants = 67.83%, range = 60.25% - 78.92%). This was a

statistically significant difference difference 2(4, N = 8470) = 3812.51, p<.05. Some possible

explanations for these results are as follows:

Emma utilised a large amount of open space for all lessons. This included a large

football oval and two grass netball courts.

Emma ensured that all students were actively engaged in the lesson by making certain

that all students participated and there were no students ‘sitting out’ or waiting to

take part in a netball or AFL game.

Emma actively encouraged physical participation in all activities by providing prompts

to those who did not appear to be sufficiently active “Come on, girls, I want you

running” (Transcribed from fourth observed lesson). Emma delivered positive

encouragement to students who were actively engaging in the lesson “Good running,

girls” (Transcribed from first observed lesson).

The recommendations described by CPAC (2008) for primary school children suggest that they

should be engaged in 60 minutes of MVPA per day. The students wearing the ActiGraphs in

Emma class were engaged in MVPA for 40% of the lesson time, this would result in the student

on average, deriving 15 minutes of MVPA from the PE lessons. These students were engaged

in MVPA for more time than any of the other participating schools. However, this still leaves

45 minutes of daily MVPA to be gained from other physical activity.

4.4.4.2 Enjoyment

The Student Enjoyment Questionnaire (Hashim, Grove & Whipp, 2007) was administered to

the 31 year seven students at Salmon Bay Primary School. When comparing the results from

Salmon Bay Primary School with the other participating schools (Figure 4.4.4.2.1), it appeared

that these students ranked second on the measure of activity generated excitement and third

on the measures of; PE enjoyment, teacher generated excitement. However, the students

ranked fifth on many other measures such as; peer interaction, parental involvement self-

referenced competency and other referenced competency (Figure 4.4.4.2.1). From this data it

could be concluded that whilst the students were happy with the elements of the lessons that

Emma controlled (PE enjoyment, teacher generated excitement and activity generated

140

excitement), they appeared less content with the measures of enjoyment that influenced by

self, parents or peers.


As previously mentioned, Emma did not experience the same student management issues that

many other teachers faced with the year seven students at Salmon Bay Primary School. The

Enjoyment Questionnaire indicated that, when compared to the students from other

participating schools, a high level of enjoyment was experienced with the PE programme – PE

enjoyment (mean = 4.72, mean of all study participants = 4.61, range 4.3 – 4.79) as well as

Emma’s teaching – teacher generated excitement (mean = 4.46, mean of all study participants

= 4.44, range = 4.23 – 4.78) and the activities she provided – activity generated competency

(mean = 4.34, mean of all study participants = 4.30, range 4.11 – 4.58). The researcher’s field

notes and observations of the students further supported these data. It was concluded that

the students at Salmon Bay Primary School were keen to participate compliantly and

enthusiastically in Emma’s PE programme.


Z score

141

4.4.5 PE at Salmon Bay Primary School

From interviews with Emma and the school principal, as well as observations made, it was

clear that PE was a valued learning area at Salmon Bay Primary School, however it could be

suggested that as a beginning teacher, Emma lacked the professional and expert support that

she required.

4.4.5.1Time allocated to PE/Structured PA

On average, PE lessons for the observed class were 38 minutes in duration from start of

teaching to dismissal at the commencement of recess. The lesson time allocated was 45

minutes. From the observed lessons, it could be concluded that the discrepancy in times was

explained by the time Emma waited for the class to arrive on the oval.

In addition to the PE lesson with Emma each week, the students attended in other lessons and

activities that focus of physical activity such as:

The classroom teacher takes the class out for a 60 minute PE lesson each week.

The students take part in a morning fitness programme for 15 minutes, three times

each week.

In total, the students were given the potential opportunity to engage in physical activity for

150 minutes each week. Therefore, the year seven students at Salmon Bay Primary School had

the potential to achieve to CPAC (2008) recommended 150 minutes of quality PE each week

and 60 minutes of MVPA each day. In addition, the students also had the potential to realise

the DET (2010) guideline of 120 minutes of quality PE each week. However, evaluating the

quality of PE delivered to the students during the classroom teacher led lessons and the

morning fitness programme was beyond the scope of this project.


During the interview, Emma described a number of barriers that she believed impacted on her

PCK. Firstly, she felt physically and professionally isolated at Salmon Bay Primary School, “It’s a

bit lonely sometimes and quite isolating being stuck at the back of the library on your own”

(Transcribed from interview, p. 1). Her office was well away from the administration building

and she was alone. This could have resulted in Emma lacking the professional development

achieved through casual conversations with colleagues. In addition, Emma was isolated as a

result of being the only PE teacher at Salmon Bay Primary School. As a consequence of this,

142

Emma said she was unable to engage in professional discussions particular to the PE learning

area. However, Emma indicated that her colleagues were supportive of the PE programme

and she felt particularly supported by one of the deputy principals at Salmon Bay Primary

School.

I get a lot of support from the other teachers. They have to do the 60 minutes of PE each week on top of what I do with them and then they have to do daily fitness three times a week for 15 minutes. But I get a lot of support which is excellent. I get a lot of support from one of the deputies in particular. (Transcribed from interview, p. 1)

Butler and Mergadt (1994) have explained that administrative support is “crucial” for

professional growth amongst PE teachers. Furthermore, the support provided by the school

influences the development of a teacher’s PCK (Morgan & Hansen, 2008; Amade-Escot, 2000;

Rovegno & Bandhauer, 1997). It was clear that Emma was not gaining enough support from

Salmon Bay Primary School. Whilst she felt well supported by one deputy principal and the

teaching staff, she appeared to need further support, particularly as a beginning teacher.

Emma’s isolation from professional learning opportunities could be considered to be impacting

on her ability to develop her PCK as without support as a beginning teacher, she potentially

struggled to develop her teaching skills.


Rotational Programme

In the interview, Emma detailed the basis to her PE programme. She explained that she simply

follows a rotational programme that was established before she commenced teaching at

Salmon Bay Primary School. The programme was not based on forthcoming carnivals or the

explicit interests and needs of the students. However, the rotational nature of the programme

did, according to Emma ensure that students were not exposed to the same sports each year.

For example,

I am following the programme that was already set by the previous teacher. It was all set up about three years ago, before I started. We have a system where we rotate sports so that the children don’t play the same sport for two years in a row. (Transcribed from interview, P. 1 and 2)

From this information, it could be concluded that Emma’s lack of desire to design a

programme that explicitly reflected the needs of her students could be considered to be

evidence of a PCK deficit. A justification for this approach to programming could be her lack of

experience. However, Emma appeared to be content with this approach and confirmed that

she was not planning on changing it in the near future.

143


Salmon Bay Primary School’s socioeconomic status rank was 61st, of 158 schools in the sector

(D.E.E.W.R., 2008). This statistic indicates that there were 97 Primary schools from this sector

in WA with a higher socioeconomic status than Salmon Bay Primary School.

Figure 4.4.5.4.1 MVPA comparisons and SES rank of participating schools




compare to students of low SES. With this in mind, it might be that students from high socio

economic backgrounds participate in more vigorous activity in PE lessons. However, when

total MVPA from all schools was compared by rank, Salmon Bay Primary School (the second

lowest ranked school in the project) appeared to have produced the highest average activity

counts across the four observed lessons (average counts =507.98, mean of all study

participants = 423.61, range = 298.87 – 507.98) (see figure 4.4.5.4.1). A Chi-square analysis of

the data confirmed that this was a statistically significant difference 2(4, N = 8470) = 3623.83,

p<.05. Therefore, it would appear that these results were not consistent with the work of

Sallis, et al. (1996).


Mean Percentage

of MVPA

95 100 98 119 127

144

4.4.6 Conclusion

From the data gathered from the observed lessons, student questionnaire and teacher

interviews, it can be concluded that Emma displayed elements of PCK in her teaching, however

it would appear that her lack of PE experience currently impacted on her ability to display rich

PCK in her teaching. Emma provided PE lessons that engaged the students actively and

provided some opportunities for skills development. She offered consistent positive

encouragement to the students (although largely unspecific) through the use of value

feedback. She ensured that the students were active during the lessons and her feedback and

instructions demonstrated her desire for all students to participate regardless of gender or

experience.

However, whilst Emma possessed substantial content knowledge for AFL, she struggled to

demonstrate this in her teaching. This was evident in her goal setting, corrective feedback

delivered and opportunities provided for Curriculum Framework Outcome attainment. Once

again, this could possibly be the impact of her lack of experience. This was exacerbated at

Salmon Bay Primary School by the perceived lack of school support provided and the sense of

professional isolation that Emma experienced.

Emma was able maximise the time allocated to activity (53% of total lesson time) and in

particular, provide opportunities for the students to engage in MVPA (40% of total lesson

time). This resulted in the students at Salmon Bay Primary School being the most active on

almost all measures, when compared to the other participating schools. This could be

considered to be a result of Emma’s approach to teaching, the resources available and the

enthusiasm of the students. In addition to this, the students at Salmon Bay Primary School

would appear to be involved in extensive PE as well as other opportunities for physical activity

through the school fitness programme and generalist teacher led weekly PE lessons. Although

the quality of PE teaching from the classroom teachers was unknown, the outcome of this

physical activity data was particularly positive for the students at Salmon Bay Primary School.

Not only were they well placed to achieve the recommended 150 minutes of quality PE

weekly, but they could have potentially achieved the suggested 60 minutes of MVPA daily

(CPAC, 2008). This was a great deal more than any other participating school could claim to be

working towards achieving.

In conclusion, Emma provided a PE programme that actively engaged students regardless of

ability. In addition to this, Emma had the necessary resources to provide opportunities for

activity and skill development. A lack of professional development opportunities, teaching

145

practise and perceived school support impacted on Emma’s teaching outcomes and

opportunity to consistently display rich PCK in her teaching.

146

4.5 THOMSON PRIMARY SCHOOL


Thomson Primary School was a relatively small primary school, located 5km from the Perth

Central Business District. The school had 244 students enrolled k-7, with 15 teaching staff and

an average class size of 30 students.


Nina was the PE specialist at Thomson Primary School. Her teaching was observed on four

occasions throughout term two, 2008. Basketball was the focus ball sport for three of the

lessons as Nina was preparing the class for a forthcoming carnival. The final lesson saw the

introduction of a unit of hockey lessons. Each lesson was allocated 40 minutes, however the

average time for the observed lessons was 35 minutes. Students worked individually, in pairs

and in teams in all of the observed lessons.

Although there were two basketball courts, Nina chose to use just one. It could be suggested

that this decision was based on her strong desire to provide extensive corrective feedback to

the students. This could have proven to be difficult if she was monitoring students on two

courts. Each lesson commenced with Nina explaining the lesson content and giving detailed

instructions (38.3% of mean lesson time, 42% of total words spoken) for the warm up

activity/drill. In addition to stretching, warm up drills appeared to focus and develop

basketball skills taught in previous lessons. Skills such as defending, attacking, dribbling the

ball, passing the ball and shooting were covered. This was followed by a series of skills

focussed drills. Some of these activities involved a reasonably complex format. This was

made evident when the students executed the activity successfully with minimal instruction.

In the third observed lesson, Nina asked the students to warm up in pairs and assist their

partner to warm up. Prior to this commencing, Nina gave detailed and explicit instructions

concerning the types of activities that could be carried out and the nature of the feedback that

the students should be giving. Even though Nina did not make it clear in her instructions

(researcher field notes), the nature of the warm up activities chosen resulted in the students

appearing to be reasonably active. In two of the observed lessons, the majority of lesson time

was focussed on basketball game skills/strategies. To achieve this, Nina placed two full teams

on the basketball court and then sat the other students along one side of the court. The

students were substituted at approximately three minute intervals. Nina adopted the role of

147

umpire and coach. She stopped the game frequently and gave feedback to the

individual/group whilst using it as a teachable moment for the whole class.

The hockey lesson followed a similar format to the basketball lessons, taking place across three

multi-purpose outdoor courts . It commenced with an introduction/revision of basic hockey

skills and safety. This was followed by a variety of individual and partner drills and small group

games. Nina monitored the students by moving between groups and providing feedback.

Consistent with the comments made in the post lesson interview, Nina chose to use students

to demonstrate some of the skills.

At the conclusion of each observed lesson, Nina summarised the corrective feedback given to

some students and asked them to recall some of the strategies/skills/rules that were dealt

with during the game play. For example, the first observed lesson was concluded with the

following discussion between Nina and the whole class:

Ok, well done to those people who were encouraging others the things that when you are defending to have your arms up ok. That’s important. It makes it trickier for the attackers. When you were attacking what did you have to keep remembering? (Student response - Three passes) Yeah, which in a game doesn’t need to be that I just wanted you to pass it around to try and stop that one person going bounce, bounce shoot all the time. (Transcribed from first observed lesson)


Through participation (playing as well as coaching), being a spectator and family involvement,

Nina has acquired a sound understanding and confidence in her ability to teach a variety of

sports. Although it was not a sport that she “has a huge background in” (Interview, p. 1), she

rates her basketball teaching level of comfort and expertise as a “7” (out of ten, with ten

representing ‘most comfortable and expert’) (Interview, p. 1).

Nina said that the changes that have taken place with regards to the language used in sport

have impacted on her ability to teach “So, because I’ve been teaching for a long time...often

the skills don’t change but the jargon does. What they call the positions” (Interview, p. 1).

Nina considered the most effective way to overcome this problem was to involve the students

in her teaching. When she perceived her skills to be insufficient, Nina was happy to use

students to demonstrate skills, techniques and strategies to the class “things like passing I do

no problems but things like lay ups I wouldn’t necessarily demonstrate, I would rather use

someone in the class to demonstrate” (Interview, p. 1). In addition, Nina was also willing to

148

invite parents to help with sports such as AFL. Although Nina was interested in AFL, according

to her, her participation and PCK was a limiting factor on her ability to teach it successfully.

For example, Nina Said: “Things like footy, I can kick a ball for miles but when things like the

Eagles cup comes around, I will always ask a parent to umpire because I never been allowed to

play a game of footy. So the confidence in doing that probably is my... I just work ways to get

around it” (Interview, p. 1).

Nina explained that although she has never actually played hockey, she felt comfortable and

confident teaching it. This was a result of her husband and daughter’s extensive participation

in the sport “but I still understand the game (hockey) and it’s not the sort of things for primary

school age children as long as they are getting a good understanding of the good basic skills

then the game stuff they will pick up” (Interview, p. 1).


Nina, a mother of four, had been teaching for 10 years. She recently returned to Perth after

living and teaching in regional WA for some years. Whilst she was currently employed as a PE

specialist at Thomson Primary School, she has also taught as a generalist classroom teacher.

Nina’s qualifications included a Diploma of Education with a major in PE and a minor in

mathematics. At the time of the observed lessons, she taught part time in the role of PE

specialist at Thomson Primary School.

4.5.3.2 Goals



content.

Narrow Goals

According to researcher Ashton (1984), effective teachers set goals with the students. In the

observed lessons, there was an absence of evidence of Nina communicating short term lesson

goals at the commencement of the PE class. Rather than explain to the students to focus of

the lesson, Nina simply started the drills and games. This could be perceived to be evidence of

Nina lacking PCK.

149


Nina completed the VOI-2 prior to the commencement of the observed lessons. The analysis

of her value orientation profile (Figure 4.5.3.2.1) enables some suggestions to be made

regarding her goals for student learning. According to the work of Ennis and Zhu (1991), Nina

would appear to have an unusual VO profile. That is, she held a high priority for a content

domain (Discipline Mastery Z= 1.45) as well as an affective domain (Social Responsibility Z= 1).

When Ennis and Zhu (1991) administered the VOI-2 to 175 specialist PE teachers in the United

States, they collated data that indicated a negative correlation with DM and SR. In addition to

this, Nina possessed a neutral priority for learning process (Z=-0.50), which is a content

focussed domain as well as ecological integration (Z=-0.84) and self-actualization (Z=-0.96)

which are both affective domains.

In the post lesson interview, Nina expressed an interest in ensuring the students were

equipped with the skills necessary to participate in a given sport “...as long as they are getting

a good understanding of the good basic skills then the game stuff they will pick up”(Interview,

p. 1). From comments such as this in combination with the data gathered from the observed

lessons (Appendix S), it could be assumed that Nina would hold a strong priority for the skills

focussed domain.

4.5.3.2.1 Figure Nina’s VOI-2 Profile

It was difficult to draw conclusions from Nina’s value orientation profile and the teaching

observed. Her teaching demonstrated a strong focus on skills that supports her high priority

for DM. In addition, she gave frequent corrective feedback (20.93% of total words spoken),


Z score

150

possibly representing her discipline mastery focussed desire to ensure students were equipped

with the necessary skills and strategies to participate in the given sport. Conversely, her VOI-2

profile also indicated a high priority for the social domain of social responsibility. However,

there was limited evidence of this in her teaching. She did group students into partners, small

groups and teams, although the team work skills were not a focus of her teaching. On

occasions, Nina did respond to students who appeared to need her assistance in order to work

as a member of a team, however this was a teachable moment rather than an explicit teaching

focus. For example in the second observed lesson, Nina said to a student who was struggling

to work effectively with his basketball team members “It’s a team game. No, (student name),

it’s no point getting frustrated when you’ve got to talk to them, you know what to do, so

encourage them to come out”. During discussions, Nina explained that ensuring that the girls

participated in the programme was always a focus of her teaching. There was no further

evidence of an inclusive approach to teaching, other than ensuring that the girls all took a turn

in a game where positions were rotated. Therefore, whilst Nina was demonstrating a clear

content focus in her teaching, it could be concluded that only minimal elements of the

affective domain of her VOI-2 profile were observed in her teaching.

Broad Goals

In the interviews and other discussions, Nina demonstrated an awareness of broad goals. She

indicated that the observed basketball lessons were preparing the students for a forthcoming

carnival. Similarly, the volleyball, athletics, netball and football programmes were all

motivated by upcoming carnivals. Nina explained that her broad goals were determined by

“the sports the kids haven’t been exposed to” (Interview, P.2). Additionally, Nina indicated

that as a result of the unusual gender disparity in the class (19 girls, 9 boys) she was very

aware of the need to engage the girls in the class without limiting the boy’s opportunities to

attain higher level outcomes. Furthermore, Nina indicated that she was very keen to provide

opportunities for the girls to participate without feeling intimidated by the boys.

Therefore, whilst Nina was not able to display her broad VO goals in her teaching, she did

communicate evidence of broad goal setting in interviews. She demonstrated a clear content

focus in her teaching, consistent with the high priority she placed on the DM domain in the

VOI-2. Yet she was unable to evidence the high priority she indicated for social responsibility

domain that was apparent in her VOI-2. Whilst her purpose was clearly communicated to the

researcher, there was no evidence of Nina communicating her short term goals to the students

in her teaching which would have been expected from a teacher possessing rich PCK.

151

4.5.3.3 Dialogue

Gusthart and Sprigings (1989) have explained that teacher feedback is important for

developing accountability because it provides constant information on the task focus and the

results of practise.

On average, Nina spoke 115.36 words per minute across the four observed lessons. Of the five

participating teachers, Nina displayed the highest average spoken words per minute of all

teachers (mean of all study participants = 94.53 range = 64.44 – 115.36). Analysis of the data

indicated that this was a statistically significant difference F(4,13) = 10.547, p<0.05. Nina

delivered the second highest quantity of learning focussed instructions (41.75% of all words

spoken, mean of all study participants = 38.59%, range 21.06 – 46.87%). Management of

students and resources accounted for a further 32.06% of the words spoken.

Consistent with the work of Siedentop (1991) as well as Siedentop, Herkowitz and Rink (1994),

Nina’s content and subject matter knowledge enabled her to provide feedback. Nina stopped

the games frequently throughout the lesson and gave corrective feedback to the

individual/group whilst using it as a teachable moment for the whole class. Nina was able to

provide specific corrective feedback (20.1% of total words spoken, mean of all study

participants = 15.37%, range = 9.12% – 20.13%). This data concurs with the work of Gusthart

and Sprigings (1989) who explain that feedback is essential for creating accountability as it

provides the students with information relating to their level of success resulting from the task

set. It was interesting to note Nina’s use of value feedback. Of all participating teachers, Nina

gave considerable less value feedback (1.99% of total words spoken, mean of all study

participants = 6.18% range = 1.99% – 13.47%) to her students than the other teachers.

Furthermore, this was a statistically significant difference 2(4, N =29) = 13.59, p<.05.

Additionally, negative student behaviour had little impact on the content of Nina’s speech with

discipline accounting for 1.5% of total words spoken. From this it could be stated that whilst

the student discipline did not appear to impact on her teaching, she possibly did not feel the

need to provide the specific positive reinforcement that can be presented as value feedback.

From the data gathered, it can be concluded that Nina said a great deal throughout the

observed lessons. However, she was able to evidence her PCK through her delivery of

frequent corrective feedback and extensive learning focussed instructions (Figure 4.5.3.3.1).

152

4.5.3.3.1 Figure Transcribed Voice Data (mean % of total words spoken by Nina)


Of Mosston and Ashworths’s (2002) spectrum of eleven teaching styles, three were evident in

Nina’s teaching. The practise, reciprocal and command styles were observed. This was

exemplified by:

Practise: Nina made all of the pre-impact and post-impact decisions and gave the students

many opportunities to practise specific skills. The was apparent in the basketball and hockey

drills where Nina explained in detail what was required , gave the students time to practise

and provided feedback.

Reciprocal: Nina asked the students to warm up in pairs. The students were asked to allocate

the role of coach and student within the pair. The coach was told to ‘warm up’ the student.

After sometime, the roles were reversed. When introducing this task, Nina did not give explicit

instructions regarding feedback from coach to student.

Command: The stretching activities demonstrated in the fourth observed lesson utilised the

command style of teaching whereby the teacher made all of the content decisions and the

students followed her on cue.

Evidence of Nina’s PCK was apparent in her use of teaching styles. Through the use of a variety

of teacher centred as well as student centred strategies, she was able to demonstrate an

153

awareness of the need to vary instructional strategies. This supports the findings of Cothran

and Kulinna (2006) who believe that teachers should use multiple teaching styles in order to

appeal to a wide range of students.


According to Metzler (1982), teachers need to minimise management and transition time,

provide short feedback and sequential instructions in order to maximise learning outcomes. It

would appear that Nina was achieving elements of Metzler’s suggestions. Whilst Nina was

able to use her PCK to provide specific corrective feedback (20.1% of total words spoken, mean

of all study participants = 15.37%, range = 9.12% – 20.13%), this lesson format resulted in

reduced activity levels for almost all students as much of the lesson time was spent sitting and

waiting to be substituted with a player on the court (Figure 4.5.3.5.1) (average time allocated

to activity 49.8% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants = 48.38%, range= 39.86% –

52.99%). In addition, the frequent substitutions resulted in 12% of the total time being used

for transition (Figure 4.5.4.5.1). Furthermore, team allocation, positioning students and

substituting students increased the time dedicated to management (32.06% of total words

spoken, mean of all study participants = 34.87%, range= 27.99% – 52.83%) throughout the

lessons. A possible conclusion of the observed lessons was that all time dedicated to

transition, and management decreases the total opportunities for the students have to be

active. In the post lesson self-assessment, Nina said that she would “Normally play a modified

game to incorporate more people. Tried to sub students every three minutes as the game was

played”, she acknowledged that this impacted on the lesson “students were standing on the

side but watching the games was encouraged”. After the lesson, Nina also informally

explained that this lesson format was chosen as she felt that the students needed to be

prepared for a forthcoming basketball carnival.

When compared to the other schools, Nina provided one of the highest opportunities for the

students to be active (49.76% of lesson time, mean of all study participants = 48.38% range=

39.86% – 52.99%). Although, this was not a statistically significant difference F(4,13) = 1.759, p

= 0.19. However, if the CPAC (2008) recommendations are once again considered, the

students were only active for half of the lesson time. Like other participating schools,

achieving 60 minutes of MVPA daily presents a considerable challenge when only half of the PE

lesson (17.5 minutes) provides opportunities for the students to be active.

Nina’s basketball and hockey confidence and expertise were evident in her observed teaching.

She was able to actively monitor the students and deliver specific corrective feedback to

154

groups and individuals (20.93% of total words spoken, mean of all study participants =

14.24%). In the basketball lessons, a great deal of the lesson time was devoted to game skills

and strategies (46.53% of total lesson time). Two full teams were on the court and the other

students were observing and then substituting frequently (approximately three minute

intervals). Nina used the game time to provide extensive feedback (26.19% of total words

spoken). This was achieved by regularly stopping the game and providing the feedback as a

‘teachable moment’ to the whole class. It could be surmised that this approach to teaching led

to Nina limiting opportunities for the students to be active throughout the lesson, particularly

MVPA (50% of the lesson time was allocated to activity).

Nina’s extensive provision of feedback and the structure of the lessons observed potentially

limited opportunities for activity. However, due to Nina’s extensive content knowledge, she

was able to provide rich learning experiences through her active involvement in the lessons

that provided the students with opportunities to attain skills outcomes. Perhaps it could be

suggested that Nina needed to develop her pedagogical knowledge further in order to engage

the students in more motor activity throughout her lessons.

Figure 4.5.3.5.1 Observed Time Allocation (mean % of total lesson time) for Nina’s lessons


Through the focus of game skills and strategies made explicit in Nina’s instructions, students

were given clear opportunities to display learning at Curriculum Framework level 3, Skills for

Physical Activity (SPA) (Curriculum Council, 1998). All students demonstrated SPA level 2 or 3

in the basketball lessons. The drill focussed nature of the hockey lesson resulted in students

155

being limited to demonstrating level 2 acquisition. Although Nina’s instructions and feedback

generally focussed on the SPA strand, there were some opportunities for Interpersonal skills

(IPS) to be demonstrated. This was evident in the third observed lesson. The students were

asked to work in pairs to warm up for a basketball game using the drills and skills that were

explicit in the teaching of previous lessons. Nina focussed aspects her instructions on the

language of the IPS strand:

We’re warming up with our partner so we should be moving, doing some stretching, practising our passing, our dribbling and shooting shots. Now you’ve got five minutes I’m going to be watching how well you warm each other up. So find a space, concentrate on what you need to be doing you’ve got five minutes and you should be warmed up. (Transcribed from third observed lesson)

Nina’s implementation of both SPA and Interpersonal Skill outcomes indicated her awareness

of both teacher centred approaches to teaching as well as student centred approaches. This

supports the judgements made regarding the teaching styles she uses and could be considered

to be evidence of her knowledge of instructional strategies that further verifies her PCK.


Nina chose the year seven class to participate in the project. The class consisted of 28

students. This was made up of 19 girls and 9 boys. The students were aged 11-12 years at the

time of the observed lessons.

Given the disparity of boys and girls, Nina was very aware of ensuring that the girls were

actively engaged in the PE lessons. In addition, she was also conscious of the highly skilled

boys in the class and she appeared to make a deliberate effort to ensure that these students

received feedback relevant to their ability levels. Some more able students appeared to be

frustrated when placed in a team with less able students. Nina was aware of this and again,

she provided prompts and feedback to those students to ensure that she was facilitating their

team skill development “No, (student name) you’re not playing zone defence at all. You’re

playing (student name) defence. Yeah, but this person should be going out there...It’s a team

game. No, (student name), it’s no point getting frustrated when you’ve got to talk to them, you

know what to do, so encourage them to come out.” (Transcribed from second observed

lesson).

All students demonstrated a positive and enthusiastic attitude towards the PE lessons. The

students were observed to be on task and motor appropriate for all timed observations.

However, researcher field notes indicate that on occasions, when students were sitting and

156

waiting for a turn to be substituted into the game of basketball, groups of girls were observed

to be chatting quietly amongst themselves rather than observing the game. This was difficult

for the teacher to monitor as she was involved in umpiring and providing feedback to the

students on the basketball court. However, when asked to take part, the girls were attentive

and focused on the basketball game. In a post lesson discussion, Nina commented that she

was aware that some of the girls would rather not take part in PE lessons and when she was

rotating students through an activity, she needed to ensure that all of the girls join in.

All students appeared to be interested and on task when Nina provided feedback and

instructions. The students appeared to value her opinion and knowledge of hockey and

basketball. They followed directions compliantly and needed little prompting to remain on

task. The students were quiet and generally focussed without frequent teacher prompting

whilst they waited to take part in the basket ball game. When hockey skills were introduced,

all students demonstrated a sound understanding and awareness of the need to handle the

hockey sticks in a safe manner (as evidenced in field notes).

From the lessons observed, it was clear that the students respected the teaching style and

expertise evident in Nina’s teaching. Furthermore, the compliant student behaviour could be

considered to have resulted in Nina being able to maximise teaching time and therefore

minimise time used to discipline and manage students.

4.5.4.1 Activity

Prior to the observed lessons, Nina selected four students (two boys and two girls) who were



157

Figure 4.5.4.1.2 Mean MVPA Comparison by Lesson

The students wearing the ActiGraph monitors were engaged in MVPA for as little as 21% of

total lesson time. This could be accounted for by the approach to teaching basketball that was

adopted by Nina. This resulted in only one basketball court being used and students rotating

between observing and participating in a basketball game. However, she did comment in the

post lesson self-evaluation of one lesson that it was not an accurate reflection of student

participation. Furthermore, when the activity data from all four lessons was examined (Figure

4.5.4.1.2), it can be concluded that MVPA only exceeded the overall mean in the first lesson.

Furthermore, MVPA was even lower than 21% on three of the observed lessons.

It would appear that the extensive corrective feedback and learning focussed instruction

provided by Nina actually inhibited opportunities for the students to be active at a MVPA level.

Whilst Nina’s PCK was evident in her provision of feedback, it would appear that she was yet to

achieve a suitable balance of instructions/feedback and opportunities for activity.

Furthermore, even though Nina indicated that participation by the girls was a goal for her PE

programme, it would seem that there was still a considerable disparity between the activity

levels of boys and girls. Perhaps this indicated that in the observed lessons, Nina was not

achieving this particular goal.

4.5.4.2 Enjoyment


students at Thomson Primary School. When comparing the results from Thomson Primary

School with the other participating schools, it appeared that the students at Thomson Primary

School were displaying one of the lowest levels of enjoyment of the five participating schools.

Mean Percentage of

MVPA

Lesson

158

It was important to note that although Thomson Primary School was ranked fourth (4.37 mean

PE enjoyment), the overall enjoyment scores for all schools were very high (mean PE

enjoyment of all schools = 4.58, range = 4.30 – 4.79). However, a chi-square analysis

confirmed that these results were not statistically significant 2 (4, N = 23) = .261, p<.992.

Possible explanations for the lower enjoyment results could be the skills focus in Nina’s

teaching, which according to researchers Greenwood, Parr and Oslin (1998) leads to bored

students.

It was possible to hypothesise some other conclusions when the transcribed voice data

gathered from the four observed lessons, was examined together with the enjoyment data.

Value feedback accounted for just 1.99% of total words spoken. Of all participating schools,

Nina provided the least value feedback (mean= 6.18% range = 1.99% - 13.47%). Analysis of the

data indicates that this was a statistically significant difference F(4,13) = 16.869, p < 0.05. This

could be considered surprising given that the students were observed to be compliant and

enthusiastic. In addition, the students at Thomson Primary School produced the lowest scores

for the enjoyment measure of ‘Teacher generated excitement’. A chi-square analysis of the

data confirms that this was a statistically significant difference 2 (4, N = 129) = 17.71, p < 0.05.

This measure of enjoyment refers to predictors of enjoyment associated with teacher

behaviour (Hashim, Grove & Whipp, 2007). Therefore, it could be postulated that although

Nina displayed many elements of PCK in her teaching, the lack of positive encouragement

could be contributing to the lower enjoyment scores produced by the students at Thomson

Primary School.

4.5.5 PE at Thomson Primary School

In interviews and discussions with Nina, it was clear that she felt a sense of conflict. This sense

of conflict existed between her desires and ability to meet mandatory minimum requirements

set in place by the Department of Education and the perceived importance placed on the

learning area by the school leaders and her colleagues.

4.5.5.1 Time Allocated to PE/Structured PA

The observed PE lessons were timetabled into a 40 minute lesson. On average, Nina

commenced and concluded her teaching in 35 minutes. The remaining five minutes could be

accounted for by time taken for the class to leave the classroom and move to the

basketball/hockey court. Although the school technically allocated 120 minutes to PE each

week, in reality from the interview, it would appear that the students do not actually have

159

access to 120 minutes of PE each week due to the lack of perceived support for the PE

programme. This was explained by Nina in the interview. Nina said that the success of her PE

programme was limited by the time allocated to teach PE. She felt that given more time, she

would be able to achieve more.

It’s time, I could teach them double the amount of PE if I had them double the amount of time. If you had a backup like a longer period time or if I saw them again during the week or if I knew that the classroom teacher was taking them out to play a game of basketball and they would go out and play a game of basketball. (Interview, p. 2)

From the lessons observed it can be concluded that the students were receiving approximately

35 minutes (from a 40 minute lesson) of quality PE instruction from Nina weekly. Whilst the

CPAC (2008) recommends 150 minutes, if Thomson Primary School were to utilise all

timetabled PE lessons and if teachers were willing to receive support and guidance from Nina,

they could potentially almost meet this recommendation. Of the five participating schools,

Thomson Primary School was a great deal closer to achieving this recommendation than any of

the five schools observed.

When the MVPA data was examined in combination with the total amount of time allocated to

PE each week at Thomson Primary School (120 minutes) some concerns arose. Whilst the

school had the potential to almost achieve the CPAC (2008) recommendation of 150 minutes

of quality PE each week, it would appear that they were far from reaching the second

recommendation of 60 minutes of MVPA daily (CPAC, 2008). From the observed lessons,

approximately 7 minutes of the lesson time was spent in MVPA. If this remained consistent

across all PE lessons, the students would only derive 21 minutes of MVPA of the recommended

150 minutes per week. Therefore, given that the school does not offer a school fitness

programme, the students would need to gather the remaining 129 minutes of MVPA from

before school, recess, lunchtime and after school physical activity.


Nina’s perception of school support concurs with the work of Macdonald (1995) who explored

the reasons Australian PE teachers leave the profession. Similarly to this study, Nina

confirmed that the lack of respect by the teaching and administrative staff at Thomson Primary

School have resulted in PE appearing to be considered to be a insignificant learning area. She

lacked support for the learning area from the classroom teachers and was concerned about

the use of PE time that should be conducted by the classroom teachers “On Friday’s they

rotate between ... a bullying programme, sport and drama. I kicked up a fuss about it because

160

they were supposed to have two hours. Anyway we will work through that” (Interview, p. 2).

Nina was aware that the students were meant to receive 120 minutes of PE instruction per

week and was concerned with the lack of commitment other staff members have shown to

achieving this.

In addition, she felt that it was difficult to discuss aspects of the PE programme with the

classroom teachers “I find that classroom teachers get really defensive as soon as I mention

sport about what they do with the children for PE. They just say ‘we just go out there’”

(Interview, p. 2). The lack of perceived collegiality between the generalist teachers and Nina

could have potentially led to diminished outcomes for the students.

Nina was concerned with the validity of the end of semester reports that were written for each

child. The school report allocated one tick on a continuum for health and physical education.

As Nina only taught PE and the classroom teacher teaches health, it could be difficult for both

teachers to ensure that the tick reflects the student’s progress in PE as well as health “Then

when it comes to reports, some teachers change the ticks that I give” (Interview, p. 2). As PE

was not allocated an assessment of its own in the report, Nina felt that her assessments and

judgements were somewhat ‘watered down’ when another teacher decided to change the

placement of the tick. This resulted in the PE learning area at Thomson Primary School

potentially being without an obvious means of reporting student progress to parents.


When interviewed, Nina detailed her feelings regarding the support she received for the PE

learning area and her programme. She detailed two influencing factors on her programming.

Carnivals

In the interview, Nina explained that much of her programming was determined by

forthcoming carnivals. For example “First term there was a volleyball carnival so we did

volleyball...Then basketball was for the carnival as well” (Interview, p.2). Whilst Nina feels that

it was important to prepare the students for the carnivals, she was also mindful of the skills of

the classroom teachers who take their class out for one PE lesson each week. This resulted in

Nina ensuring that she covered sports that the classroom teachers would not teach. For

example, “So I’m doing hockey because I wouldn’t expect the classroom teacher to do this

unless they were confident to go out and let the kids grab the sticks...There is a whole safety

thing” (Interview, p. 2).

161

Student Skills

Nina was aware of the skill level of her students. This was evident in discussions as well the

interview. Nina was motivated to ensuring that the students were exposed to a variety of

sports throughout the year that would prepare them for carnivals as well as expand their

repertoire of known skills. In discussions, Nina explained that her aim was to equip students

with the desire and necessary skills needed to participate in a variety of sports outside of

school. In the interview, Nina asserted “So what drives my programme is the sports that the

kids haven’t been exposed to” (Interview, P.2).

In summary, it would appear that Nina’s programming was highly motivated by her desire to

expose students to a variety of sports and ensure that they were equipped with the skills to

participate.


Thomson Primary School was the second highest ranked school by Socioeconomic status (SES)

participating in this project. Of all schools in the sector in WA, Thomson Primary School was

ranked 6th highest (D.E.E.W.R., 2008).

Figure 4.5.5.4.1 MVPA comparisons and SES rank of participating schools





Mean

Percentage

of MVPA

95 100 98 119 127

162

compared to students of low SES. With this in mind, it might be that students from high socio

economic backgrounds participate in more vigorous activity in PE lessons. When total MVPA

from all schools was compared by rank, Thomson Primary School (second highest socio

economic school in the project) recorded the lowest activity counts across the four observed

lessons (Figure 4.5.5.4.1). Therefore, these results do not concur with the literature reviewed

(Sallis, et al., 1996).

4.5.6 Conclusion

In conclusion, it could be argued that Nina was displaying evidence of many elements of rich

PCK. She demonstrated sound content knowledge and was able to provide extensive

corrective feedback specific to the sports of basketball as well as hockey. Furthermore, in the

observed lessons and through discussions, Nina exhibited a sense of enthusiasm and

commitment for the learning area.

The students at Thomson Primary School appeared to be particularly compliant and

enthusiastic. However, when compared to the other participating schools, the students at

Thomson Primary School enjoyed the PE programme and in particular Nina’s teaching less than

the other participating students. This could be attributed to many factors including; the

limited value feedback given to the students, the lack of physical activity experienced, the

approach to teaching basketball that saw many students sitting on the sidelines for much of

the lesson, the lack of support given to Nina by her colleagues and the effect this has on her

attitude towards teaching PE at Thomson Primary School and the students.

The activity data gathered from the observed lessons has raised some concerns. The students

at Thomson Primary School were the least active of all participating schools. They were

engaged in MVPA for as little as 21% of the total lesson time (7 minutes of the 35 minute

lesson). This presented the students with the considerable challenge of being engaged in

MVPA for the recommended 60 minutes per day. In the post lesson interview, Nina explained

that other PE lessons at the school tended to be used for other learning areas. These factors

could have resulted in considerable concern given that for some students the PE lesson with

Nina was the only PA these students engaged in (Trudeau & Shephard, 2005).

According to the recently released Charter for Active Kids Document (CPAC, 2008), it is the

responsibility of the school to:

Ensure that PE is fun

163

Advocate the importance of 150 minutes of quality PE each week

Empower school staff to be positive in offering quality PE

From the data gathered and the literature reviewed, it can be concluded that Thomson

Primary School could have done more to increase the opportunities for physical activity and PE

participation and enjoyment for their students.

Nina displayed rich PCK in her feedback, time allocation, teaching strategies and overall

teaching focus for attainment of skills and strategies necessary to participate in basketball and

hockey. However, she appeared to struggle to provide enough positive encouragement and

support to the students which possibly impacted on the student’s perceived enjoyment of the

PE programme. Additionally, Nina struggled to provide adequate opportunities for the

students to move at a moderate to vigorous intensity. From this, it can be concluded that Nina

was displaying elements of rich PCK, however there were aspects of her teaching that

displayed a need for further development of her PCK to ensure high enjoyment results and

greater MVPA opportunities.

Although Nina believed that she wouldn’t change her teaching if she was in a perfect setting, it

would appear that the lack of school support was impacting on her teaching. It could be

suggested that being a PE teacher in a primary school where the learning area was

undervalued by the teaching staff and school leaders would perhaps be alienating and lead to

a sense of dissatisfaction. Whilst Nina clearly described a sense of dissatisfaction, further

research would need to be carried out to determine the impact of this on the opportunities for

the student’s to attain outcomes.

164

4.6 SUMMARY OF CASE STUDIES OF A PRIMARY SCHOOL PE BALL SPORTS UNIT

This summary serves to objectively describe the data detailed in Appendices S, T and U. In

addition, it provides a concise review of the detailed data gathered from five female PE

teachers, their schools and the participating students.

4.6.1 The Teacher

4.6.1.1 Qualification and Experience

All teachers identified themselves as PE specialists. With the exception of Melanie (Geordie

Bay Primary School), all teachers held a specialisation qualification in PE. Emma (Salmon Bay

Primary School) was the youngest teacher, with three years experience. All other teachers had

9-10 years teaching experience.

4.6.1.2 Goals

All teachers other than Kate (Longreach Primary School) and Nina (Thomson Primary School)

demonstrated an awareness of short term goals in the observed lessons. After completing the

VOI-2 (Ennis & Chen, 1993), all teachers demonstrated a high priority for either of the content

domains; discipline mastery (Melanie – Geordie Bay Primary School, Sarah – Bathurst Primary

School, Emma – Salmon bay Primary School and Nina) or learning process (Kate). In the post

lesson interviews, all teachers demonstrated an awareness of broad goal setting in their

programming.

4.6.1.3 Dialogue

From the transcribed and coded data of teacher dialogue, Sarah (Bathurst Primary School)

(20.43% of total words spoken) and Nina (Thomson Primary School) (20.93% of total words

spoken) delivered more corrective feedback than the other teachers (mean of all study

participants = 15.37% of total words spoken). There was a significant difference in corrective

feedback given across the five schools F(4,13) = 3.745, p = <0.05. Emma (Salmon Bay Primary

School) provided considerably more value feedback than the other teachers (13.47% of total

words spoken, mean of all study participants = 6.18%), this was a statistically significant

difference F(4,13) = 16.869, p < 0.05. Kate (Longreach Primary School) delivered a great deal

more discipline feedback (8% of total words spoken, mean of all study participants = 2.38%),

this was a statistically significant difference 2(2, N = 44) = 27.86, p<.05). In addition, Kate

delivered more management focussed instructions when compared to the other teachers

(52.83% of total words spoken, mean of all study participants = 34.87%) this was a statistically

165

significant difference F(4,13) = 4.555, p = <0.05. All teachers delivered very little ambiguous

feedback (mean of all study participants = 0.34% of total words spoken) and neutral feedback

(mean of all study participants = 2.27% of total words spoken).

4.6.1.4 Teaching Style

Of Mosston and Ashworth’s (2002) spectrum of teaching styles, all teachers implemented the

practise style of teaching. Nina (Thomson Primary School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary School)

also employed the reciprocal and command styles of teaching.


The time allocated to PE lessons as well as the allocation of time within the lessons varied

between the participating schools (range = 27 – 47 minutes, mean of all study participants =

38.6 minutes). Melanie allocated the most lesson time to activity (52.99% of lesson time,

mean of all study participants = 47.68%), although this was not a significant difference F(4,13)

= 1.759, p = 0.19. Furthermore, Melanie allocated the least time to transition (11.63% of lesson

time, mean of all study participants = 14.76%) this was not statistically significant F(4,13) =

2.280, p = 0.12. The lessons at Geordie Bay Primary School were the shortest of all schools in

the project (27 minutes, mean of all study participants = 38.6 minutes), this was a statistically

significant difference F(4,13) = 9.007, p < 0.05. Conversely, Kate allocated the least amount of

lesson time to activity (39.86% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants = 47.68%)

and the most to transition (17.67% of total lesson time, mean of all study participants =

14.76%). Furthermore, Kate allocated more lesson time to the delivery of management and

instructions than the other teachers (41.41% of total lesson time, mean of all study

participants = 37.17%), although this was not a statistically significant difference F(4,13) =

1.139, p = 0.381.


All students were given opportunities to display learning at Curriculum Framework, HPE SPA

outcome level 2 (Curriculum Council, 1998). Further to this all students, other than Emma’s

(Salmon Bay Primary School) and Kate’s (Longreach Primary School) were presented with

opportunities to display level 3 outcomes.

166


4.6.2.1 Activity

From the activity data gathered when compared to the other participating students, Emma’s

students (Salmon Bay Primary School) moved more (mean activity counts = 507.98, mean of all

study participants = 423.61) this was a statistically significant difference 2(4, N = 8470) =

3623.83, p<.05. In addition, Emma’s students were involved in more activity of moderate to

vigorous intensity (MVPA) when compared to the other participating students (39.74% of total

lesson time, mean of all study participants = 32.16%). This was a statistically significant

difference 2(4, N = 8470) = 3812.51, p<.05. The most inactive students were taught by Nina

(Thomson Primary School) (MVPA = 21.07% of total lesson time).

4.6.2.2 Enjoyment

All schools displayed a high level of student enjoyment (mean PE enjoyment of all study

participants = 4.61) in the Student Enjoyment Questionnaire (Hashim, Grove & Whipp, 2007).

However as Appendix T details, Melanie’s students (Geordie Bay Primary School) displayed the

highest results in the enjoyment questionnaire on all but two measures (other referenced

competency and parental involvement). Kate’s students (Longreach Primary School) indicated

the lowest overall enjoyment for PE enjoyment, when compared to the other participating

schools. This was a statistically significant difference 2(4, N = 129) = 12.788, p<.0.12.

4.6.3 The School

4.6.3.1 Time allocated to PE/PA

The schools allocated at average of 126 minutes each week to PE and structured PA. Thomson

Primary School (Nina) provided the fewest opportunities for the students to take part in PE

and structured PA (60 minutes per week, mean of all study participants = 126 minutes).

Whereas the students at Geordie Bay Primary School (Melanie) were provided with 190

minutes of PE and structured PA each week. Although, the difference between the schools

was not statistically significant 2(4, N = 5) = 4, p = 0.406.


Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) both reported

perceptions of support from their school community. However, Nina (Thomson Primary

167

School), Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) and Kate (Longreach Primary School) all believed

that their school could provide more support to them and the PE learning area.

4.6.3.3 Programme Rationale

The student’s interest or skill influenced the content of Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School),

Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) and Nina’s (Thomson Primary School) programmes.

Preparation for forthcoming carnivals influenced the programme content of Kate (Longreach

Primary School), Sarah and Nina’s programmes.

4.6.3.4 SES

Bathurst Primary School (Sarah) and Thomson Primary School (Nina) were in the top five

schools within the sector when ranked by socioeconomic status. Geordie Bay Primary School

(Melanie) was the lowest ranked school in the project.

168

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION – PCK and Primary PE Outcomes

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This discussion chapter serves to summarise the results, make comparisons with relevant

literature and finally draw conclusions. The discussion is structured in response to the

research questions.

1. How was Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework for PCK evidenced in the primary


a. Which elements of Grossman ‘s (1990) theoretical framework did relate to PCK

in the primary school PE ball sports unit?

b. Which elements of Grossman ‘s (1990) theoretical framework did not relate to

PCK in the primary school PE ball sports unit?

2. What is the relationship between PCK and the school?

The data permits a very detailed analysis of the PE classes and student outcomes. This has

enabled summaries to be made and conclusions to be drawn.

All lessons observed were taught by self-declared female PE specialists (responsible for the

planning, teaching and assessing of PE in Primary Schools) from a non-government sector of

education in metropolitan Western Australia. For purposes of consistency, the five teachers

were asked to present lessons from a ball sports programme. This could be considered to be a

limitation of the study. However, there was no guidance or requirement placed on the style of

lesson or ball sport focus. Whilst comprehensive data were gathered from these teachers and

their students, the sample size could be considered to be a limitation of the project as these

teachers may not represent all primary PE teachers in the metropolitan area of WA.

All of the teachers chose to structure all of their lessons with traditional PE lesson framework

of warm up, skill demonstration, practise and games. All teachers demonstrated a discipline

mastery focus in their teaching. An affective focus, such as that of the social responsibility

domain, was not explicitly evident in any of the lessons observed. Therefore, all of the PE

lessons observed were fundamentally underpinned by a skills-focus.

Descriptive case studies were used through the evaluation of consistencies and anomalies to

bring a rich understanding to the PE classes and the influences on them.

169

5.2 HOW WAS GROSSMAN’S (1990) THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR PCK EVIDENCED IN THE

FIELD?

An extensive literature review has failed to clarify observable behaviours that explicitly define

or represent a teacher’s level of PCK. However, it has been described by Mellado, Blanco and

Ruiz (1998) as the knowledge of how to teach specific content in specific contexts, a form of

knowledge in action. It has been proposed that both the teachers’ pedagogical knowledge

(what they know about teaching) and teachers’ subject matter knowledge (what they know

about what they teach) are crucial to developing students’ understanding of the content and

quality teaching practices (Appleton & Harrison, 2001; Buchmann & Schwille, 1983; Buchmann,

1984).

When examining teaching for evidence of PCK, teaching behaviours should not be examined in

isolation, instead they should be considered as part of the ecological teaching situation

(Gusthardt & Sprigings, 1989). Therefore many observable, practical elements of PE teaching

have been examined for evidence and variations of PCK. The overarching aim of this was to

substantiate an association with PCK and student outcomes.

In 1990, Grossman developed a theoretical framework of PCK. She established four elements

of PCK. In this research project, evidence and variations of PCK were considered using a

variety of data from the teachers, students and researchers observations. These data have

been mapped with Grossman’s four elements of PCK (see Appendix A).

Given that PCK is difficult to define, rigorous and comprehensive data were needed to

substantiate judgements made regarding the extent to which it was present in a teacher’s

teaching practice. During interviews and discussions, the participating teachers responded to

the questions “How comfortable were you teaching (name of sport)?” and “How would you

rate your expertise?” The response to the second question was quantified (using a scale of

one to ten). In addition to the teachers’ opinions of their teaching ability, data were gathered

from the observed PE lessons by an expert observer and clarified by an experienced

researcher. A combination of quantitative and qualitative data collection methods were used

to evidence the extent to which a teacher was displaying elements of PCK in her teaching.

Appendix A details the relationship between Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework, the

practical elements of PCK, the criteria of teacher and student behaviours observed in the PE

lessons as well as the data collection methods used.

170

The combination of the data gathered from the teacher, students and researchers facilitated

judgements regarding the extent to which a teacher displayed evidence of PCK in her teaching.

All of the teachers confirmed that they felt comfortable teaching the majority of the ball sports

observed. However, during semi-structured interviews some felt that comfort levels would

improve with additional professional development, time, space and perceived school support.

Four teachers rated their level of comfort teaching the observed lessons ranging from 6 – 10,

with 10 being most comfortable. One exception, Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) who

changed ball sports from AFL to netball during the period of lesson observations. Emma rated

her level of comfort as ‘10’ when teaching AFL, however she was ‘not at all’ comfortable

teaching netball.

5.2.1 Which Teacher Behaviours Were Observed?

As figure 5.2.1.1 illustrates, many teacher behaviours contributed to evidence of more than

one factor of Grossman’s (1990) framework. The author acknowledges that figure 5.2.1.1

represents elements of PCK, they were also influenced by student attitudes and values. The

data regarding teacher behaviours were gathered via the use of timed observations,

transcription and analysis of teacher dialogue as well as interviews. The detailed data

collected enabled an informed expert judgement to be made regarding the extent to which

each teacher displayed PCK in her teaching.

171

Figure 5.2.1.1 Teacher Behaviours Linked to Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical Framework

Knowledge and Beliefs

about the Purpose of

Teaching

Knowledge of Student's

Understanding of

Subject Matter

Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical

Components of PCK

Practical Elements of PCK

(Teacher Behaviours)

Teacher Goals

Teacher Goals

Teacher Dialogue: Instructions & Feedback

Lesson Time Allocation

Student Outcomes

Activity

Enjoyment

Knowledge of

Curriculum Content

Opportunities for students

to display learning

Teacher Qualifications & Experience

Teacher Goals


Knowledge of Instructional Strategies


to display learning

Teaching Styles



172

5.2.1.1 Teacher Qualification and Experience

Grossman (1990) identified “knowledge of curriculum content” as the third aspect of her

theoretical framework for PCK. Data gathered regarding teacher qualifications and experience

could potentially provide evidence of curriculum content as it could be assumed that greater

experience and higher levels of related qualifications could be correlated with stronger levels

of PCK.

All participating teachers identified themselves as PE specialists, however they possessed a

variety of qualifications. Four of the five teachers held a specialisation qualification in PE (Nina

- Thomson Primary School, Sarah - Bathurst Primary School, Emma - Salmon Bay Primary

School and Kate - Longreach Primary School). These teachers completed units/courses under

university guidelines to declare a specialisation qualification in PE. One teacher held a general

primary school qualification of a Bachelor of Education (Melanie - Geordie Bay Primary School).

There did not appear to be an observable relationship between experience and evidence of

PCK. It was Melanie who displayed evidence of the highest level of PCK. Melanie allocated the

most time to opportunities for the students to be active. In addition, she delivered the fewest

management instructions and most learning instructions. In other words, she appeared to be

able to maximise the amount of information she gave to the students whilst maximising their

opportunities for activity and further learning. Furthermore, the students in her class achieved

the highest scores on almost all measures of enjoyment in the student questionnaire. These

data suggest that teacher qualifications do not appear to consistently impact on PCK or

student outcomes.

The participating teachers possessed an average of 8.4 years of PE teaching experience. Emma

(Salmon Bay Primary School) (the least experienced and youngest teacher), having three years

experience and all other teachers possessed around 10 years experience. Curtner-Smith and

Meek (2000) have established that teacher beliefs form during the first ten years of teaching.

From this, it could be assumed that the beliefs of the teachers’ in this study with around 10

years experience were consolidated.

5.2.1.2 Goals

Evidence of broad and narrow goal setting clearly provided data to substantiate the first,

second and third elements of Grossman’s theoretical framework:

1. Knowledge and beliefs about the purpose of teaching

173

2. Knowledge of students’ understanding of subject matter


The participating teachers displayed varying evidence of goal setting in their planning and

teaching. Overall, there was more evidence of broad goal setting than narrow, however for

some teachers, both forms of goal setting appeared to be somewhat tenuous.

Narrow Goals

Evidence of short term goals appeared to correlate with teachers who displayed PCK or

effective teaching. For example, Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) and Sarah (Bathurst

Primary School) clearly communicated the goal for the lesson at the commencement of the PE

lesson. It was simply stated by Melanie, “Today we are going to concentrate on some tackling.

A very important part of the game” (Transcribed from third observed lesson). By doing this,

the teacher demonstrated an awareness of her knowledge of curriculum content and the skill

level of the students. The students then immediately gained an understanding of what was

going to happen in the lesson. However, there was no evidence of similar goal setting in Nina

(Thomson Primary School) or Kate’s (Longreach Primary School) lessons. Evidence of Emma’s

(Salmon Bay Primary School) short term goal setting was limited to simply outlining the focus

sport of the lesson “For today you are playing a full length game” (Transcribed form third

observed lesson). Whilst this did inform the students, it did not detail any skill expectation or

reason for the lesson focus.

Broad Goals

All teachers displayed an awareness of broad goals in the interviews. However, the basis for

these goals differed widely amongst the teachers. Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School), Kate

(Longreach Primary School), Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) and Nina (Thomson Primary

School) all explained that their long term goals were focussed on meeting the needs and

interests of individuals and groups through preparation for carnivals and exposure to a variety

of sports. On the other hand, Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) explained that the

foundations for her programme were based on a rotational programme that was devised

before she commenced teaching at the school.

Value Orientations – Broad Goals for Student Learning

When the teacher’s Value Orientation (VO) profile was examined as evidence of their

beliefs about the purpose of teaching PE, it can be concluded that four of the teachers

174

taught consistently with elements of their VO profile. Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary

School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) taught consistently with their sole high

priority for discipline mastery. Both teachers presented skills focussed lessons. Nina

(Thomson Primary School) indicated a high priority for discipline mastery in the Value

Orientation Inventory-2 (VOI-2) (Ennis & Chen, 1993). Like Melanie and Sarah, she

taught with a clear teacher centred, skills focus. She used extensive corrective

feedback, demonstration and skills practise as a means of providing the students with

opportunities to develop skills. However, Nina (Thomson Primary School) also

revealed a high priority for the social responsibility domain in the VOI-2. It can be

concluded that this was only a minor element of Nina’s teaching. Emma (Salmon Bay

Primary School) revealed the same VO profile as Nina as a result of completing the

VOI-2. She indicated a high priority for discipline mastery as well as social

responsibility. It can be concluded that neither of these domains were a strong focus

of her teaching. She taught with a skills focus, yet delivered only limited corrective

feedback, indicating a weak form of discipline mastery. Furthermore, social

responsibility was also not a strong focus of her teaching. She indicated a desire to

include girls, yet teamwork and social skills were not an explicit focus of her teaching.

Kate’s (Longreach Primary School) profile as a result of completing the VOI-2 indicated

a high priority for the learning process domain. A focus on movement and fitness as

evidence of the learning process domain was not apparent in her teaching. There

appeared to be a lack of a skills focus of any sort in her teaching. This was evidenced

by the lack of feedback, learning instructions and demonstrations. Therefore, it was

clear that Kate was not teaching consistently with her VO profile.

All teachers clearly presented high priorities for various domains as evidenced by the

VOI-2 profiles. These profiles varied from skills to affective focussed, including

combinations of the two. However, when their teaching was observed, it appeared

that a discipline mastery focus clearly overshadowed all other domains. It can be

concluded that Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary

School) were teaching consistently with their VO profile. Nina (Thomson Primary

School) was teaching consistently with the discipline mastery domain, but only

displayed a very limited teaching focus on the social responsibility domain. Emma

(Salmon Bay Primary School) was merely presenting elements of the discipline mastery

and social responsibility domains. Kate (Longreach Primary School) was not teaching

consistently with the learning process domain.

175

Summary - Goals

Some teachers (Melanie - Geordie Bay Primary School and Sarah - Bathurst Primary School)

displayed an awareness of the need to set and communicate both broad and narrow goals. In

doing so, they demonstrated their knowledge and understanding of the first three elements of

Grossman’s theoretical framework. In addition, this was consistent with the work of Ashton

(1984) who established that effective teachers plan for student learning, set goals for their

students and identify strategies to achieve them. As well as this, they treated the students as

partners in working towards achieving the goals. However, if Nina (Thomson Primary School),

Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) and Kate (Longreach Primary School) developed their

pedagogical skills they may have developed an awareness of the need to set and communicate

such goals. It would be interesting to determine, through additional research, if Nina, Kate and

Emma further developed their PCK if they subsequently enhanced overt goals setting

behaviours. From this analysis, it can be concluded that setting broad and narrow goals

appears to be an attribute of a teacher with rich PCK. However, in this project, there was

generally limited evidence of teachers setting and communicating goals (Ashton, 1984) that

were congruent with their teaching practice (James, Griffin & Dodds, 2008). From this, it can

be established that perhaps Grossman’s (1990) first element of PCK “Knowledge and beliefs

about the purposes for teaching” were somewhat vague for at least three of the participating

teachers. A possible outcome of this could be a lack of explicit opportunity for student

outcome attainment due to the teachers’ lack of explicit goals for student learning. This was

evidenced in Emma and Kate’s teaching. Perhaps if these teachers’ had clearer goals for what

they wanted their students to learn, they would be able to provide more comprehensive

opportunities for students to learn.

5.2.1.3 Teacher Dialogue

On average, the teachers were delivering instructions to the students for 37.17% of the lesson

time and 73.46% of all words spoken. The teachers spoke an average of 94 words per minute

throughout the lessons. This rate was well below the average rate of speech of 150 - 190

words per minute (Richards, 1983). However, PE is intended to be an active learning time for

the students. Given that activity should be maximised in PE, it was concerning that the

observed teachers allocated so much of the lesson time to delivering instructions whilst the

students sat/stood and listened. Siedentop and Tannehill (2000) have explained that

instructions should only take as much time as is necessary to ensure effective communication.

It could be inferred from this that these teachers were not delivering instructions in the most

176

effective manner possible if they were accounting for 37.17% of the lesson time. Whilst these

rates of speech appear to be high, it was difficult to compare as rates of speech have not been

quantified in previous relevant studies.

Instructions

Evidence of the instructions delivered to the students clearly provided data to substantiate the

second, third and fourth elements of Grossman’s theoretical framework:

1. Knowledge of student’s understanding of subject matter


3. Knowledge of instructional strategies

Teachers who appeared to display evidence of high levels of PCK, all delivered clear, succinct

and relevant instructions to the students. Prior to the delivery of the instruction, they gained

the attention of the students. The time taken to deliver the instruction was minimised and

opportunities for student understanding were maximised through the use of teacher and

student demonstrations as well as questioning to check of understanding. The content of the

instructions focussed on the needs and interests identified as well as building on skills and

strategies previously taught. The outcome of this effective method of instruction delivery was

the student actions at the end of the instruction. These students identified what they needed

to be doing and in their own skill practise, demonstrated an awareness of the skill or strategy

that was the focus of the instruction.

Verbal instructions accounted for approximately three-quarters of total words spoken (mean

of all study participants = 73.46%, range=71.53 - 74.86). Instructions were categorised as

either learning (mean of all study participants = 38.59% of total words spoken) (directly

associated with skills, strategies and rules) or management (mean of all study participants =

34.87% of total words spoken) (class business not related to instruction). Figure 5.2.1.3.1

illustrates the percentage of learning instruction delivered by each participating teacher.

Whilst average percentage of the lesson time assigned to instructions was high (mean of all

study participants = 37.17% of total lesson time), all but Kate (Longreach Primary School)

delivered more learning than management instructions. This should not be viewed as a

positive feature of the four teachers lessons, but rather a particularly concerning element of

Kate’s lessons (management=52.83% learning= 21.06%). She also allocated the least amount

of lesson time to activity (39.86% of total lesson time) and it was interesting to note that the

students displayed the lowest levels of PE enjoyment and teacher generated enjoyment of all

177

students in the project (mean PE enjoyment at Longreach Primary School= 4.3, mean PE

enjoyment for all study participants = 4.61). Furthermore, it was not surprising to observe

that these students were given limited opportunities to display Curriculum Framework SPA

above level 2. From the data gathered, it could be concluded that the instructions given by

this teacher highlight the impact of PCK on student outcomes.

Figure 5.2.1.3.1 Mean Percentage of Learning Instructions (of total words spoken) by School

Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School), Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) and Nina (Thomson

Primary School) were observed delivering instructions that focussed on a particular skill, rule

or strategy. Their instructions were aimed at the needs previously identified and delivered in a

manner that displayed an awareness of the readiness of the students. This concurs with the

work of Gusthardt and Sprigings (1989) who have established that when teachers explain what

students were expected to learn and demonstrate the steps needed, the students learn more.

These teachers ensured that they had the attention of the students, before they delivered the

instructions. For example, “And stop, come in over here quickly. Sit down... Alright, pay

attention carefully. If I send you over there, you’re going to play the catching game....”

(Transcribed from second observed lesson, Sarah, Bathurst Primary School). They also

enhanced the value of the instructions and further engaged the students by providing either

student or teacher demonstration and using the demonstration as a key teaching opportunity.

This was evident in the second observed lesson at Geordie Primary School.

School (Teacher)

Percentage of learning instructions

178

Working in partners, you are going to practise kicking your goals. One from the ground

and two from a volley. Stuart, if you would like to stand up and pop yourself over

there. Stuart is going to try and kick a goal and he’s going to be aiming out that way so

he’s not going to hit anyone else. I’m going to roll him the ball to start with just down

in front and then he’s going to kick to with his preferred foot. And that will be a goal

because it’s straight through the middle of the markers, our imaginary markers, that’s

fine. Stuart’s off to go and get that, fantastic. OK Ethan, standing up. Now this one

may be just a little bit trickier, that’s why Stuart has joined the back of the group there.

Hold onto the ball for me. Now this one is a volley that means the ball is coming in

through the air, ok....OK try and kick for goal Ethan. There we go, very good. All right.

So that’s your two types of kicking for goal today.

(Transcribed from second observed lesson, Melanie, Geordie Bay Primary School)

In addition, these teachers checked for understanding via the use of questioning prior to

concluding the instruction.

If you see somebody bounce, bounce catch, bounce, bounce – what’s that? Double

dribble (student). If you see somebody with the ball going like la de da de da – what’s

that? Travel (student). When you were attacking what did you have to keep

remembering? Three passes (student). Yeah, which in a game doesn’t need to be that I

just wanted you to pass it around to try and stop that one person going bounce,

bounce shoot all the time.

(Transcribed from first observed lesson, Nina, Thomson Primary School)

Whilst these teachers delivered a relatively large quantity of learning instructions (mean of all

study participants = 38.59% of total lesson time, range= 27.99% – 52.83%) (Figure 5.2.1.3.1),

the PCK observed in the delivery of the instructions ensured that on most occasions, the

instructions clearly enhanced the learning opportunities for the students. This was evidenced

by the students making an obvious effort to modify their performance to reflect the learning

instructions given by the teacher (video footage from third observed lesson, Geordie Primary

School). From the data gathered from Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School), Sarah (Bathurst

Primary School) and Nina (Thomson Primary School) it could be concluded that their teaching

behaviour was consistent with the work of Rink and Hall (2008) who have explained that

successful instruction targets the positive behaviours the teacher wishes to develop and rather

than assuming that learning will be an automatic outcome of the lesson. Furthermore,

consistent with the work of Grossman (1990), through their delivery of instructions, these

teachers utilised a variety of instructional strategies to clearly demonstrate their

understanding of the students’ abilities and the curriculum content.

179

Feedback

Evidence of teacher feedback clearly provided data to substantiate the second, third and

fourth elements of Grossman’s theoretical framework:




Teachers that provided extensive corrective feedback were able to demonstrate their

understanding of the cognitive, physical and emotional needs of the students which led to

increased opportunities for student outcomes. To provide corrective feedback, the teacher

needed to possess the necessary subject specific knowledge of the sport skill and combine this

with their pedagogical knowledge to enable a student to modify a behaviour in order to

acquire or develop a skill or technique.

Of the five teachers observed, feedback accounted for approximately one quarter of the total

words spoken (mean of all study participants = 26.38%, range= 25.14 – 28.07). The feedback

given was categorised as either corrective, value, discipline, neutral or ambiguous. It was the

teachers’ use of corrective and value feedback that appeared to be most indicative of higher

levels of PCK (Figure 5.2.1.3.2). Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School), Nina (Thomson Primary

School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) further demonstrated their higher level of PCK by

identifying errors and providing corrective feedback that was presented in a manner that

displayed an awareness of the cognitive, physical and emotional maturity of the students. In

addition, when providing corrective feedback, these teachers also displayed an understanding

of how children learn. For example:

Over there Ok, I shouldn’t see all five team members here because once the balls gone

they can just lob it into the keyway. Ok, think about positioning. Pass it in. That’s the

way. Push it up. Ok, down and set up. (Transcribed from second observed lesson,

Nina, Thomson Primary School)

These teachers also provided value feedback where necessary, however there was

considerably more verbal dialogue allocated to corrective feedback than value feedback. On

average, these three teachers delivered 19.01% of corrective feedback and 4.07% of value

feedback. The data collected from these three teachers concurs with the work of Silverman

and Ennis (1996) who have explained that feedback is capable of improving learning if the

180

feedback is assuring, motivating and results in the student making changes to what they are

doing.

Figure 5.2.1.3.2 Percentage of Corrective Feedback of Total Words Spoken

The feedback data from Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) and Kate’s (Longreach Primary

School) lessons supports previous judgements made regarding their lower levels of PCK. To

provide feedback, a teacher needs to be able to identify the error, as well as how to fix it and

then communicate this to the student in an assuring and motivating manner (Silverman &

Ennis, 1996). It would appear that corrective feedback was another example of Emma and

Kate’s lack of either pedagogical knowledge and/or content knowledge. In Emma’s case, from

discussions, she obviously possessed the content knowledge from her personal experience

participating in AFL. However, she lacked pedagogical knowledge and therefore struggled to

impart her knowledge on to the students. For example, corrective feedback given throughout

the game section of the first observed lesson, consisted of comments such as “go and defend”

without actually giving the student feedback to detail how she should defend. The limited

corrective feedback provided to the students (mean corrective feedback at Salmon Bay

Primary School = 10.40% of total words spoken, mean of all study participants = 15.37%)

further reduced opportunities for students to acquire and develop the necessary skills, rules

and strategies. The majority of feedback delivered by Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) was

value feedback (13.47% of total words spoken). For example, “Good mark (Girl’s name). Nice

kick, (Girl’s name). Yeah, (Girl’s name). Good girl (Girl’s name). Well done (Boy’s name)”

(Transcribed from second observed lesson, Emma, Salmon Primary School). Kate appeared to

School (Teacher)

Percentage of corrective

feedback

181

lack the necessary content knowledge for AFL. This prevented her from providing adequate

corrective feedback (9.12% of total words spoken), which could be considered to diminish her

profile as an expert in the sport. This could possibly contribute to the comparatively large

amount of discipline feedback (8% of total words spoken) and management instructions

(52.83% of total words spoken) that Kate delivered in her lessons.

The amount of corrective feedback delivered to the students did not appear to correlate with

the student enjoyment data. There was an absence of a consistent relationship with PE

enjoyment, teacher generated enjoyment and the amount of corrective feedback given. The

exception to this was Kate (Longreach Primary School), who delivered considerably less

corrective feedback than the other teachers, however her students from Longreach Primary

School indicated the lowest PE enjoyment and teacher generated enjoyment. Whilst Kate

delivered limited corrective feedback to the students, it would appear that this wasonly one

contributing factor leading to the lower enjoyment scores of the students at Longreach

Primary School. The data concerning the corrective feedback given by the teachers further

supports the students’ positive feelings towards a teacher centred approach to teach PE. In

other words, frequent use of corrective feedback has not appeared to impact on the PE or

teacher generated enjoyment of students participating in this project.

In summary, it would appear that those with evidence of higher levels of PCK provided the

most feedback. Teachers with evidence of higher levels of PCK were able to identify and

correct errors as well assist students to correct the errors since they have an understanding of

the students understanding of the sport as well as the curriculum content instructional

strategies. Teachers that provided frequent corrective feedback supported their students to

acquire and develop skills and strategies, which in turn increased their opportunities to

perform at higher outcome levels. The enjoyment data indicated that these students enjoy

the PE programme presented by their teacher. It could be speculated that these students

admired their teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge which may have contributed to

the absence of management issues with their students. Conversely, teachers who lacked

pedagogical knowledge appeared to struggle to convert content knowledge in order to assist

students by providing corrective feedback. It would appear that these students had reduced

opportunities to acquire the necessary skills and strategies to perform at higher outcome

levels. Furthermore, when the teacher lacks content knowledge, it could be suggested that

this impacted on student behaviour as the students appeared to have diminished respect for

the teacher, leading to management issues and further reduced opportunities for the students

to achieve outcomes. Therefore, the combination of content knowledge as well as

182

pedagogical knowledge enabled a teacher to provide relevant corrective feedback, which in

turn increased the students’ opportunities to achieve curriculum framework outcomes,

particularly those for skills and physical activity. However, a larger number of observations of

a greater number of teachers need to be carried out in order to clarify the relationship

between student enjoyment and PCK.

Summary – Teacher Dialogue


Primary School) demonstrated their understanding of the students’ abilities and the

curriculum content through their delivery of instructions and feedback. They were able to

convey instructions that focused on a particular skill, rule or strategy. They used teacher and

student demonstrations to illustrate their instructions. Prior to students commencing an

activity, these teachers used questioning to check for understanding. The logical outcome of

this was the students were given greater opportunities to display their learning at a higher

level than the students in Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) and Kate’s (Longreach Primary

School) classes.


Data gathered regarding teaching styles, clearly provided evidence of Grossman’s (1990)

fourth element of the theoretical framework “Knowledge of instructional strategies”.

All teaching was observed for Mosston and Ashworth’s spectrum of teaching styles (2002). Of

the lessons observed, the practise style of teaching predominated. Nina (Thomson Primary

School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) were the only two teachers to employ styles in

addition to the practise style (command and reciprocal styles). The command style accounted

for 0.48% of Nina’s total teaching time across four observed lessons and 3.42% of Sarah’s

(Bathurst Primary School) total teaching time across three observed lessons. The reciprocal

style explained 2.23% of Nina’s total teaching time and 2.28% of Sarah’s total teaching time.

The remainder of time was allocated to the practise style of teaching (97.29% of Sarah’s

teaching and 94.3% of Nina’s teaching). Therefore, given the limited variety teaching styles

observed, the researcher was unable to analyse the relationship between teaching styles and

evidence and variations of PCK.

The teachers appeared, through action, to reject the recommendation of student-centred

approaches that are seen to promote cognitive processes as well as being more inclusive,

enjoyable such as that of guided discovery (Light & Georgakis, 2007, Siedentop, et al., 1984).

183

That is, all of the teachers maintained a teacher centred approach throughout the lessons,

with the exception of the reciprocal style being implemented in one of each of Nina (Thomson

Primary School) and Sarah’s (Bathurst Primary School) lessons for a period of three minutes.

In addition, not only were the teachers observed to display predominantly teacher centred

styles, but they also displayed a very limited range of teaching styles. According to

researcher’s Cothran and Kulinna (2006), it is important for teachers to implement multiple

teaching styles in order to appeal to as many students as possible. For example, researcher’s

Bevans, et al. (2010) have established the benefits of using skill focussed teaching styles with

students with low perceived competence, whilst students with high perceived competence see

little benefit in skill practice. It could then be inferred that by increasing the range of teaching

styles used, a teacher would be providing greater opportunities for student outcome

attainment in the areas of enjoyment and learning. Whilst overall enjoyment results were high

in this project, there was ample scope for most teachers to provide greater opportunities for

students to display learning outcomes.

It was therefore interesting to note that whilst all students experienced exceptionally teacher

centred styles of teaching, the data gathered regarding student enjoyment does not reflect the

opinions of others. Given that the students in this project appeared to enjoy the teacher

centred style of teaching employed (mean PE enjoyment 4.61/5.0), there was little scope for

further enhanced levels of enjoyment from the use of student centred teaching styles.


Data gathered to illustrate the allocation of lesson time contributed evidence to two of

Grossman’s (1990) elements of the theoretical framework:



As Figure 5.2.1.5.1 illustrates, all teachers, except Kate (Longreach Primary School) allocated

more lesson time to activity that transition or management and instructions.

184

Figure 5.2.1.5.1 Percentage of Lesson Time Allocated, by School

Use of lesson time, further highlighted evidence of PCK. Pedagogical Content Knowledge was

seen when teachers maximised activity, whilst minimising, management and transition. Four

teachers (Melanie - Geordie Bay Primary School, Sarah - Bathurst Primary School, Nina -

Thomson Primary School and Emma - Salmon Bay Primary School) allocated more than 40% of

the lesson time to activity. It would appear that once again, Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary

School) achieved the closest to optimum results when compared to the other participating

teachers (Figure 5.2.1.5.1). She allocated the highest percentage of lesson time for activity

(52.99% of total lesson time) and the least to transition (11.63% of total lesson time). When

the management and instruction data was examined further (Figure 5.2.1.5.2), it appeared

that she delivered considerably more instructions focussed on learning (46.87% of total words

spoken) than management (27.99% of total words spoken). The data gathered from Melanie’s

teaching clearly indicated that she was providing the students with the greatest opportunity

for attainment of student outcomes (Placek & Randall, 1986). Nina (Thomson Primary School)

also achieved similarly positive results, however she actually delivered fewer learning-based

instructions (41.75% of total words spoken) and a greater quantity of management focused

instructions (32.06% of total words spoken) when compared to Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary

School) (Figure 5.2.3.5.2). From figure 5.2.1.5.1 it would appear that Emma (Salmon Bay

School (Teacher)

Percentage of lesson

time allocated

185

Primary School) achieved similar results to Melanie and Nina. However, a closer analysis of

Emma’s results, confirmed she was actually delivering more management instructions (33.25%

of total words spoken) and fewer learning instructions (38.28% of total words spoken) than the

other two teachers (Figure 5.2.1.5.2).

Figure 5.2.1.5.2 Percentage of Learning and Management Instruction Delivered

Kate (Longreach Primary School) achieved the lowest percentage of lesson time allocated to

activity (39.86% of total lesson time), combined with the highest percentage of lesson time

allocated to transition (17.67% of total lesson time). Moreover, she delivered considerably

more management focused instructions (52.83% of total words spoken) and fewer learning

focused instructions (21.06% of total words spoken) when compared to all other participating

teachers. Therefore, the students in her class were provided with less time to practise and

develop skills. In addition, they were given fewer learning instructions to acquire skills and

they spent more time moving between activities and organising students and equipment than

other students in the project. The possible outcome from this was that these students had

fewer opportunities to achieve the student outcomes of skills, activity and possibly enjoyment.

Percentage of

Instructions Delivered

School (Teacher)

186


It can be surmised that the impact of lesson time allocation on PCK lies in the minimisation of

transition and management instructions, coupled with maximising opportunities for activity

and learning instructions. To achieve this, teachers needed to have a strong understanding of

the students’ abilities as well as extensive knowledge of instructional strategies. This has

clearly been achieved by Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) and lesser so by Nina

(Thomson Primary School). It would appear that Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School), Kate

(Longreach Primary School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) were least prepared to teach

the lesson content.


Evidence of opportunities for students to display learning was gained from observations of the

implementation of the Curriculum Framework, Health and Physical Education learning area

outcomes (Curriculum Council, 1998). However of the five defined strands, the vast majority

of teaching focussed on skills for Physical Activity (SPA). Explicit teaching focussing on

Interpersonal Skills was observed on occasions in Nina (Thomson Primary School) and Sarah’s

(Bathurst Primary School) lessons, however there was an absence of evidence of a teaching

focus on the affective outcomes of; Self-Management Skills, Knowledge and Understanding as

well as Attitudes and Values.

All teachers provided opportunities for students to perform at SPA level 2 (Table 5.2.1.6.1).

However once again, it was the teachers with evidence of higher levels of PCK who were able

to provide opportunities for higher level attainment. In addition, in the lessons of Melanie

(Geordie Bay Primary School), Nina (Thomson Primary School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary

School), who displayed higher levels of PCK, it was noted that most students displayed aspects

of level 3 attainment at various stages throughout the lessons (Table 5.2.1.6.1). This could be

explained by the corrective feedback provided to the students and effective delivery of

instructions that displayed an awareness of the developmental needs of the students. In some

lessons, students who were identified by the teacher to be of ‘average skill and participation’

were observed to display accomplishment of SPA level 3.

187

Table 5.2.1.6.1

Opportunities Provided for Curriculum Framework HPE Outcomes

Opportunities Provided for Curriculum Framework HPE Outcomes

School Teacher Level 2 Level 3

Geordie Bay Primary School Melanie Longreach Primary School Kate

Bathurst Primary School Sarah Salmon Bay Primary School Emma

Thomson Primary School Nina

Conversely, in Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) and Kate’s (Longreach Primary School)

lessons, almost all students displayed level 2 behaviours and a small number of students

displayed level 3 skills. This could be reflective of the lack of corrective feedback given. In

other words, the students were not given the instruction and feedback to improve

performance because the teacher did not possess knowledge of the sport specific skills and/or

teaching skills necessary to identify and correct errors with the aim of improving skills,

performance and strategies.

Researchers have outlined the importance of the primary school PE environment in equipping

children with the essential fundamental movement skills necessary for participation in future

PA (Maeda & Murata, 2004; Morgan, 2005). This research further highlights the importance of

the teacher’s PCK. Furthermore, Bouffard, et al., (1996) established that children with poor

skills were found to be less active and spent less time in social interactions with their peers.

The data gathered in this project confirms that teachers with high levels of PCK were able to

facilitate opportunities for higher SPA student outcome attainment than teachers with

relatively lower levels of PCK. The possible conclusion of this was that students with higher

level skills are going to be more likely to derive a sense of success and enjoyment from PA

which will hopefully lead to a lifetime commitment to PA. The teacher and their level of PCK

play an important role in motivating students and facilitating PE and PA enjoyment.

When the SPA focus is examined alongside the results from the student enjoyment

questionnaire (Hashim, Grove & Whipp, 2007), it can be concluded that despite the contrary

results from other studies (Allen 1986; Cothran & Ennis, 1998), these students appear to enjoy

the teacher centred/skills focus approach. However, it is difficult to determine the student’s

perceptions of affective teaching outcomes, when they haven’t been presented with this as a

content or teaching focus. Despite the positive results from the student enjoyment

188

questionnaire, it is concerning that these students are not being provided with overt teaching

and learning opportunities to develop; team work skills, knowledge of movement and skills

need to make decisions. Rink and Hall (2008) has described the importance and challenge of

implementing these affective domains into PE programs. Whilst PE is ideally placed to develop

many affective skills, merely providing opportunities for student to play a team game does not

ensure that team work skills will be acquired. Affective outcomes need to be explicitly taught

to provide students with the opportunities to attain them. Rink and Hall’s work highlights the

concerns raised in this research project. Clearly, the reason for teachers omitting the affective

outcomes from their teaching requires further research.

Summary – Opportunities provided for students to Display Learning

All teachers provided opportunities for students to perform at Curriculum Framework SPA

Outcome Level 2. However teachers with strong PCK such as Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary

School), Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) and Nina (Thomson Primary School), provided

corrective feedback, instructions and practise opportunities that facilitated attainment of level

3 outcomes. Therefore, there was a clear relationship between PCK and opportunities

provided for students to display learning. However , there was an absence of teaching the

affective outcomes.

5.2.2 Which Student Outcomes Were Observed?

Student outcomes of activity and enjoyment were measured using a combination of expert

observations, interviews, questionnaires and monitoring with equipment such as the

ActiGraph monitors to gather activity data.

A teacher with evidence of high PCK was observed to provide opportunities for her students to

be active and enjoy PE when compared to students of a teacher with evidence of low PCK.

Furthermore, students of teachers with high PCK were observed to be more compliant and

engaged in activities when compared to the students of teachers with low PCK.

The following discussion of student outcomes focuses on the association between evidence of

the teacher’s PCK and the various student outcomes of the PE lessons observed.

5.2.2.1 Activity

In 2002, a discussion paper was created to facilitate the development of Australian

recommendations for children’s participation in health promoting physical activity (Trost, et

al., 2002). In this document it was recommended that children should:

189

1. Be physically active daily or nearly every day.

2. Engage in physical activity of at least moderate intensity for 60 minutes or more on a

daily basis.

On average, from the observations made, the study participants allocated 47.68% (range=

39.86 – 52.99%) of lesson time to opportunities for the students to be active. The ActiGraph

data indicated that students were engaged in moderate to vigorous levels of physical activity

(MVPA) for 32.16% of the lesson time.

This ActiGraph data accounted for a mere 22 minutes (or 7.3%) of the recommended MVPA in

the average PE lesson across one week. Therefore, the students needed to rely on organised

sport or play before and after school or during school breaks to achieve the remaining 92.7%

of MVPA during the school week.

When the PCK of the teacher was examined in relation to the activity data, it appears that

there was no relationship between levels of PCK and lesson time allocated to activity. Emma

(Salmon Bay Primary School) and Kate (Longreach Primary School), who appeared to display

the least PCK, achieved the lowest and highest opportunities for activity in the range of results

(respectively). Nina (Thomson Primary School), Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) and Melanie

(Geordie Bay Primary School), who displayed higher levels of PCK in their teaching, attained

the remaining ranks (2 – 4).

When overall activity counts were examined, it appeared that the teachers who lacked PCK

achieved the highest activity counts (Figure 5.2.2.1.1). This could be explained by the relatively

low amounts of effective learning instructions that they delivered to the students. This

resulted in Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) and Kate (Longreach Primary School) stopping

the lesson or individual students less frequently when compared with the teachers who

possessed higher levels of PCK. Therefore, the students were active for longer periods of time.

Whilst the teachers who lacked PCK appeared to achieve higher overall activity counts, there

was no relationship between MVPA, low levels of activity and PCK.

190

Figure 5.2.2.1.1 Percentage of Lesson Time Students Wearing ActiGraph Monitors Engaged in

MVPA

The results regarding engagement in MVPA in this study are consistent with the results of

other researchers (Simons-Morton et al., 1993). Possible causes of low MVPA in this research

project and in others were; teacher talk, time taken for students waiting for their turn,

transitioning between activities, lack of equipment, lack of space. Simons-Morton et al. (1993)

concluded that providing daily PE lessons to students will not dramatically increase the time

each child is engaged in MVPA unless teaching foci is changed to make MVPA a higher priority.

In this research project, many teachers identified teaching goals and a rationale for

programming such as; equipping students with the necessary skills and preparing students for

forthcoming carnivals. Therefore, it would seem that expectations for skill acquisition and

carnivals need to change in order for students to be more active or MVPA requirements in PE

lessons need to be ignored in order for teachers to continue with their skills focus.

Summary - Activity

It would appear that measures of activity such as those observed in the lesson and the data

gathered using the ActiGraph monitors confirmed there was not a strong association with the

student outcome of activity and the teacher’s level of PCK. The only relationship observed was

that of teachers who lacked PCK provided less corrective feedback which resulted in the lesson

being stopped less frequently. The possible conclusion of this was observed in the data – the

students were stationary for less time than the students who received more frequent

corrective feedback. Whilst the associations with activity and teachers PCK were limited, it is

Percentage of lesson

time

School (Teacher)

191

important to note that the overall activity data from all measures was low. On average, the

students were engaged in MVPA for mere 22 minutes (or 7.3%) of the recommended MVPA in

the average PE lesson across one week and the students were given opportunities to be active

for less than half of the lesson time. These results were concerning when the recent

recommendations for childhood activity were considered.

5.2.2.2 Enjoyment and Cooperation

The students enjoyed their PE lessons. The mean PE enjoyment of all study participants was

4.61 (range= 4.3 – 4.79) (1 being the lowest score and 5 being the highest). In addition, teacher

generated excitement (mean of all study participants = 4.44, range= 4.23 – 4.78) and activity

generated excitement (mean of all study participants = 4.30, range= 4.11 – 4.58) also produced

high average scores. Table 5.2.2.2.1 illustrates that when the data gathered was compared

with the results obtained by Hashim (2008), it can be concluded that the students in this

project were enjoying PE more, when compared to the year 8-10 students from the project

where this instrument was created.

Table 5.2.2.2.1

Mean Scores from Student Enjoyment Questionnaire – Comparison of Students in Two Projects

Mean Score (Min = 1, Max = 5)

Measures of Enjoyment Hashim (2008) PCK and Primary PE Outcomes (This Project)

PE Enjoyment 3.93 4.79

Teacher Generated Excitement 3.55 4.78

Activity Generated Competency 3.67 4.58

Peer Interaction 4.02 4.54

Parental Involvement 3.64 4.19

Self-Referenced Competency 3.62 4.47

Other Referenced Competency 2.86 3.43

(Hashim, 2008)

In 2002 Kilpatrick, Hebert, and Jacobsen established that teacher centred programmes lead to

students feeling controlled and pressured leading to reduced motivation for participation in

the activity. The data from this project did not support these findings. All teachers were

observed to utilise a teacher centred, content focussed programme, yet the students

demonstrated a high level of enjoyment. The lack of student autonomy in these programmes

cannot be argued, however the impact of this style of teaching on further involvement in PA

and play was beyond the scope of this project.

192


Most students were observed to be cooperative, enthusiastic, on task and motor appropriate

on all observations. The one exception to this was some of Kate’s students at Longreach

Primary School. On many occasions, students were observed to be non-compliant. Kate

delivered considerably more discipline focussed feedback to the students than any other

teacher (8% of total words spoken, mean of all study participants= 2.38%). In addition to this,

the students at Longreach Primary School demonstrated the lowest scores for PE enjoyment

(PE enjoyment at Longreach Primary School = 4.3, mean of all study participants= 4.61) (Figure

5.2.2.2.1). It is impossible to state the exact cause of the non-compliant student behaviour

and lower levels of student enjoyment. However, it is interesting to note that Kate’s

(Longreach Primary School) teaching lacked PCK and she was not observed to be

demonstrating her VOI-2 profile in her teaching. Additionally, Nina (Thomson Primary School)

was another teacher who was not observed to demonstrate the affective focus highlighted in

her VOI-2 profile. Similarly to Kate’s students, Nina’s students also demonstrated enjoyment

scores below the average of all participating students on five of the seven measures of

enjoyment (Figure 5.2.2.2.1). These included PE enjoyment, activity generated enjoyment and

teacher generated enjoyment. These measures of enjoyment can all be attributed to some

Score


193

extent to Nina’s teaching. Therefore, the data gathered from the students at Longreach and

Thomson Primary Schools suggests that the relationship between VO profiles and student

enjoyment needs further investigation to determine what it was that was preventing these

teachers from teaching consistently with their VOI-2 profiles. Furthermore, it would be

interesting to determine if there was any change to student enjoyment results when these

teachers were representing their VOI-2 profile in their teaching, this is worthy of further

exploration.

The enjoyment results of this project support the work of others (Hashim, Grove, & Whipp,

2007; Martens, 1996; Morgan, 2005; Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007; Carroll & Loumidis,

2001). They established that a skill/mastery focus is an essential element in ensuring

enjoyment. Given the high PE enjoyment scores and the skill focus employed by all teachers, it

could be concluded that this was a key factor in certifying student enjoyment. Therefore, this

research rejects the conclusions made by Greenwood, Parr and Oslin (1998) as well as

Kilpatrick, Hebert and Jacobsen (2002) who established that a skills-based approach to PE may

result in bored students, as they cannot see its broader meaning. Other than some of Kate’s

students (Longreach Primary school), all other participating students were observed as being

engaged and enthusiastic. Based on systematic observations, there was no evidence of bored

students from Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School), Nina (Thomson Primary School), Melanie

(Geordie Bay Primary School) or Sarah’s (Bathurst Primary School) observed lessons. A

potential explanation of the results from this study could be that perhaps student enjoyment

in PE is a more complex issue than that of a teacher centred or student centred approach?

Possibly student enjoyment is influenced more by elements of PCK such as the activities

chosen by the teacher, the goals set by the teacher as well as the subject matter knowledge of

the teacher.

Summary – Enjoyment and Cooperation

Melanie’s students (Geordie Bay Primary School) displayed the highest level of enjoyment

across four key factors of enjoyment. Melanie displayed strong PCK in her teaching.

Conversely, Kate’s students (Longreach Primary School) displayed the lowest enjoyment scores

on three key factors of enjoyment. Kate displayed limited PCK in her teaching. It can be

concluded that the data gathered to evidence student enjoyment and cooperation did appear

to relate to Grossman’s theoretical framework.

194

5.2.3 Elements of Grossman‘s (1990) theoretical framework that did not relate to PCK in the

primary school PE ball sports unit

Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework was made operational through a variety of practical

observable elements of the PE lesson (Appendix A). Three observable components of the

lessons appeared to not influence or be related to PCK (Figure 5.2.3.1). They are displayed

below (Figure 5.2.3.1).

Figure 5.2.3.1 Practical Elements that did not appear to relate to PCK

In this research project, it can be concluded that the qualification and experience of the

teachers as well as the teaching styles employed did not appear to relate to PCK. This could be

explained by the limited sample size (n=5 teachers) in this research project.

Teachers with limited PCK achieved some of the highest activity counts. However when lesson

time allocated to activity was considered, teachers with low PCK allocated some of the highest

as well as some of the lowest amounts of time. Therefore, activity does not appear to relate to

PCK.

Practical Elements that Did Not

Appear to be Related to PCK

Qualifications &

Experience

Teaching Styles

Student Outcome:

Activity

195

5.2.4 Elements of Grossman‘s (1990) theoretical framework that did relate to PCK in the


Whilst the elements of the lesson that did not appear to influence PCK have been detailed

above, Figure 5.2.4.1 displays five elements that emerged as strong indicators of a teacher’s

PCK.

Figure 5.2.4.1 Practical Elements that Did Appear to Relate to PCK

It can be concluded that evidence of; goal setting, allocation of lesson time as well as

instructions and feedback delivered were all clearly related to evidence of PCK. Teachers who

set and communicated with the students clear broad and narrow goals, were displaying PCK.

As were teachers who allocated maximum lesson time to activity and minimal lesson time to

transition and management focussed instructions. The analysis of the teacher dialogue clearly

indicated that teachers with rich PCK deliver more corrective feedback and learning focussed

instructions than teacher with limited PCK who deliver more management focussed

instructions and discipline feedback. In addition, it was clear that teachers with strong PCK

provided opportunities for students to attain higher outcome levels than teachers with limited

PCK.

PCK was also evidenced in student outcome of enjoyment. The students of teachers with

evidence of high PCK appeared to enjoy the PE programme, the teaching and the learning

activities more than the students of teacher with low PCK.

Practical Elements that Did

Appear to be Related to PCK

Teacher Dialogue

Lesson Time

Allocation

Opportunities

Provided for

Students to

Display Learning

Student Outcome:

Enjoyment and

Cooperation

Goals

196

5.2.5 Summary of Evidence of Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical Framework for PCK in the


From the data gathered, it can be concluded that most elements of the observed lessons

related to Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework for PCK (Figure 5.2.5.1). Though, it is

important to note that some elements of teacher behaviour did not appear to relate to PCK

were a result of homogeneous data gathered. For example, all teachers displayed the same

teacher centred teaching styles and therefore, it was not possible to observe differences

within the group. Similarly, all teachers declared themselves to be a PE specialist which

negates the researcher’s ability to determine differences within the group. Perhaps with a

larger sample size, the effect of teaching styles as well as qualification and experience would

enable differences to be observed.

However, from the data collected as well as the literature reviewed it can be concluded that

PCK in PE was evidenced by:

Teaching consistent with VO profile and goal setting (broad and narrow) in

consultation with students

Maximised activity time in lessons and minimised management and transition time

Delivery of more learning focused instructions than management instructions

Frequent explicit corrective feedback

Opportunities provided for students to display learning, and

Achievement of high enjoyment scores from the Student Enjoyment Questionnaire

(Hashim, Grove & Whipp, 2007).

197

Figure 5.2.5.1 Practical Elements of PCK that did relate to Grossman’s Theoretical Framework

for PCK

It can be concluded from this project, Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework for PCK

appeared to be a valid and reliable method by which to scaffold the many practical and

observable elements of PE. The data gathered delivered sufficient detail to provide substantial

evidence for each component of Grossman’s framework.





Teaching


Understanding of

Subject Matter


Components of PCK



Teacher Goals

Teacher Goals




Knowledge of

Curriculum Content

Student Outcomes


to display learning

Enjoyment

Teacher Goals



to display learning

198

5.3 WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PCK AND THE SCHOOL?

As researchers Gusthardt and Sprigings (1989) state, elements of PCK cannot be examined in

isolation. Rather, PCK should be explored as part of the ecological teaching situation.

Therefore, PCK was evidenced by a combination of the items above as well as being influenced

by the impact of the school community on the PE programme.

The school is ideally placed to support the PE teacher by maximising the profile of the PE

learning area and therefore increasing the opportunity for student outcome attainment. This

discussion focuses on the impact of the school on the PE classes. It serves to consider the

issues that were identified by the researcher as well as the participating teachers. It was noted

that whilst the teachers provide their perceptions of school related variables, it was beyond

the scope of this project to validate these perceptions with longitudinal, ethnographic and

360° research and analysis.

5.3.1 Time allocated to PE/structured PA

An average of 126 minutes was allocated to PE and structured PA (such as fitness programmes)

across the five observed schools. The PE lessons accounted for an average of 70 minutes

(range= 45 – 90 minutes) of this time each week. Therefore, structured PA accounted for the

remaining 64 minutes. Whilst on most occasions, the PE teacher was either present and/or

coordinating the fitness programme, the PE teacher was not actually directly teaching the

students. Therefore, any teaching role in the fitness programme was left to the classroom

teacher, who in many cases was relatively unskilled in the PE learning. It would then be

reasonable to presume that the highest quality PE instruction was generally occurring in the

formal PE lessons (mean of all study participants = 70 minutes per week).

Table 5.3.1.1

Weekly Opportunities for PE/Structured PA (mins)

School Teacher Weekly Opportunities for PE/Structured PA (mins)

Geordie Bay Primary School Melanie 190

Longreach Primary School Kate 125

Bathurst Primary School Sarah 105

Salmon Primary School Emma 150

Thomson Primary School Nina 60

Mean 126

199

When interviewed, Nina (Thomson Primary School) commented that she was aware that the

minimum requirement for PE was 120 minutes per week (Department of Education and

Training, Western Australia, 2010). However, according to Nina, PE appears to take a lower

priority when compared to the other learning areas and the classroom teachers cannot be

relied on to teach a PE lesson during the week to meet the minimum requirement. As a result,

the students received an average of 60 minutes of PE each week (Table 5.3.1.1). A fitness

programme did not exist at Thomson Primary School, moreover the school had the least time

allocated to PE and structured PA of all participating schools. Conversely, other schools such

as Salmon Primary School (Emma) and Geordie Bay Primary School (Melanie) achieved the

highest time allocation to PE and structured PA (150 minutes and 190 minutes per week

respectively) (Table 5.3.1.1.). The PE teachers at these schools, Emma and Melanie, felt well

supported by their colleagues. The general teaching staff took an active role in maintaining a

high profile for the PE learning area and developing the school fitness programme. From these

data, it could be concluded that the importance placed on the PE programme by the school

impacts directly on the time allocation and support from colleagues to the learning area.

Current Australian guidelines recommend that children engage in 60 minutes of moderate to

vigorous PA every day (DET 2010). Furthermore, recommendations made by Children’s

Physical Activity Coalition in 2008 stated that primary school children should receive “150

minutes of quality PE instruction per week” (CPAC, 2008). It was concerning to see that all

participating schools in this project were falling well short of the recent CPAC

recommendations. In addition, these schools would rely heavily on physical activity before

school, during recess and lunch as well as after school to meet the proposed 60 minutes of

moderate to vigorous daily activity.

5.3.1.1 Summary – Time Allocated to PE/Structured PA

It was concerning that all schools failed to allocate enough time to PE and structured PA to

meet the CPAC (2008) recommendations and one school was even falling short of the

mandatory 120 minutes of PE each week as prescribed by DET (2010). All schools, other than

Thomson Primary School (Nina) provided a school fitness programme for 2-5 sessions per

week. Geordie Bay Primary School allocated the most amount of time to PE/PA, whilst

Thomson Primary School (Melanie) allocated the least time. It could be concluded that there

was not an observable relationship between the amount of time allocated to PE/PA by the

school and PCK.

200

5.3.2 Teacher Perception of School Support

It was not within the scope of this project to interview school principals and other staff

members in order to gather a detailed description of the school support perceived for PE and

PA by the participating teachers. Therefore, the data gathered from interviews and pre/post

lesson discussions was a depiction of the teacher’s perceived support, which regardless of the

actual support provided, was an important element in the teacher’s feeling of satisfaction as

the PE teacher at the primary school.

The opinions of the teachers regarding the support they derive from the school varied from

very positive experiences to somewhat negative attitudes towards the non-PE staff within the

school. In essence, Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary School)

were relatively content with the support they received from the school personnel. However,

Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School), Kate (Longreach Primary School) and Nina (Thomson

Primary School) both commented on barriers to their teaching that they felt were, to some

extent, were a result of the lack of support provided by the school.

Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) explained that they

felt well supported by the school. They were able to implement whole school fitness

programmes and were given autonomy to make improvements and changes to the PE

programme. Although these schools were from differing SES backgrounds, they both felt as

though their budget for their programme was sufficient. This resulted in the teachers being

able to improve the quality and quantity of resources which they believe impacted positively

on their programmes. That is, these teachers were content with the level of support provided

by the school for their learning area and teaching.

Conversely, Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School), Kate (Longreach Primary School) and Nina

(Thomson Primary School) stated that their schools neglected elements of their either their

learning area or teaching. This was consistent with the findings of Morgan and Hansen (2008).

Being a beginning teacher at a school on the outskirts of the metropolitan area, Emma

commented that she felt isolated in many respects. This was in-part due to her office being

placed at the back of the library. Emma was the only teacher working in this space and it was

well away from the staffroom and work space of the other teachers in the school. This,

according to Emma, prevented her from engaging in professional discussions, other than when

she was in the staffroom at lunch/recess or staff meetings. Furthermore, Emma commented

that she had been offered very limited opportunities for professional development. She

clearly explained that she would be very keen to engage in professional development, but it

201

was not offered to her by the school or the governing education sector that Salmon Primary

School was part of. Professional development would potentially allow Emma to develop and

acquire teaching skills as well as interact with other PE teachers. However, Emma was keen to

point out that she was well supported by the teaching staff at the school, particularly the

deputy principal. The data gathered from Emma clearly concurs with the Amade-Escot (2000)

who has asserted those teachers who were unsupported were likely to limit their curricular to

a small range of safe teaching practices. This, along with Emma’s lack of experience could

justify the limited PCK observed in her teaching.

Similarly to Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School), Kate (Longreach Primary School) felt they

were not well supported by Longreach Primary school. In interviews, Kate explained that the

school planned to reduce the amount of time allocated to PE in each year level from fifty

minutes per week, to forty minutes each week. Furthermore, Kate’s morning fitness

programme was not a high priority for many teachers involved in the implementation of it.

Some teachers use the time to complete work from other learning areas. However, Kate did

feel supported by her colleagues and believed that the two assistant principals assisted and

encouraged her. The data gathered from Longreach Primary School supports the work of

Morgan and Hansen (2008), Macdonald (1995) and Hashim, Grove and Whipp (2008) who

have detailed some of the issues facing PE teachers such as marginal status of the learning

area. Despite the lack of support provided, Kate appeared to remain optimistic about her role

at Longreach Primary School. Nevertheless, it could be suggested that the lack of support

given to Kate and the PE LA was impacting on the student’s perception of the importance of PE

which could partly explain the off task behaviour which was perhaps impacting on her PCK.

In the interview as well as pre/post lesson discussions, Nina (Thomson Primary School)

detailed her perceived lack of support from the school. She felt that the learning area and her

professional judgements were undermined by the other teaching staff. However, Nina felt

well supported by one teaching colleague who had a PE interest.

Research was carried out by Morgan and Hansen (2008), to determine the barriers teacher’s

face when teaching PE. They concluded that unsupported teachers spent less time teaching PE

and presented PE lessons of questionable quality. The results from this research project

concur for some teachers, but not others. It is fair to state that Melanie and Sarah were well

supported and displayed teaching and learning opportunities with qualities that exemplify

teaching expertise (Rink, 2008). Furthermore, Kate and Emma were not well supported by

their schools and did not display PE teaching expertise (Rink, 2008). However, It is interesting

202

to note that Morgan and Hansen’s (2008) work was carried out on classroom (non-specialist)

teachers. Nina’s perceptions of school support do not concur with Morgan and Hansen’s work.

This could be a result of her well established teaching skills and subject matter knowledge.

She is an experienced specialist teacher of PE. Therefore, it could be suggested that although

she is unsupported, unlike the teachers in Morgan and Hansen’s study as well as Kate and

Emma from this project, she has the expertise and experience to overcome the perceived

barriers to her teaching. It could then be suggested from this research project that rich PCK

enables a teacher to overcome barriers such as school support.

It is most interesting to note that the two teachers, who felt that the lack of school support

was a barrier to their teaching, were the same two teachers who were not able to display with

Value Orientation profiles in their teaching. Both teachers’ profiles consisted of a high priority

for discipline mastery as well as a high priority for social responsibility. As previously

mentioned, this is inconsistent with previous research conducted on PE teachers, by

researchers Ennis & Zhu, 1991. However, it begs the questions: Does the school

prevent/enable a teacher to teach consistently with their VO profile?

5.3.2.1 Summary – Teacher Perception of School Support

It can be concluded that perceived school support is related to PCK. Melanie (Geordie Bay

Primary School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary School), both displayed strong PCK and felt well

support by their schools. Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) and Kate (Longreach Primary

School) displayed low PCK and documented issues they faced with regards to the perceived

lack of support for their learning area and their professional development. However Nina

(Thomson Primary School) felt that she was not well supported by Thomson Primary School,

yet she was able to display many elements of strong PCK.

5.3.3 PE programme Rationale

When interviewed, the teachers cited a variety of motivations for the content of their PE

programmes. These consisted of the following six areas:

5.3.3.1 Teacher Perception of Support from colleagues

Teachers that gained support from their colleagues could rely on the students being taken out

for PE lessons with the classroom teacher in addition to the lesson with the PE specialist.

Therefore, these teachers knew that the students were practising skills that would supplement

the programme. Conversely Nina (Thomson Primary School) did not believe that the teachers

203

possessed the necessary skills to teach some of the ball sports, so she needed to ensure that

these sports were included in her programme.

5.3.3.2 Student interest


Primary School) explained that student interests were a significant motivator for their

programming. In particular, this resulted in Melanie working on her personal sporting and

teaching skills to ensure that she was sufficiently equipped to teach the sport to all ability

levels:

It’s more about the fact that it is a sport that the children are interested in and you

need to look at what the children are interested in and you can’t just decode that ‘I

don’t know how to do that sport so too bad’. It’s an interest so you have to fill the

need. So I needed to work out what drills I could use and what skills I needed to be

developing and those kinds of things. So then I decided that I need to know how to do

that because if I can’t do the skills, I am going to struggle to teach it. Even if it has

meant that I have grabbed a ball and practised.

(Transcribed from Interview, p. 1, Melanie, Geordie Bay Primary School)

The positive enjoyment scores and skills outcomes from the students at Geordie Bay Primary

school, support the work of Flowerday and Schraw (2000) who have asserted that by

determining student interest, teachers can determine a programme that will engage the

students. The logical outcome of this has been observed in Melanie’s teaching – greater

opportunities for student learning.

5.3.3.3 Carnivals

In both formal and discussions, Nina (Thomson Primary School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary

School) both commented on the influence of carnivals in their teaching. They explained that

much of the teaching revolves around preparing the students to participate in forthcoming

carnivals such as basketball, volleyball, athletics etc.

5.3.3.4 Multi Age Grouping

Kate (Longreach Primary School) taught at a school where the classes were structured into

Multi Age Groups (MAG’s). Kate explained that this was a considerable influence on her

programming as she needed to ensure that she was catering for the skill and maturity of an

age range of approximately three years.

204

5.3.3.5 Previous teacher designed programme

In the interview, Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) explained that when she commenced

teaching at Salmon Primary School, the programmes were already constructed with a

rotational focus to ensure that students were not exposed to the same sports each year.

Emma, being a beginning teacher simply maintained these programmes. In pre/post lesson

discussions, Emma explained that she appreciated this approach to her planning as it enabled

her to ensure that she was teaching a wide variety of sports. This somewhat extraneous

approach was rather different to that of Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School), Nina (Thomson

Primary School), Kate (Longreach Primary School) and Sarah (Bathurst Primary School) who

appeared to be motivated by a more student centred influence on their programming such as

the needs and interests of the students.

5.3.3.6 Space

It would seem that the space utilised or available to teach impacted on the student outcomes

of all students observed. In particular, space was an influential factor in Sarah’s (Bathurst

Primary School) programming. Having only one basketball court as teaching space restricted

the sports she could teach. Furthermore, she believed that the limited space also impacted on

the way she taught a sport. For example, when observing her basketball lessons she only

taught basketball to half of the class at a time. This, in Sarah’s words, was the only way she

could utilise the one basketball court and provide the students with the opportunity to take

part in a real basketball game. The remainder of the students were left, partially supervised to

take part in an activity that was consistent with “keeping students busy, happy and good”

(Placek, 1983, p. 49). Sarah commented on the lack of space available in the interview. She

explained that she would love to have more space to allow all students to practise a skill

simultaneously such as shooting and obviously, she stated that with more space, she would be

able to teach more. It was interesting to note that whilst Sarah had considerably less space

than other participating teachers, she did not achieve the lowest activity counts on any

measure.

205

Table 5.3.3.6.1 Space utilised and Percentage of lesson time in MVPA

School Space Utilised % of lesson time target students engaged in MVPA

Geordie Bay Primary School

Soccer Oval

Undercover basketball court

37.14%

Longreach Primary School AFL oval

Indoor hall (with restricted use)

35.06%

Bathurst Primary School Basketball Court 27.77%

Salmon Primary School AFL Oval

Grassed netball courts (2)

39.74%

Thomson Primary School Multi-purpose courts (3) 21.07%

On the other hand, Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School), Kate (Longreach Primary School) and

Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) all had the option of using large ovals for their PE

lessons (Table 5.3.3.6.1). In addition, Emma and Melanie also had the option of using

covered/indoor sports facilities, approximately the size of one basketball court (Table

5.3.3.6.1). Melanie was restricted to using the undercover play area for one of the observed

lessons. However, Kate and Emma both utilised the ovals for each observed lesson. Emma’s

students achieved the highest activity counts and she allocated the most amount of lesson

time to opportunities for the students to be active (as did Melanie). It would appear that there

was an apparent trend with space and activity counts. This relationship could also be

explained simply by the sports being taught. Melanie, Kate and Emma taught ball sports that

required large spaces of soccer and AFL. A possible conclusion from this was that these sports

require large spaces and therefore the students were likely to move within a large space which

could provide greater opportunities for activity.

It is interesting to note the facilities available for Nina’s use at Thomson Primary School. Nina

was able to use a small oval, an undercover basketball court, two open basketball/multi-

purpose courts as well as synthetic turf multi-purpose courts. However, three of the observed

lessons took place on one basketball court. In discussions, Nina explained that her teaching

focus for the series of lessons observed required the use of one court to simulate a game

situation that enabled her to take on the roles of coach and referee.

It is then interesting to note the relationship between space utilised to teach and activity

counts (Figure 5.3.3.6.1). The teachers that utilised the large space available (Kate -

Longreach, Emma - Salmon Bay and Melanie - Geordie Bay Primary Schools) achieved the

highest percentage of time in MVPA. Conversely, the two teachers who utilised only one

206

basketball court achieved the lowest results. It is important to note that the differing sports

chosen by the teachers also impacted on their use of space. Sarah (Bathurst Primary School),

Emma and Kate chose to teach soccer or AFL, requiring large open spaces, whereas Nina

(Thomson Primary School) and Sarah chose basketball which only needs the space of

basketball courts. Nina possibly could have utilised an adjacent basketball court to provide the

students with greater opportunities to reach MVPA. However, Sarah did not have the option

of using an oval or other basketball courts within the school grounds. Therefore, the students

were limited to the use of one basketball court.


5.3.3.7 Summary – PE Programme Rationale

The participating teachers cited a number of contributing factors for their programme design.

Some of these were influenced by the school, such as; carnivals, space, multi-age grouping and

perceived support from colleagues. The PE teachers had limited control over these influences.

However all teachers other than Emma (Salmon Bay Primary School) and Kate (Longreach

Primary School), cited the students needs or interests as a rationale for their programming. It

could then be concluded that teacher controlled elements of programme rationale were

related to PCK. Teachers with high PCK considered the needs and interests of their students

when constructing their programmes, whereas teachers with limited PCK did not.

Percentage of Lesson

Time

School (Teacher)

207

5.3.4 Socioeconomic status

The socioeconomic status (SES) of the participating schools varied from relatively low rankings

to two of the highest ranked schools in the sector in WA. The ranking system ranges from 1

(being lowest) to 158 (being highest). The schools in the study ranged from 49 – 155.

The SES of the school did not appear to be a factor that impacted on the data gathered from

the schools. From the literature reviewed prior to the data collection, it was predicted that the

students from the high SES schools would achieve higher vigorous activity counts.

Additionally, from previous studies, the students from high SES schools could be expected to

receive PE more frequently and of a higher quality than lower SES schools (Sallis, Zakarian,

Hovell, & Hofstetter, 1996). However, the data gathered was not consistent with these

previous studies. In fact, the two highest ranked SES schools (Thomson Primary School - Nina

and Bathurst Primary School - Sarah) actually achieved the lowest vigorous activity counts of

all schools in the project. Rather than SES, a more plausible explanation of this data would be

the fact that both teachers were teaching basketball, using only one basketball court which

resulted in many students being sedentary whilst they waited for their opportunity to

participate.

When the data regarding time allocated to the PE learning was observed across the

participating schools, once again, it was the two highest ranked SES schools (Thomson and

Bathurst Primary Schools) that allocated the smallest amount of time to PE, including

structured PA. Furthermore, when frequency of PE was considered, these two schools did not

provide more opportunities for PE than the other, lower ranked schools. In fact, when fitness

programmes were considered in addition to the PE programme, Bathurst and Thomson

Primary School also offered the least opportunities for structured PE/PA.

When the quality of PE teaching was examined in relation to SES data, it is possible to

conclude, that once again, SES did not appear to correlate with the quality of PE teaching. If

levels of observed PCK were the measure of quality teaching, it could be concluded that high

quality teaching was observed from both high and low SES schools. There did not appear to

be any correlation between teaching quality and SES ranking of the schools. Moreover, the

highest quality of teaching was observed of Melanie at Geordie Primary School (rank 49) which

was the lowest SES school in the project. It is interesting to note that whilst high quality

teaching was seen at Geordie Primary School, the teachers of the two highest ranked schools

by SES were also observed to demonstrate numerous elements of high quality teaching.

208

The SES of schools involved in this project covered a wide range. Whilst two of the schools

were some of the highest ranked schools in the state, there were also two schools with a much

lower SES rank. When the data gathered from this relatively small sample of schools, is

compared to the conclusions made by Sallis, Zakarian, Hovell and Hofstetter (1996), it is clear

that SES was not an influencing factor on; activity counts, activity intensity, frequency of PE

lessons, amount of time allocated by the school to PE and structured PA, or quality of teaching.

5.3.4.1 Summary – Socioeconomic Status

It can be concluded that there was not an observable relationship between the socioeconomic

status of the participating schools and the PCK displayed by the participating teachers.

209

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The following conclusions and recommendations are made from the triangulation of data

collected through a multi-method design. Data were gathered and evaluated over one, ten

week school term. Questionnaires were administered to all teachers and students

participating in the project. Lesson observations, teacher interviews and physical activity data

gathered from a selected sample of students, formed the basis for evaluative responses

relating to the research question. The data gathered provided the researcher with a large

amount of data, relating to a small sample size.

These conclusions are presented through the lenses provided by three research questions.

Q1 How was Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework evidenced in the primary school PE ball

sports unit?

Which elements of the theoretical framework did not relate to PCK in the primary


Which elements of the theoretical framework did relate to PCK in the primary school

PE ball sports unit?


6.2 CONCLUSIONS

6.2.1 Evidence of Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical Framework in the in the Primary School PE

Ball Sports Unit

Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework was made operational in this research project by

integrating practical, observable elements of PE teaching and student outcomes with the

theoretical framework (Appendix A). The combination of data gathered and scaffolded by

Grossman’s framework, enabled judgements to be made regarding the extent to which

teachers displayed evidence of PCK in their teaching.

Teachers with higher PCK maximised opportunities for students to be relatively active, enjoy

PE and display SPA learning outcomes. This was a result of their effective delivery of

developmentally appropriate instructions and demonstrations as well as frequent corrective

210

feedback to enable the students to develop skills. Teachers with high PCK catered for all ability

levels. Their activities maximised space and equipment as well as student involvement.

Teachers with low PCK allocated more lesson time to managing students, equipment and other

unrelated elements of PE. The students of these teachers also demonstrated higher incidences

of off task behaviour. Opportunities for students to display SPA learning outcomes were

limited. However, as a consequence of the limited corrective feedback delivered, the students

of teachers with low PCK actually engaged in more activity throughout their lessons as the

students were stopped less frequently.

Through the data collection and analysis, it became apparent that whilst many practical

elements of PCK clearly related to Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework of PCK, there

were other elements that did not appear to be associated with the theoretical framework of

PCK in this project. Of the eight broad student and teacher behaviours observed, it was

established that five clearly related to PCK, whilst three did not.

6.2.1.1 Elements of the theoretical framework that did not relate to PCK in the primary school

PE ball sports unit

The qualifications held by the teachers and their PE teaching experience did not appear to

relate to PCK in this project. Additionally, the teaching experience of the teachers did not

appear to relate to PCK as four of the five teachers held 9 – 10 years of teaching experience.

Therefore it was not possible to determine a difference. The teaching styles observed

presented similarly. All but two teachers exclusively implemented the practise style of

teaching. As a result, the lack of diversity of teaching styles used prevented conclusions

between teaching styles and PCK to be made. The teachers who allocated some of the highest

and the lowest amounts of time to activity, both displayed limited PCK in their teaching. In

addition, evidenced gathered from teacher interviews as well as observations demonstrated

that all teachers appeared to focus their teaching and opportunities provided for learning on

skills rather than activity expenditure. Therefore the student outcome of activity did not

appear to be related to PCK.

6.2.1.2 Elements of the theoretical framework that did relate to PCK in the primary school PE

ball sports unit

The extent to which goals were set by the teachers and communicated to the students related

to PCK. Teachers with limited PCK displayed less evidence of goal setting and did not evidence

their VO profile in their teaching. The analysis of the coded teacher dialogue illustrated a

211

clear relationship with PCK. Teachers with strong PCK efficiently delivered clear and relevant

instructions that focussed on the needs of the students. Clearly, teachers that possessed

stronger content and pedagogical knowledge were able to provide additional verbal support to

students, representative of stronger contextual knowledge and understanding.

Lesson time allocation clearly related to PCK. Teachers with evidence of strong PCK were able

to maximise time allocated to activity, whilst minimise time allocated to transition between

activities as well as management and instructions.

The only Curriculum Framework outcome observed was SPA, the other affective domains,

were not assessed in the observed lessons. Through effective instructions, frequent corrective

feedback and structured opportunities to practise, teacher with rich PCK provided

opportunities for students to attain level 3 outcomes. These teachers were also able to

provide students with opportunities to maximise learning outcomes.

The lowest enjoyment scores were obtained by the students of the teacher with the lowest

PCK. These students also received the highest amount of discipline feedback. Conversely, the

students of the teacher with the highest PCK reported the highest enjoyment scores, least

discipline feedback and the most learning instructions when compared to the other schools.

From this it can be surmised that PCK impacted on student enjoyment.

6.2.1.3 Summary – Evidence of Grossman’s (1990) Theoretical Framework in the primary

school PE ball sports unit

It would appear that Grossman’s theoretical framework was a reliable means of establishing

the degree to which teacher’s displayed PCK in their observed teaching. Grossman’s

framework was made operational by relating practical, observable teacher behaviours and

student outcomes such as those analysed in this project. Some teacher behaviours and

student outcomes did not appear to relate to PCK. This is not determined as a limitation of

Grossman’s framework, rather it is more likely a consequence of the small, homogeneous

sample size of this project. It would be hoped that with a larger sample size, a greater range of

data would be gathered that would enable differences to be noted within all elements of the

teacher behaviours and student outcomes.

6.2.2 PCK Does Impact On the Student Outcome of Enjoyment

Overall student enjoyment was high and most students were observed to be cooperative,

enthusiastic, on task and motor appropriate on all observations. The students of the teacher

212

with the highest PCK observed, reported the highest scores on the three key measures of; ‘sum

of enjoyment’, ‘teacher generated excitement’ and ‘activity generated excitement’. On the

other hand, the students of the teacher who displayed the least PCK reported the lowest

scores on these measures when compared to the other schools.

6.2.3 Perceived School Support Impacts on PCK

The teacher’s perception of the support they received appeared to impact on PCK. Two

teachers who evidenced rich PCK in their teaching felt well supported by their schools. In

interviews, they were confident that their PE programme and the PE LA were highly valued by

the school community. These teachers were given autonomy to make decisions and

implement change.

However, the three other teachers all described a feeling of discontentment with the support

they received from their schools. They all felt that PE was undervalued by the school

community. They commented on issues such as reduced lesson time, a lack of professional

support and valid reporting opportunities. School support could have contributed to the

limited PCK of two of these teachers. However, one teacher with elements of high PCK did

not appear to be affected by school support. This could be explained by her well established

teaching skills which have perhaps lessened the impact of the lack of support provided to her.

In summary, from the data gathered in this project it would appear that perceived school

support clearly impacted on teacher PCK. Teachers who felt well supported by their school

community displayed high PCK, whereas teachers who displayed low PCK felt that they lacked

support from their colleagues and school administration.

6.2.4 A Teacher with Rich PCK Can Provide Opportunities for Students to Be Busy, Happy,

Good and Learn

Placek (1983) described a paradigm of PE teaching where success has been measured by the

extent to which students are ‘busy, happy and good’, with learning being considered to be

relatively unimportant. Observations and analysis of Melanie’s (Geordie Bay Primary School)

teaching has established that as a result of her high PCK and perceived school support, she was

able to provide opportunities for students to be busy, happy, good and learn. This is

juxtaposed with the observations and analysis of Kate’s (Longreach Primary School) teaching

where the inverse of this phenomenon was observed.

213

Figure 6.2.4.1 PCK and Primary PE Outcomes

Figure 6.2.4.1 illustrates the interaction between in the teacher, student and school within this

project. The black arrow points to the centre of the diagram. This overlapping segment of the

Venn diagram represents the thesis title; ‘PCK and Primary PE Outcomes’. Melanie (Geordie

Bay Primary School) at Geordie Bay Primary School was positively impacted by these elements

whereas the other teachers were negatively impacted by aspects of these elements. Kate

(Longreach Primary School), in particular lacked PCK, school support and provided limited

opportunities for student outcomes.

The observation data indicated that the students at Geordie Bay Primary School were clearly

busy. Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) provided learning opportunities for her students

that engaged most students all of the time. She involved the students in demonstrations and

ensured that practise time was maximised. In addition, she allocated more lesson time to

activity than the other teachers. The enjoyment data indicates that the students were clearly

happy. The students obtained the highest scores on five of seven measures of enjoyment

(sum of enjoyment, teacher generated enjoyment, activity generated enjoyment, peer

interaction and self-referenced competency). All students were observed to be cooperative or

‘good’. Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) delivered the least discipline feedback of all

teachers and all students were observed to be on task and motor appropriate at all times.

Furthermore, Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) provided opportunities for the students to

display Curriculum Framework SPA outcomes at level 2 and 3. This was achieved by her use of;

clear instructions, frequent corrective feedback and a variety of opportunities for the students

to practise skills in games drills and games. Moreover, PE was a highly valued LA at Geordie

Bay Primary School and Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) was well supported by the staff,

students and principal. It is clear that Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) gave the students

at Geordie Bay Primary School frequent opportunities to be busy, happy, good and learn.

Teacher

PCK

Student

Student

Outcomes

Outcomes

The

School


214

Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of the analysis of the observations made at Longreach

Primary School. Kate (Longreach Primary School) lacked both content knowledge for the AFL

lessons observed as well as pedagogical knowledge needed to teach it. Kate (Longreach

Primary School) failed to engage many of the students in the lessons. She was unable to

provide feedback to correct or develop skills. She selected activities that excluded less able

students and often saw one student participating at a time. Therefore, students were

frequently observed to not be participating and were not considered to be busy. The

enjoyment data indicated that the students at Longreach Primary School enjoyed Kate’s

(Longreach Primary School) PE programme less than the other schools. They were ranked

lowest on three key measures of enjoyment (sum of enjoyment, teacher generated excitement

and activity generated excitement), indicating that comparatively, they are not happy. As a

response to motor inappropriate and off task behaviour, Kate (Longreach Primary School)

delivered more discipline focussed feedback than the other participating teachers. In addition,

she delivered more management directed instructions than any other teacher. Therefore, the

students at Longreach Primary School could not be considered to be good. The clearest

evidence of Kate’s (Longreach Primary School) limited PCK for AFL was seen in the

opportunities she provided for student to display Curriculum Framework SPA outcomes. The

instructions, feedback and activities used, limited the students to level 2 outcomes. A likely

influence on her PCK was her perceived lack of school support. It seems that PE was not highly

valued by the teaching and administrative staff at Longreach Primary School. Unfortunately,

Kate (Longreach Primary School) did not provide opportunities for the students to be busy,

happy, good and learn.

Melanie (Geordie Bay Primary School) and Kate (Longreach Primary School) represented either

end of the spectrum of PCK observed in this project. It is difficult to determine the size of the

perceived school support effect on their PCK. It is also hard to determine whether the student

behaviour observed is a result of their PCK or impacting on their PCK. However, through the

use of Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework it is particularly exciting to observe rich PCK in

practise and the clear impact this has on student outcomes.

215

6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

These recommendations aim to recognise the limitations of this project, identify changes that

could further the body of knowledge in this field and propose a methodology for achieving the

suggested changes.


The recommendations are presented in the same format as other chapters in this thesis

(Diagram 6.3.1). The recommendations are structured for those associated with the teacher,

students and the school.

6.3.1 Teacher

PCK is a broad, multi-dimensional concept that was investigated in this project. Given the

plethora of data that were collected from five teachers, further research could take place to

create a micro-ethnographic study, closely examining the teaching of one teacher. This could

be presented as a rich case study that would provide an insight into all elements of PCK from

the perspective of the teacher, students and school.

One aim of this project was to operationalise Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework for

PCK. It was established that some elements of Grossman’s framework appeared to be more

relevant and of greater importance than others (Diagram 6.3.1.1). However, the complex

nature of PCK has resulted in a need for Grossman’s (1990) framework to be refined. This

could be achieved by placing the elements of the framework in a hierarchical arrangement in

order to determine the amplitude of each element. This would then assist researchers to

diagnose areas that require further teacher training and professional development.

Teacher

PCK

Student

Student

Outcomes

Outcomes

The

School


216

Figure 6.3.1.1 Relevance and Importance of the Practical Elements of Grossman’s (1990)

Theoretical Framework for PCK

By determining the amplitude of each element of PCK, researchers would then be able to

construct a tool for measuring PCK. This tool would identify key quantifiable components of

PCK that account for the importance and relevance of each element.

A previously mentioned limitations of this study included; the sample size, timescale and

number of observations. Further research could take place to replicate this study with a larger

sample size, a greater number of observations over a longer time period (perhaps one school

year). With limited participants, time and observations, it was difficult to determine the

impact of each element of PCK. By designing a project that overcomes these limitations,

researchers would be able to gain a greater insight into the impact of PCK on student

outcomes in primary school PE.

In this project, all teachers in either the values Orientation Inventory -2 or interviews identified

a skills priority in their teaching. In addition, when observed, all teachers implemented a skills

focus/discipline mastery approach in their teaching. When the data gathered from the student

enjoyment questionnaire is considered, it can be concluded that students enjoy a skills-

focussed approach to learning PE. Therefore, it could be recommended that PE teachers


Teacher Dialogue

Opportunities for students to display learning

Student Outcomes: Enjoyment

Goals

Experience & Qualifications

Teaching Styles

Student Outcomes: Activity

Practical Elements of

Grossman’s

Theoretical

Framework that

appeared to clearly

relate to PCK


Grossman’s Theoretical

Framework that require

further investigation to

determine their impact on

PCK


Grossman’s Theoretical

Framework that do not

appear to relate to PCK

217

undertake professional development to develop the necessary skills needed to maximise PCK

in each sport being taught.


Prior to the commencement of the observed lessons, the teachers were asked to present a

series of lessons from a ball sport unit. All teachers displayed a content focus (discipline

mastery value orientation and Curriculum Framework, Skill for Physical Activity outcome) in

their teaching. In addition, all teachers adopted the traditional PE teaching model.

Opportunities for learning SPA was the essentially the only outcome observed in this project.

There were almost no examples of teaching focussed on the interpersonal skills outcome from

two teachers.

A cause and effect relationship needs to be established between learning skills for physical

activity and lifelong physical activity habits. This would determine the importance of a skill

focus on the lifelong PA habits of students.

Further review of the Curriculum Framework outcomes is necessary to establish the role of the

affective outcomes – if any role at all. In addition, further research needs to take place in

order to establish the reasons why teachers are ignoring the affective outcomes in their

teaching. Would the provision of more teaching time for the PE learning area would enable

teachers to include all outcomes in their teaching?

Perhaps removing the focus of preparing students for carnivals and competitions from the

teachers would enable them to allocate more teaching time to the affective domains and less

time to SPA. This could shift the focus away from success when representing their school in

carnivals and move the focus to a more student centred style of teaching and learning that

equally respects attitudes and values as well as skills. This could possibly see the spotlight on

PE move from the traditional ball sports (soccer, netball, basketball) to other more affectively

focussed sports such as Ultimate Frisbee or a circus programme where social skills are

prioritised over performance focussed skills.

To achieve this, teacher education needs to be provided to pre service as well as practising

teachers. This will enable the teachers to provide their students with adequate opportunities

to acquire all PE outcomes.

218


6.3.2.1 Activity

In this project, ActiGraph GT1M monitors determined that low MVPA data were gathered from

all participating target students when compared to Education Department (WA) and Charter

for Active Kids recommendations. Ideally, an effective PE programme would enable students

to maximise activity, enjoyment and present ample opportunities for learning. However, the

data gathered in this research project raises questions whether this is a realistic goal. Of the

teachers who displayed high PCK, none were able to achieve the recommended MVPA in the

observed lessons. However, these students were presented with sufficient opportunities to

learn and indicated that they enjoyed the programme presented to them. Therefore, it may

be more realistic to aim to achieve the MVPA recommendations through; a school fitness

programme, recess and lunch time activity as well as before and after school activity.

It has been established that students need to engage in quality PE early in life in order to

establish lifelong PA habits (Trudeau & Shephard, 2005). To create lifelong PA habits, learning

and enjoyment may need to be prioritised over achieving MVPA recommendations. This

proposal is supported by the Curriculum Framework document (Curriculum Council, 1998)

where the focus is clearly on skills and enjoyment, rather than physical activity:

Experience in fundamental movement skills in the early years of schooling supports the development of more specific skills in later childhood and participation in sport and recreation as lifelong pursuits. Students who enjoy, participate in, appreciate and are skilful in play, games, sport, dance and outdoor recreation develop confidence and self-esteem. (p.114)

Therefore, the long term objective of lifelong PA habits may be best served by prioritising

learning and enjoyment over activity as enjoyment and learning appear to achieve the long

term goals of lifelong PA habits. Achieving MVPA recommendations is ideal in the short term,

but it would seem that it is unrealistic to expect teachers to achieve MVPA recommendations

as well as high levels of enjoyment and opportunities to learn with the current time allocation

to PE and traditional PE model.

6.3.2.2 Enjoyment

This project used a questionnaire to determine the students feeling of enjoyment towards a

range of facets of enjoyment associated with PE. However it was not within the scope of the

project to establish a cause and effect relationship between a teacher’s PCK and student

219

enjoyment. Teachers have a role in stimulating lesson enjoyment. Further research needs to

take place in order to establish how teachers influence student enjoyment.

6.3.3 The School

This research project measured the impact of the school on PCK by interviewing the PE teacher

to determine the perceived support provided by the school. From the data collection and

analysis, it became apparent that school support is a key element to teachers displaying PCK.

Whilst the teacher was the only ‘stake holder’ interviewed, it can surmised that the perception

of support received is important, regardless of the actual support provided.

Two teachers in this project felt well supported by the school. The students of these two

teachers indicated the highest student enjoyment data results. Conversely three teachers,

who felt unsupported, achieved lowest student enjoyment results on measure of ‘sum of

enjoyment’.

Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework for PCK does not take into account the influence of

the school on a teacher’s PCK. Yet the conclusions from this project as well as other research

suggest that the teacher is influenced by the support provided by the school (Amade-Escot,

2000; Rovegno & Bandhauer, 1997; Butler & Mergadt 1994).

Therefore, further research needs to take place to clarify the impact on PCK of the support

provided to the teachers. This could be achieved by interviewing principals, colleagues and

parents to determine the support they provide to the PE teacher and the PE programme as

well as their perceptions of the PE teaching and programme.

6.3.4 Conclusion

To explore the aims of this research project, Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework was

operationalised in order to determine the impact of PCK on student outcomes. Whilst a

plethora of data were gathered, the sample size limited the rigour of the conclusions drawn.

In addition, the lack of similar research regarding the measurement of PCK prevented the

validation of these results by comparison with the current body of knowledge. Answering

these research questions has provided a valuable insight into the impact of PCK on student

outcomes.

In this project, Grossman’s (1990) theoretical framework was clearly evidenced in the field.

Descriptive case studies enabled the data gathered of each teacher behaviour to be clear

evidence of PCK. Most teacher and student behaviours observed did appear to relate to PCK.

220

These included evidence of; goals, lesson time allocation, dialogue, opportunities provided for

students to display learning and student enjoyment. However, a small number of behaviours

observed did not appear to relate to PCK in this project, such as; qualifications and experience,

teaching styles and student activity. The elements that did not appear to relate to PCK in this

study require further investigation with larger sample groups, greater number of observed

lessons and increased timescale.

From this project, it was clear that teachers with rich PCK were able to provide greater

opportunities for students to display learning and were able to achieve the highest levels of

enjoyment from their students. The possible conclusion of this is that teachers with rich PCK

are providing more opportunities for their students to acquire the necessary skills to enjoy a

lifelong love of being physically active.

Finally, this study highlighted that teachers who felt well supported by their school were able

to provide greater opportunities for student outcome attainment. Teachers who felt they

were provided with adequate space, resources and support for their teaching from colleagues,

parents and students evidenced richer PCK than those who perceived a lack of support.

The recommendations mentioned, aim to further the body of knowledge regarding PCK in PE.

Furthermore, they aim to clarify detail and provide practical information to teachers and

schools in order to further the opportunities for students to attain outcomes in PE.

221

REFERENCES

ActiGraph. (2007). ActiGraph GT1M Monitor / ActiTrainer and ActiLife Lifestyle Monitor

Software User Manual. Florida: ActiGraph, LLC.

Aicinena, S. (1991). The teacher and student attitudes toward physical education. Physical

Educator, 48(1).

Allen, J.D. (1986). Clarroom management : Students’ perspectives, goals and strategies.

American Educational Research Journal, 23, 437-459.

Amade-Escot, C. (2000). The contribution of two teaching programs on teaching content:

“Pedagogical Content Knowledge” and “Didactics of Physical Education”. Journal of

Teaching in Physical Education, 20, 78-101.

Appleton, K., & Harrison, A. (2001). Outcomes-based science units that enhance primary and

secondary science teachers' PCK. Australian Association for Research in Education

Conference. Fremantle, Western Australia.

Ashton, P. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A motivational paradigm for effective teacher education.

Journal of Teacher Education, 35, 28-32.

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2006). Schools Australia. Canberra: ABS.

Australasian Society for the Study of Obesity. (2004). Obesity in Australian children.

Australian Sports Commission. (2003). Getting the Goss; The Findings of the 2002-2003 Youth

Sport Issues Forums. Canberra: ASC.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioural change.

Psychological Review, 84(2), 192-215.

Behets, D. (2001). Value Orientations of Physical Education Preservice and Inservice Teachers.

Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 20(2), 144-154.

222

Behets, D., & Vergauwen. (2004). Value orientations of elementary and secondary physical

education teachers in Flanders. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 75(2), 156-

164.

Bell, J. (2006). Doing your Research Project. Berkshire, England: Open University Press.

Beukers, M., Magill, R., & Hall, K. (1992). The effect of erroneous knowledge of results on skill

Acquisition when augment information is redundant. Quarterly Journal of

Experimental Psychology. 44A, 105-117.

Bevans, K., Fitzpatrick, L., Sanchez, B., & Forrest, C. (2010). Individual and instructional

determinants of student engagement in physical education. Journal of Teaching in

Physical Education. 29, 399-416.

Biddle, S. H. J., & Mutrie, N. (2001). Psychology of Physical Activity: Determinants, Well-Being

and Interventions. New York: Routledge.

Booth, M., Macaskill, P., McLellan, L., Phongsavan, P., Okely, T., Patterson, J., Wright, J., &

Baur, L. (1997). NSW Schools Fitness and Physical Activity Survey. Ryde: NSW

Department of Education and Training.

Booth, M., Okely, T., McLellan, L., Phongsaven, P., Macaskill, P., Patterson, J., Wright, J., &

Holland, B. (1999). Mastery of fundamental movement skills among New South Wales

school students: Prevalence and sociodemographic distribution. Journal of Science and

Medicine in Sport, 2(2), 93-105.

Booth, M., Wake, M., Armstrong, T., Chey, T., Hesketh, K., & Mathur, S. (2001). The

epidemiology of overweight and obesity among Australian children and adolescents,

1995-97. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 25(2), 162-169.

Bouffard, M., Watkinson, E. J., Thompson, L. P., Causgrove Dunn, J. L., & Romanow, S. K. E.

(1996). A test of the activity deficit hypothesis with children with movement

difficulties. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 13(1), 61-73.

223

Bourne, M. (2009). Interactive Mathematics. Retrieved May 4, 2009, from

http://www.intmath.com/Counting-probability/14_Normal-probability-

distribution.php

Brause, R.S., & Mayher, J.S. (1991). Search and re-search: What the inquiring teacher needs to

know. London: Falmer Press.

Brown, W. J., & Brown, P. R. (1996). Children, physical activity and better health. ACHPER

Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 43(4), 19-24.

Buchman, M. (1984). The use of research knowledge in teacher education and training.

American Journal of Education, 93, 421-439.

Buchman, M., & Schwille, J. (1983). Education: The overcoming of experience. American

Journal of Education, 42, 43-51.

Burns, R. (2000). Introduction to Research Methods (4th ed.). Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson

Education Australia.

Butler, L., & Mergadt, G. (1994). The many forms of administrative support. Journal of

Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 65(7), 43-47.

Carlson, T. (1995). We hate gym: Student alienation from physical education. Journal of

Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 467-477.

Carney, C., & Chedzoy, S. (1998). Primary student teacher prior experiences and their

relationship to estimated competence to teach the National Curriculum for Physical

Education. Sport, Education and Society, 3(1), 19-36.

Carr, W. (1989). Quality in teaching: Arguments for a Reflective Profession. London: Falmer

Press.

Carroll, B., & Loumidis, J. (2001). Children's perceived competence and enjoyment in physical

education and physical activity outside school. European Physical Education Review,

7(1), 24-43.

http://www.intmath.com/Counting-probability/14_Normal-probability-distribution.php

http://www.intmath.com/Counting-probability/14_Normal-probability-distribution.php

224

Castelli, D., & Rink, J. (2003). Comparison of high and low performing secondary physical

education programs. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 22, 512-532.

Cavill, N., Biddle, S., & Sallis, J.F. (2001). Health enhancing physical activity for young people:

Statement of the United Kingdom expert consensus conference. Pediatric Exercise

Science, 13, 12-25.

Cecchini, J. A., Gonzalez, C., Carmona, A. M., Arruza, J., Escarti, A., & Balague, G. (2001). The

influence of physical education teacher on intrinsic motivation, self-confidence,

anxiety and pre- and post- competition mood states. European Journal of Sport

Science, 1(4), 1-11.

Chen, A. (1996). Student interest in activities in a secondary physical education program: An

analysis of student subjectivity. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67(4), 424-

432.

Chen, A., & Ennis, C. D. (1995). Content knowledge transformation: An examination of the

relationship between content knowledge and curricula. Teaching and Teacher

Education, 11(4), 389-401.

Chen, A., & Ennis, C. D. (1996). Teaching value-laden curricula in physical education. Journal of

Teaching in Physical Education, 15(3), 338-354.

Choi, (1992). Beyond positivist sport pedagogy: Developing a multidimensional,

multiparadigmatic perspective. Unpublished PhD, The University of Georgia, Athens.

Chow, B., McKenzie, T., & Louie, L. (2008). Children’s physical activity and environmental

influences during elementary school physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical

Education. 27, 38-50.

Children’s Physical Activity Coalition. (2008). Charter for Active Kids: A Blueprint for active and

healthy children in Western Australia. Perth.

Coakes, S. J. (2007). SPSS Version 14.0 for Windows: Analysis without Anguish. Milton, QLD:

John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd.

225

Condon, R., & Collier, C. (2002). Student choice makes a difference in physical education.

Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 73(2), 26-30.

Council, N. R. (1999). Toward Environmental Justice: Research, Education and Health Policy

Needs. Washington, DC: National Academic Press.

Cothran, D. & Ennis, C.D. (1998). Curricular of mutual worth: Comparison of students’ and

teachers’ curricular goals. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 17, 307-327.

Cothran, D., & Kulinna, P. (2006). Students’ perspective on direct, peer and inquiry teaching

strategies. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 25, 166-181.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi on Motivating People to Learn. Retrieved

7/7/06, from http://www.edutopia.org/php/interview.php?id=Art_964.

Curriculum Council (Ed.). (1998). Curriculum Framework for Kindergarten to Year 12 Education

in Western Australia. Perth: WA: Curriculum Council of Western Australia.

Curriculum Council (Ed.). (2005). Curriculum Framework Curriculum Guide – Health and

Physical Education. Perth: WA: Curriculum Council of Western Australia.

Curtner-Smith, M., & Meek, G. (2000). Teachers value orientations and their compatibility with

the national curriculum for physical education. European Physical Education Review,

6(27), 27-45.

de Vries, S., Bakker, I., Hopman-Rock, M., Hirasing, R., & van Mechelen, W. (2006). Clinimetric

review of motion sensors in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology,

59, 670-680.

Department of Education. (2010). Physical Activity: Practical support for teachers regarding

physical activity. Retrieved January 2010, from

http://www.det.wa.edu.au/curriculumsupport/physicalactivity/detcms/navigation/ph

ysical-activity-in-schools/policies-and-guidelines/

http://www.edutopia.org/php/interview.php?id=Art_964

http://www.det.wa.edu.au/curriculumsupport/physicalactivity/detcms/navigation/physical-

http://www.det.wa.edu.au/curriculumsupport/physicalactivity/detcms/navigation/physical-

226

D.E.E.W.R. (2008). Socioeconomic status Scores 2006. In Department of Education

Employment and Work Place Relations. (Ed.). Canberra.

Department of Health and Ageing. (2004). Australia's Physical Activity Recommendations for 5-

12 year olds. Canberra: Department of Health and Ageing.

Dollman, J., Ridley, K., Magarey, A., & Hemphill, E. (2007). Dietary intake, physical activity and

TV viewing as mediators of the association of socioeconomic status with body

composition: a cross-sectional analysis of Australian youth. International Journal of

Obesity, 31, 45-52.

Eckersley, R.M. (2001). Losing the battle of the bulge: causes and consequences of increasing

obesity. Medical Journal of Australia, (174), 590-592.

Eisner, E. W., & Vallance, E. E. (1974). Conflicting conceptions of curriculum. Berkeley, CA:

McCutchen.

Ennis, C. (1994). Knowledge and beliefs underlying curricular expertise. Quest, 46(2), 164-175.

Ennis, C.D. (1999). Creating a culturally relevant curriculum for disengaged girls. Sport,

Education, and Society, 4, 31-49.

Ennis, C., & Chen, A. (1993). Domain specifications and content representiveness of the revised

value orientation inventory. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64(4), 436-446.

Ennis, C., & Chen, A. (1995). Teachers' value orientation in urban and rural school settings.

Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66(1), 41-50.

Ennis, C.D., Cothran, D.J., & Loftus, S.J. (1997). The influence of teachers educational beliefs on

their knowledge organization. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 30,

73-86.

Ennis, C.D., Ross, J., & Chen, A. (1992). The role of value orientations in curricular decision

making: A rationale for teachers goals and expectations. Research Quarterly for

Exercise and Sport, 63, 38-47.

227

Ennis, C., & Zhu, W. (1991). Value orientations: A description of teachers' goals for student

Learning. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 62(1), 33-40.

Faucette, N. & Patterson, P. (1990). Comparing teaching behaviours and student activity

levels in classes taught by PE specialists versus non-specialists. Journal of Teaching in

Physical Education, 9, 106-114.

Flowerday, T., & Schraw, G. (2000). Teacher beliefs about instructional choice: A

phenomenological study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(4), 634-645.

Freedson, P., Pober, D., & Jansz, K. (2005). Calibration of accelerometer output for children.

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 37(11 (supplement)), S523-S530.

Freeedson, P. S., & Miller, K. (2000). Objective monitoring of physical activity using motion

sensors and heart rate. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 41, S21-S29.

Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for

qualitative research. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

Good, T. (1990). Building the knowledge base of teaching. In D. Dill (Ed.), What Teachers Need

to Know: The Knowledge, Skills and Values Essential to Good Teaching. San Fransisco:

Jossey-Bass.

Gould, D. (1987). Understanding attrition in children's sport. In D. Gould & M. R. Weiss (Eds.),

Advances in Pediatric Sports Sciences, 2, 61-85.

Greenwood Parr, M., & Oslin, J. (1998). Promoting lifelong involvement through physical

activity. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 69(2), 72-76.

Grossman, P. (1990). The Making of a Teacher: Teacher Knowledge and Teacher Education.

New York: Teachers College Press.

Gusthardt,J., & Sprigings, E. (1989). Student learning as a measure of teacher effectiveness in

physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 8, 298-311.

228

Hardy, L., Okely, A., Dobbins, T., & Booth, M. (2008). Physical activity among adolescents in

New South Wales. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40(5), 835-841.

Hashim, H., Grove, R., & Whipp, P. (2007). Validating the Youth Sport Enjoyment Construct in

High School Physical Education. The University of Western Australia, Crawley.

Hashim, H., Grove, J. R., & Whipp, P.R (2008). Relationships between physical education

enjoyment processes, physical activity, and exercise habit strength among high school

students. Asian Journal of Exercise and Sports Science, 5(1), 23-30.

Hastie, P.A. (1994). Selected teacher behaviours and student ALT-PE in secondary school

physical education. Journal of teaching in Physical Education, 13, 242-259.

Hastie, P. & Vlaisavljevic, N. (1999). The relationship between subject matter experts and

accountability in instruction tasks. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 19(1),

22-33.

Horn, T. S., & Weiss, M. R. (1991). A developmental analysis of children's self-ability

judgements in the physical domain. Pediatric Exercise Science, 3, 310-326.

James, A., Griffin, L., & Dodds, P. (2008). The relationship between instructional alignment and

the ecology of physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 27, 308-

326.

Jewett, A. E. (1994). Curriculum theory and research in sport pedagogy. Sport Science Review,

3(1), 56-72.

Jewett, A. E., & Bain, L. L. (1985). The Curriculum Process in Physical Education. Dubuque, Iowa:

Wm. C. Brown.

Kilpatrick, M., Hebert, E., & Jacobsen, D. (2002). Physical activity motivation: A practitioner's

guide to self-determination theory. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and

Dance, 73(4), 36-41.

229

Kulinna, P., & Silverman, S. (2000). Teachers' attitudes toward teaching physical education and

fitness. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71(1), 80-85.

Kulinna, P. H., & Silverman, S. (1999). Stability of Teachers' Attitudes toward Curriculum in

Physical Education. Paper presented at The Annual Meeting of the American

Educational Research Association, Quebec, Canada.

Kulinna, P., Silverman, S., & Keating, X. (2000). Relationship between teachers' belief systems

and actions towards teaching physical activity and fitness. Journal of Teaching in

Physical Education, 19, 206-221.

LeCompte, M.D., & Preissle, J. (1993). Ethnography and qualitative design in educational

research (2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.

Lee, A., Keh, N., & Magill, R. (1993). Instructional effects of teacher feedback in physical

education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. 12, 228-243.

Lincoln, Y.S., & Guba, J.D. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills: Corvallis.

Light, R., & Georgakis, S. (2007). The effect of Game Sense pedagogy on primary school pre-

service teachers' attitudes to teaching physical education. ACHPER Healthy Lifestyles

Journal, 54(1), 24-28.

Macdonald, D. (1995). The role of proletarianization in physical education teacher. Research

Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66(2), 129-141.

Maeda, J. K., & Murata, N. M. (2004). Collaborating with classroom teachers to increase daily

physical activity: The GEAR program. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and

Dance, 75(5), 42-46.

Magarey, M.A., Daniels, L.A., & Boulton, T.J. (2001). Prevalence of overweight and obesity in

Australian children and adolescents: reassessment of 1985 and 1995 data against new

standard international definitions. Medical Journal of Australia, 174, 561-564.

230

Malina, R. M. (1996). Tracking of physical activity and physical fitness across the lifespan.

Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67(3), S48-57.

Martens, R. (1996). Turning kids on to physical activity for a lifetime. Quest, 48(3), 303-310.

McKenzie, T.L., Marshall, S.J., Sallis, J.F., & Conway, T.L. (2000). Student activity levels, lesson

context, and teacher behaviour during middle school physical education. Research

Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71(3), 249-259.

Mellado, V., Blanco, L., & Ruiz, C. (1998). A framework for learning to teach science in initial

primary education. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 9, 195-219.

Metzler, M. (1982). Adapting the academic learning time instructional model to physical

education teaching. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 1(2), 44-55.

Morgan, P. (2004). Combating childhood obesity. Newcastle: University of Newcastle.

Morgan, P. (2005). Primary school physical education: Far from realising its potential. Every

Child, 11(1), 20-21.

Morgan, P. J., & Bourke, S. F. (2004). "I know it's important but I'd rather teach something

else!": An investigation into generalist teachers' perceptions of physical education in

the primary school curriculum. Paper presented at the Australian association for

research in education, Melbourne.

Morgan, P., & Bourke, S. (2007). Non-specialist teachers' confidence to teach PE: the nature

and influence of personal school experiences in PE. Physical Education and Sport

Pedagogy, 13(1), 1-29.

Morgan, P., Bourke, S., & Thompson, K. (2002). Physical Educators' Perceptions about Physical

Education: An analysis of the prospective and practising teacher. Paper presented at

the The Annual Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education,

Brisbane.

231

Morgan, P., & Hansen, V. (2008). Classroom teachers’ perceptions of the impact of barriers to

teaching physical education on the quality of physical education programs. Research

Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 79(4), 506-517.

Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (2002). Teaching Physical Education (5th ed.). San Francisco:

Benjamin Cummings.

Pajares, M. (1992). Teachers' beliefs about educational research: Cleaning up a messy

construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307-332.

Pate, R. R., Baranowski, T., Dowda, M. & Trost, S. G. (1996). Tracking of physical activity in

young children. Medicine and Science in Exercise and Sports, 28, 92-96.

Placek, J.H. (1983). Conceptions of success in teaching: Busy, happy and good? In T. Templin &

J. Olsen (Eds.) Teaching in Physical Education (pp 46-56). Champaign, IL: Human

Kinetics.

Placek,J., & Randall, L. (1986). Comparison of academic learning time in physical education:

Students of specialists and nonspecialists. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 5,

157-165.

Premier's Physical Activity Task Force. (2002). Physical Activity Levels of Western Australian

Adults – Results From the Adult Physical Activity Survey And Pedometer Study.

Prusak, K., Vincent, S., & Pangrazi, R. (2005). Teacher Talk. Journal of Physical Education,

Recreation & Dance, 76(5), 21-25.

Puyau, M., Adolph, A., Vohra, F., & Butte, N. (2002). Validation and calibration of physical

activity monitors in children. Obesity Research, 10(3), 150-157.

Reitzug, U. (1994). A case study of empowering principal behavior. American Educational

Research Journal, 31(2), 283-307.

Reeve, J. (1989). The interest-enjoyment distinction in physical education. Motivation and

Emotion, 13, 83-103.

232

Richards, J. 1983. Listening comprehension: Approach, design, procedure. TESOL Quarterly, 17,

2, pp. 219- 240.

Rink, J. E. (1992). The plan and the reality. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance,

63(7), 67-68, 73.

Rink, J. E. (1996). Effective instruction in physical education. In S. Silverman & C. Ennis (Eds.),

Student Learning in Physical Education: Applying Research to Enhance Instruction (171-

198). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Rink, J., & Hall, T. (2008). Research on effective teaching in elementary school physical

education. The Elementary School Journal, 108(3), 207-218.

Rovegno, I., & Bandhauer, D. (1997). Norms of the School Culture That Facilitated Teacher

Adoption and Learning of a Constructivist Approach to Physical Education. Journal of

Teaching in Physical Education, 16, 401- 425.

Sallis, J. F., & Owen, N. (1999). Physical Activity and Behavioural Medicine. Thousand Oakes,

California: Sage Publications.

Sallis, J., Zakarian, J., Hovell, M., & Hofstetter, R. (1996). Ethnic, socioeconomic, and sex

differences in physical activity among adolescents. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology,

49(2), 125-134.

Salmon, J., Telford, A., & Crawford, D. (2004). The Children's Leisure Activities Study (CLASS)

Summary Report. Burwood, Victoria: Deakin University.

Scanlan, T., Carpenter, P., Schmidt, G., Simons, J., & Keeler, B. (1993). An introduction to the

sport Commitment model. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15, 1-15.

Scott, S. (1996). Methods and data in education research. In D. Scott & R. Usher (Eds.),

Understanding Educational Research (pp. 52-73). London: Routledge.

Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational

Researcher, 15, 4-14.

233

Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard

Educational Review, 57(1), 1.

Siedentop, D. (1983). Academic learning time: reflections and prospects. Journal of Teaching in

Physical Education, Summer.

Siedentop, D. (1991). Developing Teaching Skills in Physical Education (3rd ed). Mountain View:

Mayfield Publishing Co.

Siedentop, D., & Eldar, E. (1989). Expertise, experience and effectiveness. Journal of Teaching

in Physical Education, 8, 254-260.

Siedentop, D., Herkowitz, J., & Rink, J. (1984). Elementary Physical Education Methods. New

Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Siedentop, D., & Tannehill, D. (2000). Developing Teaching Skills in Physical Education (4th ed.):

Mayfield publishing company.

Silverman, S., & Ennis, C. (1996). Student Learning in Physical Education: Applying research to

Enhance instruction. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics.

Silverman, S., Tyson, L., & Krampitz, J. (1992). Teacher feedback and achievement in physical

education: Interaction with Student Practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 8(4),

333-344.

Simons-Morton, B., Taylor, W., Snyder, S., & Huang, I. (1993). The physical activity of fifth-

grade students during physical education classes. American Journal of Public Health,

83(2), 262-264.

Solomon, M., & Ashy, M. (1995). Value orientations of preservice teachers. Research Quarterly

for Exercise and Sport, 66(3), 219-230.

Spradley, J.P. (1979). Participant observation. New York: Harcourt Brace.

234

Subramaniam, P., & Silverman, S. (2007). Middle school students' attitudes toward physical

education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 602-611.

Taggart, A., & Sharp, S. (1997). Adolescents and sport: Determinants of Current and Future

Participation. Perth: Sport and physical activity research centre. Edith Cowan

University.

Telford, A., Salmon, J., Timperio, A., & Crawford, D. (2005). Quantifying and characterizing

physical activity among 5- to 6- and 10- to 12- year-old children: The Children's Leisure

Activity Study (CLASS). Pediatric Exercise Science, 17, 266-280.

Tinning, R. (1992). Teacher Education and the Development of Content Knowledge for Physical

Education Teaching. Keynote address presented at The Conference on Teaching

Methods for Physical Education Teaching. Santiago de Compestela, Spain.

Tinning, R. & Fitzclarence, L. (1992) Postmodern youth culture and the crisis in Australian

secondary school physical education. Quest, 44(3), 287-303.

Tinning, R., Macdonald, D., Wright, J., & Hickey, C. (2001). Becoming a physical education

teacher: Contemporary and enduring issues. Frenchs Forrest, NSW: Pearson Education

Australia.

Troiano, R., Berrigan, D., Dodd, K., Masse, L., Tilert, T., & McDowell, M. (2008). Physical activity

in the United States measured by accelerometer. Medicine & Science in Sports &

Exercise, 40(1), 181-188.

Trost, S. (2007). Measurement of physical activity in children and adolescents. American

Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 1, 299-314.

Trost, S. (2005). Discussion paper for the development of recommendations for children’s and

youths’ participation in health promoting physical activity. Canberra: Attorney

General’s Department, Commonwealth of Australia.

Trost, S., McIver, K., & Pate, R. (2005). Conducting Accelerometer-Based Activity Assessments

in Field-Based Research. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 37(11), 531-543.

235

Trost, S., Pate, R., Sallis, J., Freedson, P., Taylor, W., Dowda, M., et al. (2002). Age and gender

differences in objectively measured physical activity in youth. Medicine & Science in

Sports & Exercise, 34, 350-355.

Trudeau, F., & Shephard, R., J. (2005). Contribution of school programmes to physical activity

levels and attitudes in children and adults. Sports Med, 35(2), 89-105.

Tsangaridou, N., & O'Sullivan, M. (2003). Physical education teachers' theories of action and

theories-in-use. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 22, 132-152.

United States Surgeon General's Report. (1996). Physical Activity and Health: Department of

Health and Human Services, Washington, DC, and Centre for Disease Control Atlanta,

Georgia: US Government Printing Office.

Wallhead, T. L., & Buckworth, J. (2004). The role of physical education in the promotion of

youth physical activity. Quest, 56, 285-301.

Whipp, P., Grove, R., & Hutton, H. (2006). Evaluation of the Blue Earth Pilot Schools

Programme in the Peel Districts Schools. Crawley: University of Western Australia.

Whipp, P. R., & Lockhart, E. (2008). Primary teachers’ philosophical physical education

curriculum. Paper presented at the The International Association of Physical Education

in Higher Education (AIESEP) World Congress, Sapporo, Japan.

Whipp, P. & Taggart, A. (2003). Swimming in schools project. Perth: Sport and Physical Activity

Research Centre, Edith Cowan University.

Wiersma, M. (1995). Research methods in education: An introduction. Massachusetts: Allyn

and Bacon.

Wiersma, M. (2001). Conceptualization and development of the sources of enjoyment and

youth sport questionnaire. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise, 5, 153-

177.

236

World Health Organisation. (2000). Draft Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health.

World Health organisation (2010). http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/pa/en/

Xiang, P., Lowy, S., & McBride, R. (2002). The impact of a field-based elementary physical

education methods course on preservice classroom teachers' beliefs. Journal of

Teaching in Physical Education, 21(2), 145-161.

237

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: Grossman (1990) Schematic - Detailed

\\

Knowledge and Beliefs about the

Purpose of Teaching

Interview

VOI-2

Lesson transcription analysis

Analysis of video footage

Analysis of observation schedule


Component of PCK

Evidence of Teaching

Behaviours and Student Outcomes

Data Collection

Method

Practical

Elements of PCK

Teacher Goals

Short term and long term goals

Communication of goals with students

Teaching foci consistent with descriptors of value orientation domains

238


Understanding of Subject Matter


Component of PCK



Data Collection

Method

Practical

Elements of PCK

Explanations given

Use of demonstrations

Frequency, content and

quantity of feedback

Time allocated to: Activity Instruction Management Transition




Teacher Dialogue: Instructions &

Feedback

Lesson Time

Allocation

Teacher Goals

Coded analysis of audio

recordings


Analysis of observation

schedule


Interview

VOI-2




239


Component of PCK



Data Collection

Method

Practical

Elements of PCK

Knowledge of Instructional

Strategies



schedule


schedule



schedule



recordings


Teaching styles employed

Time allocated to: Activity Instruction Management Transition

Explanations given




Curriculum framework outcome attainment

Teaching Styles



Feedback

Opportunities Provided for

Students to Display Learning

240

Knowledge of

Curriculum Content



schedule

VOI-2 (Demographic detail)

Interview



recordings



Component of PCK



Data Collection

Method

Practical

Elements of PCK

Teacher Qualifications &

Experience


Feedback

Opportunities Provided for

Students to Display Learning

Teaching consistencies with VO profile

Description of experience

Explanations given




Curriculum framework outcome attainment

Interview

VOI-2




Teacher Goals




241

APPENDIX B: Value Orientation Inventory -2

PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE As part of research being undertaken by The University of Western Australia we are investigating the impact of the attitudes and values of female teachers of Physical Education on student outcomes. You can help us by completing this questionnaire as honestly as you can and by returning promptly in the enclosed stamped, self-addressed envelope. This questionnaire should take about 20 minutes of your time. All of your answers are confidential. QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUCTIONS Answer every question. Complete all sections.

242

Value Orientation Inventory Below you will find groups or sets of statements that describe goals for students in physical education. Because of limitations in class time, facilities, equipment and scheduling, etc., we often have to make hard choices about which goals are most important for students in our physical education classes. Please read the items in each set and rank them from 1 (most important) to 5 (least important). Although, some items in the various sets may seem similar, they express different goals that educators of physical education believe are important. Directions

1. Please read each statement carefully before responding.

2. Consider the importance of each statement to you as a teacher of PE.

3. Assign your priority (1-5) by ranking each statement.

1=Most important in your planning and teaching

2=Second most important in your planning and teaching

3=somewhat important in your planning and teaching

4=Not very important in your planning and teaching

5=Least important in your planning and teaching

4. Please give each of the statements in the set a different number, even when this

is difficult.

Definitions and Instructions PE – For the purpose of this study all reference to the term ‘PE’ will include any physical activity conducted within the curriculum during school time. It does not include after school sport. It would include things such as PE classes, fitness, sport classes etc. Sample Question Below is an example of how this questionnaire should be filled in. Note you must rank each statement (1-5).

Set A

Statement Rank 1-5 How important are the following guide lines?

1 To eat moderate amounts from each food group 4

2 To eat 5 vegetables and 2 fruits each day 1

3 To eat low GI foods whenever possible 3

4 To include 9 nutrients in a balanced diet 5

5 To drink plenty of water 2

Please turn to the next page to begin answering the questionnaire.

243

Statement Rank

Response 1-5

A Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

1. I teach students rules and strategies for efficient performance in games and sport

2. I guide the students to find balance between their personal abilities and the goals of each team

3. I teach students that disruptive behaviour limits others’ abilities to learn

4. I teach students to select goals consistent with their unique abilities

5. I teach students to solve problems by modifying movements and skills based on the demands of a given situation

B Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

6. I teach students to use class content to work productively alone and in group situations

7. I teach students to work together to solve class problems

8. I teach students the processes associated with learning new skills

9. I teach students to select tasks that they value and enjoy

10. I teach students to move effectively when performing skill and fitness tasks

C Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

11. I teach students that differences in body size, height and weight can lead to differences in performance

12. I encourage students to be the best they can be

13. I teach students to balance their own needs with those of their classmates

14. I require students to practise the skills, sport and fitness activities that I introduce in the class

15. I evaluate students based on their effort in class

D Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

16. I teach students the basic concepts necessary for effective performance in games, sport or fitness activities

17. I urge students to be patient with others who are learning new skills or strategies

18. I teach students to appreciate efficient performance in skill, sport and fitness activities

19. I teach students challenging activities may foster lifetime participation

20. I teach students to complete tasks so they will learn responsibility

244

Statement Rank

Response 1-5

E Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

21. I allow each student to express personal preferences for class activities.

22. I teach students to think carefully about the rules to be sure that all students have an equal chance to play

23. I plan classes so that students can select from different activities to find those that are meaningful to them

24. I teach students to apply their understanding of basic movement, skill and fitness concepts to the development of their own sport and exercise programme

25. I include grade-appropriate information about moving and exercise from such areas as anatomy, biomechanics and exercise physiology

F Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

26. I teach students to use the abilities of every member on their team

27. I encourage students to participate in a variety of activities to gain a greater understanding of themselves

28. I teach students skills so they will enjoy playing sports and games

29. I teach students to observe their partners movements and offer feedback to improve performance

30. I talk with students about the problems they sometimes have with their classmates and help them to work out solutions

G Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

31. I sequence tasks so that students can understand how each physical activity contributes to their fitness or skill performance

32. I teach students to be positive and supportive when speaking with other students

33. I teach students games, sport and fitness activities so they can participate with others

34. I teach students to select activities that are important to them

35. I teach students to share their knowledge to solve group problems

H Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

36. I teach students that group goals, at times, are more important that their own individual needs

37. I encourage students to enjoy learning skills, games and fitness activities

38. I teach students to look to the future and learn activities for participation after they finish school

39. I reward students who try to perform even when they are not successful

40. I teach students to share their knowledge to solve problems

245

Statement Rank

Response 1-5

I Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

41. I plan so that students must combine several movements or skills to solve movement problems

42. I teach students to work together to make our class a better place to be

43. I teach students about principles and concepts of exercise and movement that everyone needs to know to lead a healthy life

44. I teach students to make decisions about activities they would like to learn for the future

45. I teach students to take responsibility for their own actions

J Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

46. I plan so that classes reflect an emphasis on social interaction, personal success and effective performance

47. I teach students to appreciate the benefits of movement, skills and fitness in an active, healthy lifestyle

48. I plan units so that students add new performance skills and knowledge to those that were learned in earlier units

49. I encourage students to experience new activities that they have never tried before

50. I teach students to be aware of differences in ability in our class and help others who need assistance

K Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

51. I teach students to enjoy and protect the natural surroundings when we have class outside

52. I challenge students to learn new things about themselves

53. I teach students to use many forms of feedback too improve their movement, skill and fitness performance

54. I teach students to create a better class environment by talking through problems rather than fighting

55. I teach students to become skilled and fit

L Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

56. I teach students the most effective way to perform specific movements and skills

57. I teach students to work independently on activities

58. I teach students that gradually increasing task difficulty will lead to improved performance

59. I teach students to try new activities to find ones that they enjoy

60. I plan so that lines, teams and squads in my classes include a mixture of boys and girls

246

M Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

61. I teach students to work positively with other students of different sexes, race or abilities

62. I teach students to find activities that they enjoy doing or find useful

63. I point out to students ways in which a new skill is similar to a skill we have already learned

64. I include activities that represent specific interests and abilities of students in my classes

65. I teach students to perform exercise skills and movement fundamentals correctly

N Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

66. I teach students to test themselves to identify their own strengths and weaknesses

67. I create a class environment where students can feel physically and emotionally safe

68. I teach students to monitor and improve their own performance based on specific criteria

69. I guide students to assume responsibility with our class community

70. I teach students why skills are best performed using specific techniques

O Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

71. I plan group activities so that students from different cultural backgrounds will learn to appreciate each other

72. I require students to spend class time practicing games, skill and fitness activities emphasised in the daily objectives

73. I talk with students about their concerns and help them participate in the activities they feel are most important

74. I balance my curriculum so that students learn about their own capabilities as well as the capabilities of others

75. I teach students to apply skills in appropriate game and exercise situations

P Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

76. I teach students to explore many alternatives to discover the right way to perform

77. I teach students to ask questions about content that is meaningful to them

78. I teach students about the positive effects of exercise on their bodies

79. I teach students to try difficult tasks to better understand their abilities

80. I teach students that when they create rules that are not fair for everyone, they should stop and decide how to change them to make them fair for all

247

Please make sure you gave each statement in each set an importance ranking. You should have written a number (1-5) beside each statement in each set (A-R).

Statement Rank

Response 1-5

Q Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

81. I teach students to develop their own rules that are fair and safe for all

82. I teach students to perform complex skills by combining simple movements

83. I teach students to select the best option or strategy to balance their needs with those of their team

84. I teach students to work independently to complete movement, skill and fitness tasks

85. I plan so that students exercise at optimal frequency, intensity and duration levels to improve their fitness

R Be sure to use a different number for each item in the set (1-5)

86. I plan so that students are practicing skills, games or fitness tasks

87. I teach students how to break down movement, skills and fitness tasks to emphasise the most critical components for learning

88. I teach students to question me and other classmates about what we are doing and why we are doing it in a particular way

89. I teach students to use skills learned in class to help their team

90. I plan so that students may select the most challenging and relevant tasks among several options.

248

APPENDIX C: Observation Schedule with Explanation of Terminology: First and final page only displayed

OBSERVATION SCHEDULE OBSERVER: ___________________ DATE: __________ SCHOOL: ______________________ YEAR GROUP: ______ TEACHER:_______________ OBSERVATION: _________ NO. OF STUDENTS: _____________ NON-PARTICIPANTS: __________________ ENVIRONMENT: ________________ LESSON COMMENCED AT: _____________________ LESSON CONCLUDED AT: _____________________ TOTAL LESSON TIME: _______________ ACTIGRAPH 1 (BLUE) ________________________________ 2 (RED) ________________________________ 3 (GREEN) ________________________________ 4 (YELLOW) ________________________________

TIME TIME ACTIVITY OBSERVATION FOCUS

BEHAVIOUR LEVEL Evidence Details COMMENTS

Details Min Activity Code

Description of Activity

Activity Focus

Learner Involvement

SPA IPS SMS A&V E.G Differentiation, inclusivity, appropriate behaviour, student

engagement, general

Target Student 1

Target Student 2

Target student 3

Target student 4

GTS

(ON/OFF)

Target Student 1

Target Student 2

Target student 3

Target student 4

249

DEFINITIONS

Student Performance Teacher

Level Evidence Of:

ACTIVITY ACTIVITY FOCUS BEHAVIOUR Learner Involvement

SPA IPS SMS A&V Qualities

A = Activity I = Instruction (rules, strategy, skill) M = Management (Class business not related to instruction) B = Break (rest) T = Transition (managerial and organisational) W = Warm Up (Routine exercise to prepare student for engaging in further activity)

SP = Skill Practise + T = Technique CO = Co-ord B = Balance P = Posture G = Games F = Fitness + S = Strength F = Flexibility A = Agility CV = Cardio Vascular

C = Cognitive/instruction I = Interim/Transition MA = Motor appropriate MI = Motor Inappropriate ON = On task – C, MA, I, W OFF = Off Task – MI or W W = Waiting

Students must have opportunity to relate to each other Must be explicit in teacher talk Working with others – at least partner/small group

Students must be given opportunities to be involved in: Making decisions Goal setting Assessing consequences Making choices

(Cognitive engagement) R = responsibility accepted for health IPA = Importance of physical activity C = Collaboration and cooperation S = Safe and supportive environment I = Inclusive of all

250

Explanation of Terminology

Activity: This is what best describes a lesson component. For example; instruction, management, activity, warm up, transition or break.

Activity Focus: This is what best describes the purpose of the activity. For example; skills practise (technique, co-ordination or balance), games fitness (strength,

flexibility, cardiovascular/endurance), agility, breathing activities and posture.

Behaviour/Learner involvement: This is described in two parts. First the learner involvement with the content of the lesson was assessed, e.g. cognitive

(instruction/attentive), interim/transition, motor appropriate and motor inappropriate, on/off task and waiting time. Second, the successful engagement of

participants in activities related to the lesson contact was observed at intervals throughout the lesson.

Health & Physical Education Learning Area Outcomes (HPE LAO)

a) Knowledge and understanding: Students learn about health and physical activity concepts that enable informed decisions for a healthy and active

lifestyle.

b) Attitudes and values: This should be explicit in teacher talk and includes responsibility accepted for own health, importance of PA, collaboration

and cooperation, safe and supportive environment, inclusive, personal excellence and acknowledging others.

c) Skills for physical activity: Strategies and skill development opportunities and progressions of skills to extend development. Levels:

ii. The student demonstrates a wide range of fundamental movement skills and an awareness of the rules and other participants in

simple games and physical activities.

iii. The student performs controlled movement skills and demonstrates basic game strategies within rules in minor games and

physical activity.

251

d) Self-management skills: Students must be given opportunities to make decisions, be involved in goal setting, assess consequences, make choices

and make strategic decisions that enhance personal and team performance.

e) Interpersonal skills: To display these behaviours the students must have the opportunity to relate to each other. Tasks must show that the activity

is working with others in at least partner/small group work. Interpersonal skills (IPS) must be explicit in teacher talk. This includes skills for

negotiation, conflict resolution and group roles (leader, coach etc).

General Comments: Observations relating to teaching style, differentiation, inclusivity, appropriate behaviour and student engagement as well as general

comments detailing activities (Appendix).

Teaching Styles: Describe the teaching pedagogy employed by the teacher and was categorised using Mosston and Ashworth’s ten teaching styles (2002). Of the

ten teaching styles, three were observed during the evaluation period and will be reported on.

These are:

a) Command style: The teacher makes all the decision about location, posture, starting time, pace and rhythm, stopping time, duration and interval

of the activity.

b) Practise style: The teacher makes the pre-impact and post-impact decisions and students are provided with time to practise the skill or activity.

c) Reciprocal style: Students work in pairs where one student is the active participant and the other acts as the observer, providing corrective

feedback on the skill being demonstrated.

252

APPENDIX D: Completed Observation Schedule and Researcher Field

253

254

255

256

Researcher Field Notes

Bathurst Primary School, Observation 1

Time (mins) Researcher Field Notes

1 All students focussed on teacher and do not appear to be distracted by my

presence.

3 Students’ still rally focussed on teacher, all appear to be listening to

instructions and really keen to take part. Even remembering to sit down

at end of activity.

8 Discussion – many children taking part. Sarah’s body language – she is

crouched on ground at level of children. Everyone obviously knows what

they should be doing.

10 Sarah is circulating to all groups, providing feedback

13 Students stop immediately and transition to Sarah for next instructions.

All students sitting and appear focussed.

14 Student’s keen to participate in instruction and demonstrations.

18 Sarah circulating to all groups and providing feedback. When standing,

she is in a position where she can see all students.

23 Students commence task enthusiastically.

29 Yellow bib injured – sat out for rest of lesson.

32 Only one student active in each group, others waiting patiently. One boy

next to tree appears distracted/off task.

33 Interruption. Lesson paused and moved to undercover area. Some

students distracted (approx. 6).

35 Teacher refocuses students with engaging discussion and student

demonstration. Waiting until interruption has passed.

257

APPENDIX E: Lesson Transcript – Not Coded

OBSERVER Julia NO. OF STUDENTS 25

DATE 28-5-08 NON-PARTICIPANTS 2

SCHOOL Geordie Bay ENVIRONMENT Over cast/rain , soccer

oval, undercover sports

area

YEAR GROUP 6 LESSON COMMENCED AT 11.15 am

TEACHER Melanie LESSON CONCLUDED AT 11.40 am

OBSERVATION 2 TOTAL LESSON TIME 24 min 45 sec

TIME TRANSCRIPTION

01.23 01.45 02.00 02.15 02.30 02.45 03.00 03.15 03.30 03.45

Ok. Today we’re going to get into the glory part of soccer. What is the glory part of soccer? Who thinks they know. We’re going to try and kick for gold. Now you will have noticed that there are some coloured markers around the areas there. Each set of colour or is a set of goals. There you’ve got two green markers – that’s a green goal, two yellow – that’s a yellow goal and so on as you go along. And the same on this side as well. Working in partners, you are going to practise kicking your goals – One from the ground, and two from a volley. Just explain to you each of those. Stuart – if you would like to stand up and pop yourself over there. Stuart is going to try and kick a goal and he’s going to be aiming out that way so he’s not going to hit anyone else. I’m going to roll him the ball to start with just down in front and then he’s going to kick to with his preferred foot. And that will be a goal because it’s straight through the middle of the markers – our imaginary markers – that’s fine. Stuart’s off to go and get that – fantastic. OK Ethan – standing up. Now this one may be just a little bit trickier – that why Stuart has joined the back of the group there. Hold onto the ball for me. Now this one is a volley – that means the ball is coming in through the air- ok. Now, because we’re just doing this for our learning purposes I’m going to ask you to just hold on to the ball and you can kick it like a football so just drop it onto your shoe and try and kick it out in front of your partner. They are going to try and kick it out of the air to score a goal. Ok So you might try and pretend like you were like David Beckham or. Oh there goes the camera. OK try and kick for goal Ethan. There we go – very good. All right. So that’s are your two types of kicking for goal today. They are your two types of kicking for goal today. I want you to practise your rolling first – do five of those each – and then your volley. So try and kick it out in front of your partner. Remember we always want the ball to be out in front – why is the ball out in front? Yes Gav? Student

258

04.00 04.15 04.45 05.00 05.15 05.30 05.45 06.00 06.15 06.30 06.45 07.00

So you don’t have to move backwards – your momentum is going forwards isn’t it? Yes and you want to try and kick towards the goal. So – in partners – five of each – swap after every time. So once the person has kicked it swap over the kicker. Ok, but you want to aim for your colours. Ethan – Ok you kick the ball to partners – one ball between two, one set of markers for your goals – off you go. Ok. I want you to grab a softball. Grab a ball. Yes. Ok then Kelly can you go in a group of three. So one of you can just be waiting in the back to collect the ball and bring it in. Ok – there are your goals. All right and I want you to stand from over there and I want you to kick it through the goals. Ok – so you can practise your goal kicking. You don’t have a goal you can still practise your goal kicking. What you might want to do on the volley is toss it up for yourself and then kick it and you might want to practise over and above. Ok, remember you have to keep it lower. Don’t want to head it over the cross bar. That’s it. Ok, so swap over now. Yes that’s it swap over. Do one kick each and swap over. Are you between – boys – Ethan and Bruno jump over and on the green markers for me? You go up there. One of you between the yellow markers here. Cough Oh sorry – my mistake. Whose rolling it. Student – Me. Ok sorry just stand over on the side. Yep – that’s it and watch your foot Wyner. Ok so you’re going to try and get it in front and kick it through on your right. Yep. Good job Ok. Come back over here Gareth. So Gareth’s turn to kick – your got to roll it to get. Quick, run over here. Ok, give the ball to Casey. Ok you’re going to kick it Gav – stand on the side here. Casey – you’re going to roll it out in front of you and kick. Good goal. That’s it – good goal. Good job. Ok, you guys using the white ones here? Brilliant. Adam and Kevin and Jordan – Josh come and use the white ones. Yep, so you’re in a group of three as well. Ok. So just maybe stand back a little Adam so he’s actually wanting to score a goal. You’re not allowed to hit out. Stop it Justin. Let him score the goal. Remember, we want some glory – we want some glory ok so switch around – rotate every time Yep. Cough Come you coming up here? Student – Doing the volley. Ok Pete. Who’s kicking? Student – I am. Ok, so Tommy are you going to stand over the side? You’re going to roll it out in

259

07.15 07.30 07.45 08.00 08.15 08.30 08.45 09.00 09.15 09.30 09.45

front of Pete and he’s going to run onto the ball and kick a goal. Ok – you don’t get any chance – you got to use your feet. Ok. Yeah, you’re kicking between the blue markers. Ok, here’s your partner. Ok Daniel come out the front – whose turn is it to kick? Ok, so you’re going to stand over there. You going to roll the ball out in front of Matt and he’s going to kick for goal. That come – come over this way a bit Matt. Stand back there – there you go. Ok, roll it out in front – and kick for gold. Good job – now you run and go get it, Daniel – your turn to kick. Cough Ok, Ethan. Who’s turn to kick? Whose turn is it to kick? Ok so you stand over there, give Dino the ball, Ethan you’re over here, Gino you going to roll out in front of Ethan – now kick for gold. Ohh – he’s a wooss. Ok, you go and get the ball now it’s your turn to kick. Ok. Josh over here. Whose turn is it to kick? Ok you’re standing here, Josh up here, Rolly’s on the side. Student Yes that good. And ohhh so Joshua you go and get it and now it your turn to. No, you are between the yellow ones. Keep going Andrew. Student – I hit Daniel on the back. Yes, I noticed. You’re tough. Ok, that it, Matt gets the ball, Daniel you’re the kicker. Ok. Pretty good. You switching over? Have you don’t some volleys? So this time – or this time you can just toss it to her if you like. So you’re going to toss it up in the air and you’re going to try and kick it in the air? Student Yep if – then you want to aim at the goals. Ok. So its your turn to kick – good throw – Student – Leave it. Come back over this way. Don’t have a goalie at this moment. Student You’re supposed to be throwing the ball or rolling. From the side. Cough Ok, boys over here. Ok, I want you to practise on your volleys now. Up you come. Student Oh you are. Come over here then. You’re another goalie – they need a goalie – we’re kicking for glory – yes. Ok. Ohhhh Student – I got it. Ohh brilliant- love it – love it. Student – One more Matt. Ok. you boys got volleys happening now?

260

10.00 10.15 10.30 10.45 11.00 11.15 11.30 11.50 12.00 12.15

Student – Yep Ok – yeah you can throw it in – that’s fine. Good, that’s a good technique – that’s all right. That’s a great effort Josh. Ok – have you boys started on your volleys? Student – Yea. If you, if you come from the side – come from the side – remember its like its in a game and the play is all coming down this way – aiming to give to the striker so you can either turn like a throw in from the side line and over and two hands over the head. Just off the turn, the other way. Ok. Student That’s it. Come on boys pass it back. Run over there Tommy. Whistle Ok, everybody had not so quick, hustle in. Good job. Good on you, Casey, that’s it Angelo. Hurry back Casey Students – go go He’s Oh just. Just – what a bummer. Ok, have a seat guys. Thank you. All right this time I’m going to break you up into groups of three. Same sort of thing – we’re going to have two people out in the middle - you’re going to pass to the kicker or the striker and then you’re going to have a goal keeper this time. So they want to – what the purpose of having a goal keeper in a game? Shannon. Student - To stop you from getting a goal. Stop you from scoring a goal. That’s right. Now, what part of the body do you think a goal keeper is allowed to use to stop the ball? Adam. Student – Do mean like all the things they can use? Yep Or one example. Student You can use your feet, um your head your chest. The whole body – yes – I like how you gave examples there Adam – that was great. Angelo and Ben, well done. The whole body. The goal keeper is allowed to use whatever part of their body they can to try and stop the ball from crossing the line. Now do you think it’s a good idea to stand behind the goals in there or out in front a little bit? Students – Out in front. Why out in front? Steph. Student – If you fall back over while catching it it’s going to be. Great. If you fall back over the line its still considered a goal isn’t it. Because you’ve cross the line, so wouldn’t stop the ball before it gets to the line. That’s great.

261

12.30 12.45 13.00 13.15 13.30. 13.45 14.00 14.15 14.30 14.45 15.00

Now the other thing also – When you are waiting for the ball to come to you – should you stand like a scarecrow – up nice and straight or is there a better way of doing it? Gino? Student – Bend your knees. Why should we bend out knees? Student – So we can get rid of the ….. That’s a good one. What else could we do to help us to be a better goal kicker? Kelly? Have a go. Don’t hold back. What were you going to say? Student Oh you were going to say. I’m sure as you ever yes. Student Keep your eyes on the ball. Keep your eyes on the ball – fantastic. Always make sure tracking the ball that comes towards us. Yes. Student – Don’t wait for the ball to come to you. Cough Student – Run to the ball. Ok. Very good – attack the ball – great. Anything else? All right. Just going back to what Gino was saying - He was saying having our knees bent. We’re going to have our weight going forward so – wouldn’t it be more on the balls of our feet? Not back on our heels thinking that we’re going to be the old man in the couch. So we want to be up on our toes on the balls of our feet and our attacking body is facing the ball. Knees bent. Hips bent and relaxed in a relaxed position so that we can move left, right or we can jump. Excellent Gino. Ok, so that’s what I am looking for when I am wandering up and down checking out the goalies. Now with the striker and for your person who is delivering the ball it is a push pass, ok, want to pass the ball to your striker, striker is there and going to kick for goal. So position your striker and your mid-fielder in the middle here and your goals are going out that way. Ok. No its not. Yes it is happening. Ok we need to very very fast grab all the markers, grab a ball – lets go. Cough Ok – balls in the bucket. Let’s head for the undercover area. Student – I’ll take these. Yes – grab the markers, grab the drink bottles. Student – Can I bring the bins. Yea – whoever is on it? Gino’s on it. Um – we can carry that bucket for Julia – yes please. Someone grab Julia’s chair. Lets go. – Out of the room Cough

262

15.15 15.45 16.00 16.15 16.30 16.45 17.00 17.15 17.30 17.45 18.00 18.15 18.30 18.45 19.00 19.15

No idea Let’s go. Ok. No. 11.40 Ok. Markers just over here, ok. Everybody over here sitting in groups of two. Cough Three Two One. And sitting in your groups – gee – well done boys. Got a group of three here, got a group of three there. Over here. Ok Wyona come over here, Ben and Angelo need an extra person in their group. Ok. Instead of having the markers we’re just going to use the posts. All right so just aim for the ground or at least mid height. Ok try not to kick it too high – we don’t want any on the roof. All right – same thing – exactly the same activity where you are just aiming in between the two posts – they are your goals. Its great we’ve got a line we can use – that’s our goal line. So – one ball between each group. Set yourselves up your striker and your midfield in the middle and your goal keeper on the left outside. You can have a sub ball and just over here on the veranda. I want you to just to push all the door and try and kick it up to the wall and as it comes back to you control it with your body and then kick it back up to the wall again. Ok. So you are kind of playing ping pong with the ball on the wall. All right. Ok, get started straight away. Pass. Girls, come back this way a little bit. Stay there – yea. Yep Step in front of the line. Leanne come down a little bit – you have to kick them out a little bit. Ok Jess – are you going to pass the ball to Leanne or come over this way – do you remember last week. Ok on this angle you are going to hit to Leanne then Leanne going to his across. Ok, out this way a little bit more – you’re going to pass on the angle and then kick the ball. Cough Pass on the angle. Who’s goalie? Lyndon ok. Daniel and Matt come down this way a little bit. Use your feet just now, use your feet now. You going to pass it to? Edward. Pass in front of Dan – in front of him yes. Oh ok and then rotate. And I might have you rotating that’s excellent boys. Great that’s excellent. Good, nice try boys – nice and pass using your foot. Cough Oh – sorry girls. Ok – rotating, passing, ohhhhh – just missed. Ok rotate. Oh, nice effort Josh. There Ben up you get – have you rotated? Rowan – are you kicking now? There you go Ben – that’s it.

263

19.30 19.45 20.00 20.15 20.30 20.45 21.00 21.30 22.00 22.30 22.45 23.00 23.15 24.00 24.15

Are you all right? Ok rotate. Rotate. Yep rotate. If you needed to come from the other side Angelo then you can work that out. Let it go down to the end of the. Try and avoid that area there. Student – Can we go get our ball cos it’s. Yea, run and get it. Oh, still counts as a goal - off the inside post. Ricochets in – that’s a goal. Ok, nice work. Boys you can even extend this out a little bit so you can a little more of a run up to get some goals. Cough That’s it, Andrew – keep going. That’s it. Kick it. Good. Remember try and block it down with your body as well so – with your chest down. That’s all right – keep going. That’s it – well done – well done. Yea Ohh – it’s another goal. Steph you should pass. Practise that push pass yea? Don’t grab it in Gino. That’s it, nice goal. Cough Sorry guys. Keep going. Whistle Ok, over. Hurry it in. Now walk it in – let go. Come on. Right. Not a bad effort – who scored a goal? Fantastic Oh, - look at that. Perth Glory are going to be all over you. Ok, we are now going to have – hold the balls please. Thanks. We’re now going to play a very quick game of. Laughter I know you’re excited – we’re not playing a complete soccer game – we’re a little bit restricted to what we can do here. Oh, they’re moving – making it a little bit better for us. We’re going to be in the middle here – it’s going to be a knock out – two teams are going to have a ball and going to try and knock over as many of their markers as you can. The team who knocks over the most, obviously, No, ok. If your name starts with A B C D E then they’ll go over there, If it starts with G G H I J K L on that side. Cough One, two three four four five six seven eight nine ten. And let’s just go one two three over there. Two over there. Tommy over there – Peter over there. Ben over there and Wayne over there. Student Yeah Whistle

264

24.30 24.45 25.00 25.15 25.30 25.45 26.00 26.15 26.30 26.45 27.00 27.15 27.30 27.45

Ok. I need you – this team whoever is going to sit down there and count and hope that they don’t get any. You’ve all got to line up here in the middle With a ball each please facing the library – one Line in line with me. Josh – whose got the sport. Yep, grab a ball each. Yes. Cough Cough. Ok, balls on the grounds. Lining up with me, then under here facing markers. Whistle Balls are on the ground. We are playing soccer – we are not supposed to touch or hold balls with our hand, this hand. Ready to aim. And shoot. Students Oooohhhh And zero. Ok – got to go to their class next. Swap over. They’re all here – make sure there’s a ball behind this. Cough Whistle Can I have team A sitting over there with Tommy please? Whistle Year 6 – 6 – Team A sit. Team Z – well start at the end of the alphabet – you should have one ball each. I think there’s a couple of spares in there. Ok – one ball each ready to aim. Shoot Students – Ooohhh Whistle Ok – go get your ball please. Team A back to the line. Cough Stand the – stand the marker up please. Adam, go and stand the marker up please. One – two – got to make sure – you need a ball. There you go Student – Thank you. Three four, five six – Shannon which team are you in? Right. Ok. Playing field set. Thanks seven. Ready, aim – shoot. Students – Ohhhhhh. Oh. There you go – a Set. Teachers Soft’ yeah. Team Z I need you to step back in line with me please. Thank you. Ethan – Roll it back. And ready shoot. Ohhh – I have a feeling that the winning team is Team Z.

265

28.00 28.30

Students – Yeah All right. Year 6 I need all the soccer balls in the red bucket. All of the markers picked up, and lining up here with Miss Janine please. Yes you can. Careful we’ve got the. Please. Josh. I should have two lines with Miss Janine that’s why we don’t throw them to Pete. Lucky it was me and not your classmate. Two lines. Come on Year 6. Ok. Well done.

266

APPENDIX F: Lesson Transcript – Coded

Key - Feedback Value Statements – Judgement (either positive or negative) Learning/task Related Corrective Statements – Error and/or correction in learning/task related behaviour Discipline Corrective Statements – Error and/or correction in behaviour Neutral Statements – Acknowledgement without judgement Ambiguous feedback – Leave room for interpretation or misinterpretation Key – Instructions Learning Management

TIME TRANSCRIPTION

01.23 01.45 02.00 02.15 02.30 02.45 03.00

Ok. Today we’re going to get into the glory part of soccer. What is the glory part of soccer? Who thinks they know. We’re going to try and kick for gold. Now you will have noticed that there are some coloured markers around the areas there. Each set of colour or is a set of goals. There you’ve got two green markers – that’s a green goal, two yellow – that’s a yellow goal and so on as you go along. And the same on this side as well. Working in partners, you are going to practise kicking your goals – One from the ground, and two from a volley. Just explain to you each of those. Stuart – if you would like to stand up and pop yourself over there. Stuart is going to try and kick a goal and he’s going to be aiming out that way so he’s not going to hit anyone else. I’m going to roll him the ball to start with just down in front and then he’s going to kick to with his preferred foot. And that will be a goal because it’s straight through the middle of the markers – our imaginary markers – that’s fine. Stuart’s off to go and get that – fantastic. OK Ethan – standing up. Now this one may be just a little bit trickier – that why Stuart has joined the back of the group there. Hold onto the ball for me. Now this one is a volley – that means the ball is coming in through the air- ok. Now, because we’re just doing this for our learning purposes I’m going to ask you to just hold on to the ball and you can kick it like a football so just drop it onto your

OBSERVER Julia NO. OF STUDENTS 25

DATE 28-5-08 NON-PARTICIPANTS 2

SCHOOL Geordie Bay ENVIRONMENT Over cast/rain , soccer

oval, undercover sports

area


TEACHER Melanie LESSON CONCLUDED AT 11.40 am

OBSERVATION 2 TOTAL LESSON TIME 24 min 45 sec

267

03.15 03.30 03.45 04.00 04.15 04.45 05.00 05.15 05.30 05.45 06.00 06.15

shoe and try and kick it out in front of your partner. They are going to try and kick it out of the air to score a goal. Ok So you might try and pretend like you were like David Beckham or. Oh there goes the camera. OK try and kick for goal Ethan. There we go – very good. All right. So that’s are your two types of kicking for goal today. They are your two types of kicking for goal today. I want you to practise your rolling first – do five of those each – and then your volley. So try and kick it out in front of your partner. Remember we always want the ball to be out in front – why is the ball out in front? Yes Gav? Student So you don’t have to move backwards – your momentum is going forwards isn’t it? Yes and you want to try and kick towards the goal. So – in partners – five of each – swap after every time. So once the person has kicked it swap over the kicker. Ok, but you want to aim for your colours. Ethan – Ok you kick the ball to partners – one ball between two, one set of markers for your goals – off you go. Ok. I want you to grab a softball. Grab a ball. Yes. Ok then Kelly can you go in a group of three. So one of you can just be waiting in the back to collect the ball and bring it in. Ok – there are your goals. All right and I want you to stand from over there and I want you to kick it through the goals. Ok – so you can practise your goal kicking. You don’t have a goal you can still practise your goal kicking. What you might want to do on the volley is toss it up for yourself and then kick it and you might want to practice over and above. Ok, remember you have to keep it lower. Don’t want to head it over the cross bar. That’s it. Ok, so swap over now. Yes that’s it swap over. Do one kick each and swap over. Are you between – boys – Ethan and Bruno jump over and on the green markers for me? You go up there. One of you between the yellow markers here. Cough Oh sorry – my mistake. Who’s rolling it. Student – Me. Ok sorry just stand over on the side. Yep – that’s it and watch your foot Wyner. Ok so you’re going to try and get it in front and kick it through on your right. Yep. Good job Ok. Come back over here Gareth. So Gareth’s turn to kick – your got to roll it to get. Quick, run over here. Ok, give the ball to Casey. Ok you’re going to kick it Gav – stand on the side here. Casey – you’re going to roll it out in front of you and kick. Good goal. That’s it – good goal. Good job. Ok, you guys using the white ones here? Brilliant.

268

06.30 06.45 07.00 07.15 07.30 07.45 08.00 08.15 08.30 08.45 09.00 09.15

Adam and Kevin and Jordan – Josh come and use the white ones. Yep, so you’re in a group of three as well. Ok. So just maybe stand back a little Adam so he’s actually wanting to score a goal. You’re not allowed to hit out. Stop it Justin. Let him score the goal. Remember, we want some glory – we want some glory ok so switch around – rotate every time Yep. Cough Come you coming up here? Student – Doing the volley. Ok Pete. Who’s kicking? Student – I am. Ok, so Tommy are you going to stand over the side? You’re going to roll it out in front of Pete and he’s going to run onto the ball and kick a goal. Ok – you don’t get any chance – you got to use your feet. Ok. Yeah, you’re kicking between the blue markers. Ok, here’s your partner. Ok Daniel come out the front – whose turn is it to kick? Ok, so you’re going to stand over there. You going to roll the ball out in front of Matt and he’s going to kick for goal. That come – come over this way a bit Matt. Stand back there – there you go. Ok, roll it out in front – and kick for gold. Good job – now you run and go get it, Daniel – your turn to kick. Cough Ok, Ethan. Who’s turn to kick? Whose turn is it to kick? Ok so you stand over there, give Dino the ball, Ethan you’re over here, Gino you going to roll out in front of Ethan – now kick for gold. Ohh – he’s a wooss. Ok, you go and get the ball now it’s your turn to kick. Ok. Josh over here. Whose turn is it to kick? Ok you’re standing here, Josh up here, Rolly’s on the side. Student Yes that good. And ohhh so Joshua you go and get it and now it your turn to. No, you are between the yellow ones. Keep going Andrew. Student – I hit Daniel on the back. Yes, I noticed. You’re tough. Ok, that it, Matt gets the ball, Daniel you’re the kicker. Ok. Pretty good. You switching over? Have you don’t some volleys? So this time – or this time you can just toss it to her if you like. So you’re going to toss it up in the air and you’re going to try and kick it in the air? Student Yep if – then you want to aim at the goals. Ok. So its your turn to kick – good throw – Student – Leave it. Come back over this way. Don’t have a goalie at this moment. Student

269

09.30 09.45 10.00 10.15 10.30 10.45 11.00 11.15 11.30 11.50

You’re supposed to be throwing the ball or rolling. From the side. Cough Ok, boys over here. Ok, I want you to practise on your volleys now. Up you come. Student Oh you are. Come over here then. You’re another goalie – they need a goalie – we’re kicking for glory – yes. Ok. Ohhhh Student – I got it. Ohh brilliant- love it – love it. Student – One more Matt. Ok. you boys got volleys happening now? Student – Yep Ok – yeah you can throw it in – that’s fine. Good, that’s a good technique – that’s all right. That’s a great effort Josh. Ok – have you boys started on your volleys? Student – Yea. If you, if you come from the side – come from the side – remember its like its in a game and the play is all coming down this way – aiming to give to the striker so you can either turn like a throw in from the side line and over and two hands over the head. Just off the turn, the other way. Ok. Student That’s it. Come on boys pass it back. Run over there Tommy. Whistle Ok, everybody had not so quick, hustle in. Good job. Good on you, Casey, that’s it Angelo. Hurry back Casey Students – go go He’s Oh just. Just – what a bummer. Ok, have a seat guys. Thank you. All right this time I’m going to break you up into groups of three. Same sort of thing – we’re going to have two people out in the middle - you’re going to pass to the kicker or the striker and then you’re going to have a goal keeper this time. So they want to – what the purpose of having a goal keeper in a game? Shannon. Student - To stop you from getting a goal. Stop you from scoring a goal. That’s right. Now, what part of the body do you think a goal keeper is allowed to use to stop the ball? Adam. Student – Do mean like all the things they can use? Yep Or one example. Student You can use your feet, um your head your chest.

270

12.00 12.15 12.30 12.45 13.00 13.15 13.30. 13.45 14.00 14.15

The whole body – yes – I like how you gave examples there Adam – that was great. Angelo and Ben, well done. The whole body. The goal keeper is allowed to use whatever part of their body they can to try and stop the ball from crossing the line. Now do you think it’s a good idea to stand behind the goals in there or out in front a little bit? Students – Out in front. Why out in front? Steph. Student – If you fall back over while catching it it’s going to be. Great. If you fall back over the line its still considered a goal isn’t it. Because you’ve cross the line, so wouldn’t stop the ball before it gets to the line. That’s great. Now the other thing also – When you are waiting for the ball to come to you – should you stand like a scarecrow – up nice and straight or is there a better way of doing it? Gino? Student – Bend your knees. Why should we bend out knees? Student – So we can get rid of the ….. That’s a good one. What else could we do to help us to be a better goal kicker? Kelly? Have a go. Don’t hold back. What were you going to say? Student Oh you were going to say. I’m sure as you ever yes. Student Keep your eyes on the ball. Keep your eyes on the ball – fantastic. Always make sure tracking the ball that comes towards us. Yes. Student – Don’t wait for the ball to come to you. Cough Student – Run to the ball. Ok. Very good – attack the ball – great. Anything else? All right. Just going back to what Gino was saying - He was saying having our knees bent. We’re going to have our weight going forward so – wouldn’t it be more on the balls of our feet? Not back on our heels thinking that we’re going to be the old man in the couch. So we want to be up on our toes on the balls of our feet and our attacking body is facing the ball. Knees bent. Hips bent and relaxed in a relaxed position so that we can move left, right or we can jump. Excellent Gino. Ok, so that’s what I am looking for when I am wandering up and down checking out the goalies. Now with the striker and for your person who is delivering the ball it is a push pass, ok, want to pass the ball to your striker, striker is there and going to kick for goal. So position your striker and your mid-fielder in the middle here and your goals are going out that way. Ok.

271

14.30 14.45 15.00 15.15 15.45 16.00 16.15 16.30 16.45 17.00 17.15 17.30 17.45 18.00 18.15

No its not. Yes it is happening. Ok we need to very very fast grab all the markers, grab a ball – lets go. Cough Ok – balls in the bucket. Let’s head for the undercover area. Student – I’ll take these. Yes – grab the markers, grab the drink bottles. Student – Can I bring the bins. Yea – whoever is on it? Gino’s on it. Um – we can carry that bucket for Julia – yes please. Someone grab Julia’s chair. Lets go. – Out of the room Cough No idea Let’s go. Ok. No. 11.40 Ok. Markers just over here, ok. Everybody over here sitting in groups of two. Cough Three Two One. And sitting in your groups – gee – well done boys. Got a group of three here, got a group of three there. Over here. Ok Wyona come over here, Ben and Angelo need an extra person in their group. Ok. Instead of having the markers we’re just going to use the posts. All right so just aim for the ground or at least mid height. Ok try not to kick it too high – we don’t want any on the roof. All right – same thing – exactly the same activity where you are just aiming in between the two posts – they are your goals. Its great we’ve got a line we can use – that’s our goal line. So – one ball between each group. Set yourselves up your striker and your midfield in the middle and your goal keeper on the left outside. You can have a sub ball and just over here on the veranda. I want you to just to push all the door and try and kick it up to the wall and as it comes back to you control it with your body and then kick it back up to the wall again. Ok. So you are kind of playing ping pong with the ball on the wall. All right. Ok, get started straight away. Pass. Girls, come back this way a little bit. Stay there – yea. Yep Step in front of the line. Leanne come down a little bit – you have to kick them out a little bit. Ok Jess – are you going to pass the ball to Leanne or come over this way – do you remember last week. Ok on this angle you are going to hit to Leanne then Leanne going to his across. Ok, out this way a little bit more – you’re going to pass on the angle and then kick the ball. Cough Pass on the angle. Who’s goalie? Lyndon ok. Daniel and Matt come down this way a little bit. Use your feet just now, use your

272

18.30 18.45 19.00 19.15 19.30 19.45 20.00 20.15 20.30 20.45 21.00 21.30 22.00 22.30 22.45 23.00

feet now. You going to pass it to? Edward. Pass in front of Dan – in front of him yes. Oh ok and then rotate. And I might have you rotating that’s excellent boys. Great that’s excellent. Good, nice try boys – nice and pass using your foot. Cough Oh – sorry girls. Ok – rotating, passing, ohhhhh – just missed. Ok rotate. Oh, nice effort Josh. There Ben up you get – have you rotated? Rowan – are you kicking now? There you go Ben – that’s it. Are you all right? Ok rotate. Rotate. Yep rotate. If you needed to come from the other side Angelo then you can work that out. Let it go down to the end of the. Try and avoid that area there. Student – Can we go get our ball cos it’s. Yea, run and get it. Oh, still counts as a goal - off the inside post. Ricochets in – that’s a goal. Ok, nice work. Boys you can even extend this out a little bit so you can a little more of a run up to get some goals. Cough That’s it, Andrew – keep going. That’s it. Kick it. Good. Remember try and block it down with your body as well so – with your chest down. That’s all right – keep going. That’s it – well done – well done. Yea Ohh – it’s another goal. Steph you should pass. Practise that push pass yeah? Don’t grab it in Gino. That’s it, nice goal. Cough Sorry guys. Keep going. Whistle Ok, over. Hurry it in. Now walk it in – let go. Come on. Right. Not a bad effort – who scored a goal? Fantastic Oh, - look at that. Perth Glory are going to be all over you. Ok, we are now going to have – hold the balls please. Thanks. We’re now going to play a very quick game of. Laughter I know you’re excited – we’re not playing a complete soccer game – we’re a little bit restricted to what we can do here. Oh, they’re moving – making it a little bit better for us.

273

23.15 24.00 24.15 24.30 24.45 25.00 25.15 25.30 25.45 26.00 26.15 26.30 26.45

We’re going to be in the middle here – it’s going to be a knock out – two teams are going to have a ball and going to try and knock over as many of their markers as you can. The team who knocks over the most, obviously, No, ok. If your name starts with A B C D E then they’ll go over there, If it starts with G G H I J K L on that side. Cough One, two three four four five six seven eight nine ten. And let’s just go one two three over there. Two over there. Tommy over there – Peter over there. Ben over there and Wayne over there. Student Yeah Whistle Ok. I need you – this team whoever is going to sit down there and count and hope that they don’t get any. You’ve all got to line up here in the middle With a ball each please facing the library – one Line in line with me. Josh – whose got the sport. Yep, grab a ball each. Yes. Cough Cough. Ok, balls on the grounds. Lining up with me, then under here facing markers. Whistle Balls are on the ground. We are playing soccer – we are not supposed to touch or hold balls with our hand, this hand. Ready to aim. And shoot. Students Oooohhhh And zero. Ok – got to go to their class next. Swap over. They’re all here – make sure there’s a ball behind this. Cough Whistle Can I have team A sitting over there with Tommy please? Whistle Year 6 – 6 – Team A sit. Team Z – well start at the end of the alphabet – you should have one ball each. I think there’s a couple of spares in there. Ok – one ball each ready to aim. Shoot Students – Ooohhh Whistle Ok – go get your ball please. Team A back to the line. Cough Stand the – stand the marker up please. Adam, go and stand the marker up please. One – two – got to make sure – you need a ball. There you go Student – Thank you. Three four, five six – Shannon which team are you in? Right.

274

27.00 27.15 27.30 27.45 28.00 28.30

Ok. Playing field set. Thanks seven. Ready, aim – shoot. Students – Ohhhhhh. Oh. There you go – a Set. Teachers Soft’ yeah. Team Z I need you to step back in line with me please. Thank you. Ethan – Roll it back. And ready shoot. Ohhh – I have a feeling that the winning team is Team Z. Students – Yeah All right. Year 6 I need all the soccer balls in the red bucket. All of the markers picked up, and lining up here with Miss Janine please. Yes you can. Careful we’ve got the. Please. Josh. I should have two lines with Miss Janine that’s why we don’t throw them to Pete. Lucky it was me and not your classmate. Two lines. Come on Year 6. Ok. Well done.

275

APPENDIX G: Student Enjoyment Questionnaire

STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE

This is an anonymous questionnaire, please do not write your name or any other comments that will make you identifiable. As part of a research project at The University of Western Australia, we are investigating what is happening in Physical Education and children’s thoughts and experiences about these activities. You can help us by completing this questionnaire as honestly as you can. A researcher is here to go through each question with you as you progress to make sure you understand the questions. If you have any problems, please raise your hand and the researcher will be happy to help you. This questionnaire should take around 20 minutes to finish. All of your answers are anonymous and confidential. INSTRUCTIONS Whilst many questions appear similar, it is important that you think carefully before answering all questions. When you see the letters PE – This refers to Physical Education classes that you have during class time this year. PLEASE ANSWER EVERY QUESTION If you change your mind about an answer, don’t worry, just cross it out and select another answer. PART A This information is about you PART B This is about your current physical activity levels PART C This is about your PE experiences this year

276

WHEN YOU HAVE FINISHED, please sit quietly until everyone’s work has been collected PART A: THIS INFORMATION IS ABOUT YOU

1. Name of your school:

2. What year level are you in? (circle) 4 5 6 7

3. How old are you in years? (Circle) 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

4. Are you a boy or a girl? (circle) Boy Girl

PART B: CURRENT PHYSICAL ACTIVITY LEVELS

5. During your PE classes, how often do you huff and puff (tick only one)

I don’t do PE

Hardly ever

Sometimes

Quite often

Always

6. What do you normally do at recess (besides eating food)? (tick only one)

277

Sit down (talking, reading, doing school work)

Stand or walk around

Run or play a little bit

Run or play quite a bit

Run or play hard (huff and puff most of the time)

7. What do you normally do at lunch (besides eating lunch)? (tick only one)

Sit down (talking, reading, doing school work)

Stand or walk around

Run or play a little bit

Run or play quite a bit

Run or play hard (huff and puff most of the time)

278

8. In the past 7 days, in your own time (not in school time), did you do sports, dance or play games in which you were very active (huff and puff)? (tick only one)

None

1 time last week

2 or 3 times last week

4 times last week

5 times or more last week

9. Were you sick in the past 7 days, or did anything to prevent you from doing your normal physical activities? (tick only one)

Yes

No

If yes, what stopped you?

279

PART C: YOUR PE EXPERIENCES THIS YEAR

Tick the box that best describes your feelings about:

Strongly Disagree

Disagree Middle-of-the-road

Agree Strongly

Agree

10. My PE teacher is helpful during PE classes

11. PE is fun

12. My parents encourage my involvement in PE

13. I am enthusiastic about PE activities

14. When doing PE activities, I am one of the best in my PE class

15. My sport skills have improved from doing PE

16. The more I do PE activities, the better I get

17. In PE I can do skills that my classmates find difficult

18. I enjoy PE very much

19. Compared to last year, I am getting better at PE activities

20. Other students think I am good at PE

21. My PE teacher gets me involved in PE activities

22. I can do most PE activities as well as other students in my class

280

23. My parents encourage me to be a more physically active person

24. I like the action and excitement of PE activities

25. My PE teacher is friendly during PE class

26. The activities I do in PE make me keen to do PE

27. PE class is an interesting experience for me

28. My classmates don’t do as well as me in PE

281

Strongly Disagree

Disagree Middle-of-the-road

Agree Strongly

Agree

29. PE is very exciting

30. I can see how much I have improved in PE

31. My PE teacher says that I am good at PE

32. The PE activities let me show that my skills have improved more than other students

33. PE gives me a chance to spend time with my friends

34. My PE teacher makes PE class an interesting experience for me

35. PE gives me a chance to socialize with my classmates

36. PE activities gain my attention

37. I think PE is interesting

38. My parents are interested in PE activities I do at school

39. I like the way my PE teacher explains PE activities to me

YOU HAVE FINISHED

Please be patient and wait without talking until everyone’s work has been collected

THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR TIME AND EFFORT

282

APPENDIX H: Teacher Interview - Transcribed and Coded

KEY

+ve PCK

-ve PCK

Supporting Factors (to teaching)

Barriers to Teaching

1. How comfortable were you teaching basketball?

Yeah fairly comfortable. It’s not a port that I have a huge background in. I’ve played it but

it’s not something that I have much to do with now. So, because I’ve been teaching for a

long time, the thing that I... I use the kids so much because often the skills don’t change but

the jargon does. What they call the positions. They were always top and back and centre

for us, whereas now they tend to call them various things and then depending on the age of

their coach, the kids may come across other names. Not doing the sport all of the time,

things like passing I do no problems but things like lay ups I wouldn’t necessarily

demonstrate, I would rather use someone in the class to demonstrate.

2. Can you tell me about your personal/teaching experience with basketball?

Depends on the sport, I’ve done a lot of netball. Through college we did units of particular

sports but that never actually gave you. Things like footy, I can kick a ball for miles but

when things like the Eagles cup comes around, I will always ask a parent to umpire because

I never been allowed to play a game of footy. So the confidence in doing that probably is

my... I just work ways to get around it. I certainly don’t know everything. Kids get taught

things by sports people that they see out of school sometimes you can see that it is

something that you want to encourage and you might even want to pick up but other times

you see things that aren’t bad but they are just off limits. Sit ups is the big thing that kids

are still doing. Kids say that Dad says that I have to do this many straight leg sit ups. But a

lot of stuff, like when I was in Kal(goorlie) there wasn’t the opportunity to do catch up

things. I did a tennis thing in Kal. If you are doing a sport like even hockey but I’ve been

around and I watch a lot of hockey cos one of my daughters plays hockey and my husbands

been a hockey player for ages so even though I never played a game of hockey, but I still

understand the game and it’s not the sort of things for primary school age children as long

as they are getting a good understanding of the good basic skills then the game stuff they

will pick up. Even soccer I have played a bit of soccer. The soccer coaching starts very early

the coaching is very explicit and the kids know the skills from a very young age like it really

is drummed into them. You can hear the kids that play soccer and I pick up on what they

say. So the actual game play I keep really simple so that everyone understands and it

doesn’t exclude the kids that don’t play soccer. So that’s why I use for soccer and hockey

instead of playing a real game I will play dog and bone a lot where I have two vs two and I

find that that really brings out the girls and I call out two numbers and the soccer girls

really show me their skills. There are a couple of really quite confident soccer girls who play

on the weekend and they really step up. And one will run to the ball and the other will

either run to the ball and be magnet ball as I call it or runs into a space so that’s a good

283

thing to see level three strategic thinking rather than setting up a completely farcical

scenario anyway.

3. How would you rate your basketball expertise?

7

4. In an ideal/perfect setting (students, school, resources etc.) how would your teaching

change?

Not really at all.

5. At St Columba’s what barriers do you face that prevent you from teaching in an

ideal/perfect way?

There isn’t a huge amount of equipment but there is enough. You only need simple stuff but

it’s time, I could teach them double the amount of PE if I had them double the amount of

time. If you had a backup like a longer period time or if I saw them again during the week

or if I knew that the classroom teacher was taking them out to play a game of basketball

and they would go out and play a game of basketball.

6. Do you gain any support from your colleagues? How would rate this?

Yes, I would go to Chris 1st because he has a Phys ed. background. I find that classroom

teachers get really defensive as soon as I mention sport about what they do with the

children for PE. They just say ‘we just go out there’. Then when it comes to reports, some

teachers change the ticks that I give.

7. How do you determine your programme?

First term there was a volleyball carnival so we did volleyball, volleyball, volleyball . On

Friday’s they rotate between ... a bullying programme, sport and drama. I kicked up a fuss

about it because they are supposed to have two hours. Anyway we will work though that.

So volleyball was certainly geared towards the carnival. Then basketball was for the

carnival as well. But now I’m doing hockey because they have a netball/football carnival

coming up and I said everyone knows how to play netball and football and you can take

them out and do that. So I’m doing hockey because I wouldn’t expect the classroom

teacher to do this unless they were confident to go out and let the kids grab the sticks. I

didn’t want that at all. There is a whole safety thing. So, I will do hockey until the end of

term and then next term will be athletics depending on if they only do long jump and

running things. So what drives my programme is the sports that the kids haven’t been

exposed to.

284

APPENDIX I: Teacher Self-Evaluation – Post Observation

TEACHER SELF-EVALUATION POST OBSERVATIONS

Date:__________ Name: _____________________ School: ____________________ Year Group: _________________ Number of students:_____________ A: TEACHING

Statement

Strongly Disagree

Disagree Unsure Agree Strongly

Agree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 This lesson was a fair representation of my approach to teaching PE (Please place a tick in one box)

2 If you strongly disagree or disagree, please identify the factors that impacted on the lesson How did this impact on the lesson?

B: STUDENTS

Statement

Strongly Disagree

Disagree Unsure Agree Strongly

Agree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 In this lesson, student involvement was a fair representation of my PE lessons (Please place a tick one box)

2 If you strongly disagree or disagree, please identify the factors that impacted on student involvement How did this impact on the lesson?

THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AFTER COMPLETING THIS SELF-EVALUATION, PLEASE ENSURE IT IS RETURNED TO THE

RESEARCHER

285

APPENDIX J: Grossman (1990) Schematic - Brief



Teaching


Understanding of

Subject Matter


Components of PCK



Teacher Goals

Teacher Goals



Student Outcomes

Activity

Enjoyment

Knowledge of

Curriculum Content


to display learning

Teacher Qualifications & Experience

Teacher Goals




to display learning

Teaching Styles



286

APPENDIX K: Human Research Ethics Approval

Research Ethics Research Services M459

35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009 Telephone: (08) 6488 3703 Facsimile: (08) 6488 8775 Email: [email protected] http://www.research.uwa.edu.au/human_ethics

Our Ref. RA/4/1/1953 23 January

2008

Dr P Whipp

Human Movement and Exercise Science - M408

UWA

HUMAN RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE

Project: The impact of two philosophical curricular choices on teaching and learning

outcomes in physical education

Student: Julia Farrell - Masters - 20319216

Please be advised that ethical approval of the above project has been granted by the Human

Research Ethics Committee.

The Committee is bound by NHMRC Guidelines to monitor the progress of all approved

projects until completion to ensure that they continue to conform to approved ethical

standards.

The committee requires that all Chief Investigators report immediately anything that might affect or impact upon ethical approval of the project, including adverse events affecting subjects. Approval should be sought in writing in advance for any amendments to the original application. You are also required as a condition of this approval to inform the Committee if for any reason the research project is discontinued before the expected date of completion. A report form for completion will be sent to you twelve months from this date or one month after your indicated completion date.

Please note that approval has been granted for a period of four years. Initial approval is for

a period of one year, and, thereafter for future periods of one year at a time subject to the

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.research.uwa.edu.au/human_ethics

287

receipt of satisfactory annual reports. At the end of the four-year period you will be required

to complete a new "Application to Undertake Research Involving Human Subjects" should you

wish to continue with your research. However, in special circumstances, the Chair has the

authority to extend the approval period in order to complete a project. Failure to submit a

final report may result in delays for future applications.

Please quote Project No RA/4/1/1953 all correspondence associated with this study.

Yours sincerely

KATE KIRK

Executive Officer

(Human Research Ethics Committee)

cc: Dr Sato Juniper

288

APPENDIX L: Statement of Disclosure – School Principal

THE IMPACT OF TWO PHILOSOPHICAL CURRICULAR CHOICES ON TEACHING AND LEARNING

OUTCOMES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROJECT

Statement of Disclosure – School Principal

This statement has been prepared in accordance with the regulations and the suggestions of The University of Western Australia Committee for the conduct of Ethical Research as set out in the application to undertake research involving Human Subjects.

1. The proposed research topic is ‘The impact of the self determined preference for the

Value Orientation of Discipline Mastery or Social Responsibility on PE Outcomes’.

2. The research will be conducted by Masters of Science student from The University of

Western Australia. The role of this is student is to administer questionnaires as well as make professional judgements when observing teachers and students during two Physical Education lessons.

3. It is requested that the enclosed questionnaires and statements of disclosure be

completed by all Year Four, Five or Six teachers who are: Female and Generalist teachers who are responsible for the planning teaching of Physical Education (as well as most other learning areas) to their class.

4. Participants will not be involved in any activity requiring discomfort or hazardous

experiences other than participation in normal physical activity classes. INITIAL PHASE Class teacher:

a. Values Orientation Index (approximately 20 minutes to complete). It is specifically designed to examine the value orientation of physical educators. The information will be kept strictly confidential and the teacher will not be identified in any publication. The questionnaire consists of question items on the teachers’ background (demographic) information, personal educational background and the attitudes and values of the teacher in regard to PE goals. The results from this questionnaire will identify potential participants in further aspects of the study.

SECOND PHASE Case Study Observation:

a. Twelve suitable participants will be invited to take part in further aspects of the study. Participants will be asked for consent to continue with the study.

b. These participants will asked to complete a short questionnaire to determine their personal experiences with PE and physical activity as well as their feelings of confidence to teach PE

c. Participants’ lessons will be observed during teaching. Each observation will span the length of the normal class. Two lessons in the term two will be observed on random occasions. Both lessons will be part of a ball sports unit. The lesson will be videotaped and the teacher will wear a microphone to allow all teacher dialogue to be recorded. Six students will be selected to wear accelerometer-based activity monitors (ActiGraph GT1M) to measure activity intensity throughout the two

289

lessons. At the completion of each observed lesson, the teacher will complete a self-evaluation of the lesson.

FINAL PHASE Student Questionnaire: Participants will be given a questionnaire to complete after the completion of the two observed lessons. The questionnaire will obtain the student’s feelings towards PE. While the student is required to identify the school name, the information will be kept strictly confidential and the student and school will not be identified in any publication. 5. Potential benefits of this study will be to:

The teacher of physical education by; providing teachers with a knowledge and better understanding of the impact of a teacher’s attitudes and values on the teaching of PE and student outcomes. This could potentially lead to students experiencing a higher level of enjoyment with PE leading to habitually healthy and active lifestyle patterns. The students of physical education in the following ways; by allowing students to express their personal outcomes associated with school based PE. Humanity generally; it is hoped to identify best practice in an activity area that we wish to establish habitual healthy physical activity patterns.

6. By signing this statement of informed consent, participants are agreeing to take part in the

initial phase of the project under the conditions outlined in this statement. Potential candidates for further involvement in the project will be contacted and their permission will be required to take part in the observed lessons.

7. All data will be treated as confidential. No data will be reported which identifies individuals or schools.

8. Participants may withdraw from this study at any time.

9. All audio tapes, digital video footage and questionnaires will be housed in a locked office within the School of Human Movement and Exercise Science.

10. Potential project participants will not be treated, or suffer, in a prejudiced manner if they decide not to participate.

11. The researcher is willing to answer any questions that participants may have regarding the procedures in the project.

12. The Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Western Australia requires that all participants are informed that, if they have any complaint regarding the manner, in which a research project is conducted, it may be given to the researcher or, alternatively to the Secretary, Human Research Ethics Committee, Registrar’s Office, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009 (telephone number 6488-3703).

Project Officer Julia Farrell Masters of Science Student School of Human Movement and Exercise Science The University of Western Australia 35 Stirling Hwy Crawley WA 6009

Chief Investigator Dr Peter Whipp Lecturer Pedagogy School of Human Movement and Exercise Science The University of Western Australia 35 Stirling Hwy Crawley WA 6009 Ph: 6488 2793

290

APPENDIX M: Informed Consent – School Principal

Informed Consent – School Principal

If you wish to receive an Executive Summary of the project results please provide an email address for this to be forwarded to:

Email: __________________________________ A SIGNED AGREEMENT TO TAKE PART IN THE RESEARCH FROM THE PARTICIPANT IN THE FOLLOWING TERMS STATES THAT: I (the school Principal’s name) _____________________________________ of (the school’s name) ________________________________________ have read the information of the Statement of Disclosure and have been informed about all aspects of the above research study, and all the questions I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction. Realising that I may choose to withdraw from this study at any time, I agree to participate in this study. I agree that the research data gathered for this study may be published if I, the school, and any members of the school staff or student population are not identifiable. Signed:___________________ Date: __________ (The School Principal)

INSTRUCTIONS

Please forward the enclosed statements of disclosure and questionnaires to all participating teachers.

Please use the return pre-paid and addressed envelope to enclose and mail this completed and

signed statement of disclosure and informed consent by Monday, March 17, 2008.

291

APPENDIX N: Statement of Disclosure – Teacher – Initial Phase

THE IMPACT OF TWO PHILOSOPHICAL CURRICULAR CHOICES ON TEACHING AND LEARNING

OUTCOMES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROJECT

Statement of Disclosure Initial Phase –Teacher Participant

This statement has been prepared in accordance with the regulations and the suggestions of The University of Western Australia Committee for the conduct of Ethical Research as set out

in the application to undertake research involving Human Subjects.

13. The proposed research topic is ‘The impact of the self determined preference for the Value Orientation of Discipline Mastery or Social Responsibility on PE Outcomes’.

14. The research will be conducted by Masters of Science student from The University of

Western Australia. The role of this is student is to administer questionnaires as well as make professional judgements when observing teachers and students during two Physical Education lessons.

15. Teacher participants in this study will be:

Teachers of Years 4-7 Female

Responsible for the teaching of Physical Education 16. Participants will not be involved in any activity requiring discomfort or hazardous

experiences other than participation in normal physical activity classes. The major tools for gathering of data will be through observation of lessons and the administration of a questionnaire to teachers and students.

INITIAL PHASE

i. PE teacher: b. Values Orientation Index (approximately 20 minutes to complete). This

questionnaire will be issued to all teachers at the commencement of the programme. It is structured to gather information about the way a teacher is currently teaching in their classes and is specifically designed to examine the value orientation of physical educators. The information will be kept strictly confidential and the teacher will not be identified in any publication. The questionnaire consists of question items on the teachers’ background (demographic) information, personal educational background and the attitudes and values of the teacher in regard to PE goals. The results from this questionnaire will identify potential participants in further aspects of the study.

SECOND PHASE

ii. Case Study Observation: a. Twelve suitable participants will be invited to take part in further aspects of

the study. Participants will be asked for consent to continue with the study. b. These participants will asked to complete a short questionnaire to determine

their personal experiences with Physical Education and physical activity as well as their feelings of confidence to teacher PE

292

c. Participants’ lessons will be observed during teaching. Each observation will span the length of the normal class. Two lessons in the term two will be observed on random occasions. Both lessons will be part of a ball sports unit. The lesson will be videotaped and the teacher will wear a microphone to allow all teacher dialogue to be recorded. Four students will be selected to wear accelerometer-based activity monitors (ActiGraph GT1M) to measure activity intensity throughout the two lessons. Three of these students will be the focus students for a timed and duration checklist of student behaviour. At the completion of each observed lesson, the teacher will complete a self-evaluation of the lesson.

FINAL PHASE

iii. Student Questionnaire: Participants will be given a questionnaire to complete sometime after the completion of the two observed lessons. The questionnaire will obtain the student’s feelings towards PE. While the student is required to identify the school name, the information will be kept strictly confidential and the student will not be identified in any publication. The questionnaire consists of question items regarding students’ background (demographic) information, physical activity participation, physical self-concept, influence of peers and family on physical activity and PE experience.

17. Potential benefits of this study will be to: The teacher of physical education by; providing teachers with a knowledge and better understanding of the impact of a teacher’s attitudes and values on the teaching of PE and student outcomes. This research will enable teachers to gain an understanding of the potential difference between teaching intentions as compared with teaching actions. This could potentially lead to students experiencing a higher level of enjoyment with PE leading to habitually healthy and active lifestyle patterns. The students of physical education in the following ways; by allowing students to express their personal outcomes associated with school based PE. Humanity generally; by closely scrutinising the intentions and actions of teachers of PE and by observing the student outcomes it is hoped to identify best practice in an activity area that we wish to establish habitual healthy physical activity patterns.

18. By completing this questionnaire, participants are agreeing to take part in the initial phase

of this research (questionnaire completion only). Potential candidates for further involvement in the project will be contacted and their permission will be required to take part in the observed lessons.

19. All data will be treated as confidential. No data will be reported which identifies

individuals. 20. Participants may withdraw from this project at any time. 21. All audio tapes and digital video footage taken in the second phase of the project will be

housed in a locked office within the School of Human Movement and Exercise Science. 22. Potential project participants will not be treated, or suffer, in a prejudiced manner if they

decide not to participate.

293

23. The researcher is willing to answer any questions that participants may have regarding the procedures in the project.

Questions should be directed to Julia Farrell (Project Officer) of the School of Human Movement and Exercise Science at the University of Western Australia on telephone number 0417 091 769 or Dr Peter Whipp (Chief Investigator) of the School of Human Movement and Exercise Science at the University of Western Australia on telephone number 6488 2793. The Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Western Australia requires that all participants are informed that, if they have any complaint regarding the manner, in which a research project is conducted, it may be given to the researcher or, alternatively to the Secretary, Human Research Ethics Committee, Registrar’s Office, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009 (telephone number 6488-3703).

INSTRUCTIONS

Please use the return pre-paid and addressed envelope to enclose and mail the completed questionnaire (attached) by Monday March 17, 2008.

294

APPENDIX O: Statement of Disclosure and Informed Consent – Teacher – Second Phase

THE IMPACT OF TWO PHILOSOPHICAL CURRICULAR CHOICES ON TEACHING AND LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROJECT

Statement of Disclosure and informed consent Second Phase –Teacher Participant

This statement has been prepared in accordance with the regulations and the suggestions of The University of Western Australia Committee for the conduct of Ethical Research as set out

in the application to undertake research involving Human Subjects. The research will be conducted by Masters of Science student from The University of Western Australia. The role of this is student is to administer questionnaires as well as make professional judgements when observing teachers and students during two Physical Education lessons. Your results from the questionnaire in the initial phase of this project have identified you as a potential participant in further phases of the project. By participating in this project, participants will not be involved in any activity requiring discomfort or hazardous experiences other than participation in normal physical activity classes. The major tools for gathering of data will be through observation of lessons and the administration of a questionnaire to teachers and students.

SECOND PHASE

iv. Case Study Observation: d. Twelve suitable participants will be invited to take part in further aspects of

the study. Participants will be asked for consent to continue with the study. e. These participants will asked to complete a short questionnaire to determine

their personal experiences with Physical Education and physical activity as well as their feelings of confidence to teacher PE

f. Participants’ lessons will be observed during teaching. Each observation will span the length of the normal class. Two lessons in the term two will be observed on random occasions. Both lessons will be part of a ball sports unit. The lesson will be videotaped and the teacher will wear a microphone to allow all teacher dialogue to be recorded. Six students will be selected to wear accelerometer-based activity monitors (ActiGraph GT1M) to measure activity intensity throughout the two lessons. Three of these students will be the focus students for a timed and duration checklist of student behaviour. At the completion of each observed, the teacher will complete a self-evaluation of the lesson.

FINAL PHASE

v. Student Questionnaire: Participants will be given a questionnaire to complete sometime after the completion of the two observed lessons. The questionnaire will obtain the student’s feelings towards PE. While the student is required to identify the school name, the information will be kept strictly confidential and the student will not be identified in any publication. The questionnaire consists of question items regarding students’ background (demographic) information,

295

physical activity participation, physical self-concept, influence of peers and family on physical activity and PE experience.

24. Potential benefits of this study will be to: The teacher of physical education by; providing teachers with a knowledge and better understanding of the impact of a teacher’s attitudes and values on the teaching of PE and student outcomes. This research will enable teachers to gain an understanding of the potential difference between teaching intentions as compared with teaching actions. This could potentially lead to students experiencing a higher level of enjoyment with PE leading to habitually healthy and active lifestyle patterns. The students of physical education in the following ways; by allowing students to express their personal outcomes associated with school based PE. Humanity generally; by closely scrutinising the intentions and actions of teachers of PE and by observing the student outcomes it is hoped to identify best practice in an activity area that we wish to establish habitual healthy physical activity patterns.

25. By signing this statement of consent, you are agreeing to take part in this project under the conditions outlined in this statement. All data will be treated as confidential. No data will be reported which identifies individuals.

26. Participants may withdraw from this study at any time.

27. All audio tapes and digital video footage taken in the second phase of the project will

be housed in a locked office within the School of Human Movement and Exercise Science.

28. Potential project participants will not be treated, or suffer, in a prejudiced manner if they decide not to participate.

29. The researcher is willing to answer any questions that participants may have regarding the procedures in the project. Please contact Julia Farrell (Project Officer) of the School of Human Movement and Exercise Science at the University of Western Australia on telephone number 0417 091 769 or Dr Peter Whipp (Chief Investigator) of the School of Human Movement and Exercise Science at the University of Western Australia on telephone number 6488 2793.

30. The Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Western Australia requires that all participants are informed that, if they have any complaint regarding the manner, in which a research project is conducted, it may be given to the researcher or, alternatively to the Secretary, Human Research Ethics Committee, Registrar’s Office, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009 (telephone

number 6488-3703).

296

A SIGNED AGREEMENT TO TAKE PART IN THE RESEARCH FROM THE PARTICIPANT IN THE FOLLOWING TERMS STATE THAT: I (the participant name and position) __________________________________________ have read the information of the statement and have been informed about all aspects of the above research study, and all the questions I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction. Realising that I may choose to withdraw from this study at any time, I agree to participate in this study. I agree that the research data gathered for this study may be published if I am not identifiable. Signed:___________________ (Participant) Date: __________

INSTRUCTIONS Please use the return pre-paid and addressed envelope to enclose and mail this completed and

signed Statement of Disclosure and Informed Consent Document.

APPENDIX P: Statement of Disclosure and Passive Consent - Parents

THE IMPACT OF TWO PHILOSOPHICAL CURRICULAR CHOICES ON TEACHING AND LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROJECT

May, 2008 Dear Parent, The University of Western Australia is investigating what is happening in school based Physical Education classes, together with children’s’ thoughts and experiences of these classes. Your son/daughter’s School Principal has granted approval for this project. The class will be observed during two Physical Education lessons. The class teacher will teach the lessons and a researcher will videotape and observe. The videotaped footage of the lessons will be stored in a locked office within The University of Western Australia and used for research purposes only. Six of the students in the class will wear an activity monitor for the two lessons. The monitor will be attached to his/her waist band of his/her shorts/pants/skirt. The monitor is approximately the size of a match box and will not cause any discomfort or harm. The monitor will only measure activity intensity and volume. After the two observed lessons, an anonymous questionnaire (approximately 30 minutes in length) will be administered to all students during class time. The questionnaire is designed to obtain your son/daughter’s feelings towards Physical Education. The class teacher will remain with the students at all times during the administration of the questionnaire. The questionnaires will be stored in a locked office within The University of Western Australia. Completion and submission of the questionnaire is taken as consent. As the questionnaire is anonymous, it is not possible to withdraw consent once it has been submitted. I request your permission for your child to take part in the research. I assure you that all information will be used for research purposes only and that your child’s identity will remain anonymous. Participation is voluntary and potential project participants will not be treated, or suffer, in a prejudiced manner if they decide not to participate. A copy of the study’s results will be forwarded to the school. If you have any questions about the project you may contact me (Julia Farrell) on 0417 091 769. The Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Western Australia requires that all participants are informed that, if they have any complaint regarding the manner, in which a research project is conducted, it may be given to the researcher or, alternatively to the Secretary, Human Research Ethics Committee, Registrar’s Office, University of Western

Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009 (telephone number 6488-3703). You are not required to complete the return slip, if you allow your child to participate knowing that you can withdraw your permission at any time. Should you not wish your child to be involved in any aspect of the project, please complete and sign the return slip below. Thank you in anticipation for allowing your son/daughter to be involved in the project.

298

Project Officer Julia Farrell Masters of Science Student School of Human Movement and Exercise Science The University of Western Australia 35 Stirling Hwy Crawley WA 6009

Chief Investigator Dr Peter Whipp Lecturer Pedagogy School of Human Movement and Exercise Science The University of Western Australia 35 Stirling Hwy Crawley WA 6009 Ph: 6488 2793

Please complete this return slip, if you do not give permission for your child to participate. Insert your son/daughter’s name and sign in the space provided. Return this slip to your son/daughter ‘s class teacher before DATE. I do not give permission for my child (insert name) _______________________ to complete the proposed questionnaire and to be a participant in two observed Physical Education lessons. Parent’s signature: _______________________________ Date: ________________

299

APPENDIX Q: Actigraph Data Summary

Lesson One

Student One – Male – 11 Two – Male – 12 Three – Female – 12 Four – Female – 11

Sum of Counts 83493

80464

79166

46949 Total epoch periods 163

163

163

163

Average Counts 512.22

493.64

485.68

288.03 Peak Count 1664

1668

1903

1731

%

%

%

%

Total time vigorous 17 10.43 16 9.81 11 6.75 2 1.22

Total time moderate 55 33.74 43 26.38 48 29.45 36 22.08

Total time low 91 55.83 104 63.8 104 63.8 125 76.68

Lesson Two


Sum of Counts 111757

98803

100153


174

174

174


567.83

575.59


2223

3727

1978

%



Total time low 84 48.27 102 58.62 99 56.89 129 74.13

Lesson Three


Sum of Counts 74844

76855

55599


117

117

117


656.88

475.21


2335

1590

1819

%



Total time low 57 48.72 62 52.99 73 62.4 77 65.81

300

Lesson Four


Sum of Counts 93751

98520

88227


169

169

169


582.96

522.05


1930

1727

1708

%



Total time low 86 50.89 86 50.89 101 59.76 126 74.55

301

APPENDIX R: Summary of Video Footage and Coded Voice Data

OBSERVER Julia Creasy NO. OF STUDENTS 29

DATE NON-PARTICIPANTS 3

SCHOOL Thomson Primary School ENVIRONMENT Fine, basketball court


TEACHER Nina LESSON CONCLUDED AT 10.40.15 am

OBSERVATION No. Three TOTAL LESSON TIME 43 min 15 sec

TOTAL NUMBER OF WORDS SPOKEN BY TEACHERS: 3763

AVERAGE NUMBER OF WORDS SPOKEN PER MINUTE: 87.51 FEEDBACK

Total Words: 937 Value

Corrective

Neutral Ambiguous a.

Learning/Task related

b. Discipline

Total Words Spoken 106 724 16 66 25

Percentage of feedback words 11.31 77.27 1.61 7.04 2.67

Percentage of total words spoken 2.82 19.24 0.43 1.75 0.66 INSTRUCTIONS

Total Words: 2826 Learning Management

Total Words Spoken 898 1928

Percentage of instructions words 31.78 68.22

Percentage of total words spoken 23.86 51.24

Percentage of total feedback 24.90% Percentage of total instructions 75.10%

302

APPENDIX S: Summary of Data Gathered – Teachers

PRACTICAL ELEMENT OF PCK FACTOR

GEORDIE BAY PRIMARY SCHOOL Teacher: Melanie

LONGREACH PRIMARY SCHOOL

Teacher: Kate

BATHURST PRIMARY SCHOOL

Teacher: Sarah

SALMON PRIMARY SCHOOL

Teacher: Emma

THOMSON PRIMARY SCHOOL

Teacher: Nina

MEAN RESULTS OF ALL

SCHOOLS

QUALIFICATIONS & EXPERIENCE

Experience (Years) 10 9 10 3 10 8.4

Age (Years) 31-40 26-30 41-50 21-25 41-50 -

Qualification B. Ed. Grad Dip. ECE

B. Ed. (Primary) Specialisation: PE

B. PE. Dip Ed.

B. HPE Major: HPE & Science

Dip. Ed. Major: PE Minor: Maths B. Ed.

-

Self Declared Expertise (1 least expert, 10 most expert)

6 6-7 7-8 AFL: 10 Netball: 0-1 7 -

GOALS

Evidence observed

Evidence not observed

Narrow Goals (limited evidence) -

Value Orientation Priority:

L=Low N= Neutral

H=High

VO Rank VO Rank VO Rank VO Rank VO Rank -

DM LP EI SA SR

H N L N N

DM LP EI SA SR

N H N N N

DM LP EI SA SR

H N N L N

DM LP EI SA SR

H N N L H

DM LP EI SA SR

H N N N H

Broad Goals (limited evidence) -

DIALOGUE (%of total words spoken)

Words spoken per min 111.47 ± 7.24 91.24 ± 17.29 87.36 ± 1.42 64.44 ± 3.13 115.56 ± 20.69 94.53

Total Feedback 25.14 ± 5.03 26.09 ± 6.11 25.80 ± 7.97 28.47 ± 2.88 26.19 ± 5.28 26.38

Corrective 15.67 ± 4.70 9.12 ± 4.13 20.43 ± 8.79 10.40 ± 2.55 20.93 ± 5.39 15.37

Value 7.31 ± 2.52 3.76 ± 2.79 2.92 ± 1.40 13.47 ± 2.85 1.99 ± 0.81 6.18

Discipline 0.42 ± 0.28 8.00 ± 2.55 1.31 ± 1.15 1.77 ± 1.14 1.51 ± 1.29 2.38

Ambiguous 0.00 ± 0.00 0.81 ± 0.47 0.38 ± 0.32 0.38 ± 0.19 0.24 ± 0.31 0.34

Neutral 1.68 ± 1.19 4.39 ± 2.18 1.66 ± 0.93 2.45 ± 0.68 1.52 ± 0.58 2.27

Total Instruction 74.86 ± 5.03 73.9 ± 6.12 73.26 ± 6.43 71.53 ± 2.88 73.80 ± 5.27 73.46

Management 27.99 ± 4.93 52.83 ± 5.68 31.97 ± 3.60 33.25 ± 7.33 32.06 ± 13.53 34.87

Learning 46.87 ± 8.08 21.06 ± 3.53 41.32 ± 3.65 38.28 ± 5.97 41.75 ± 13.61 38.59

TEACHING STYLE Practise Practise Practise , Command, Reciprocal

Practise Practise, Command, Reciprocal

-

303

PRACTICAL ELEMENT OF PCK FACTOR



Teacher: Kate


Teacher: Sarah


Teacher: Emma


Teacher: Nina

MEAN RESULTS OF ALL

SCHOOLS

LESSON TIME ALLOCATION (%of lesson time)

Lesson time (mins) 27 46 47 38 35 38.6

Activity 52.99 ± 1.81 39.86 ± 13.15 42.94 ± 6.96 52.84 ± 0.39 49.76 ± 11.98 47.68

Management & Instructions

35.37 ± 1.96 41.41 ± 12.78 40.63 ± 1.31 30.16 ± 3.48 38.27 ± 12.65 37.17

Transition 11.63 ± 1.54 17.67 ± 2.28 16.40 ± 5.71 16.17 ± 3.16 11.95 ± 3.88 14.76

OPPORTUNITIES TO DISPLAY LEARNING

Curriculum Framework SPA Outcomes displayed

Outcome Levels: 2 and 3

Outcome Level: 2


Outcome Level: 2


-

BARRIERS TO PCK Time allocated to PE

Time allocated to PE Weather, Parents, MAG’s, Student behaviour

Time allocated to PE Space

Teaching experience Lack of PD

Time allocated to PE School support

POST LESSON SELF ASSESSMENT (1= strongly disagree 10= Strongly agree)

Fair representation of: 10

10

10

10

10*

10 Student involvement

Teaching 10 10 10 10 10 10

304

APPENDIX T: Summary of Data Gathered – Students

STUDENT OUTCOMES

FACTOR



Teacher: Kate


Teacher: Sarah


Teacher: Emma


Teacher: Nina

MEAN RESULTS OF ALL

SCHOOLS

Number of students 25 20 25 31 28 26

ACTIVITY DURATION AND INTENSITY (% of lesson time) (n= 4 students)

Total Lesson Activity Counts

468.29 ± 110.90 470.15 ± 82.59 372.77 ± 92.70 507.98 ± 107.17 298.87 ± 86.67 423.61

MVPA 37.14 ± 9.99 35.06 ± 6.21 27.77 ± 7.09 39.74 ± 9.27 21.07 ± 6.65 32.16

ENJOYMENT Mean results Max=5 Min=1

Sum of enjoyment 4.79 ± 0.29 4.30 ± 0.83 4.74 ± 0.54 4.72 ± 0.56 4.37 ± 0.69 4.61

Teacher Generated Excitement

4.78 ± 0.28 4.23 ± 0.80 4.46 ± 0.44 4.46 ± 0.45 4.27 ± 0.48 4.44

Activity Generated Competency

4.58 ± 0.43 4.11 ± 0.78 4.27 ± 0.64 4.34 ± 0.51 4.16 ± 0.62 4.30

Peer Interaction 4.54 ± 0.55 4.12 ± 0.78 4.38 ± 0.88 3.62 ± 1.10 3.90 ± 1.07 4.09

Parental Involvement 4.19 ± 0.69 4.33 ± 0.74 3.94 ± 0.94 3.81 ± 0.75 4.26 ± 0.76 4.09

Self-referenced competency

4.47 ± 0.41 4.45 ± 0.61 4.36 ± 0.71 4.09 ± 0.62 4.25 ± 0.49 4.31

Other referenced competency

3.43 ± 0.59 3.60 ± 0.78 3.35 ± 0.56 3.37 ± 0.75 3.64 ± 0.76 3.47

305

APPENDIX U: Summary of Data Gathered - Schools

THE SCHOOL FACTOR



Teacher: Kate


Teacher: Sarah


Teacher: Emma


Teacher: Nina

MEAN RESULTS OF ALL

SCHOOLS

TIME ALLOCATED TO PE/PA (Minutes per week)

Morning Fitness Number of Sessions Total time Allocated

5 100

5 75

2 30

3 45

- -

50

PE Lessons

Skills=30 Sport=60

50 (combined skills & sport)

45 (combined skills & sport)

Skills=45 Sport=60

Skills=40 Sport= 20 (one hour, every three weeks)

70

PE lessons per week 2 1 1 2 1 ⅓

WEEKLY TOTAL 190 125 105 150 60 126

TEACHER PERCEPTION OF SCHOOL SUPPORT

Well supported

PE highly valued

Time allocated to PE reduced

Well supported

PE highly valued

Isolated office space

Lack of collegial support

Lack of administrative support

PE Time allocated to other LA’s

Lack of independent reporting for PE

Lack of collegial support

-

PROGRAMME RATIONALE

Student interest Carnivals Exposure to new sports

Carnivals Student interest Space

Rotational programme

Carnivals Student skills

-

SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS SCORE Rank within education sector

95 49

102 101

123 155

96 61

116 154

-

Documents

Julia Creasy B. Ed (primary) Supervisor Associate