Journal of the Association of Teachers of Geology

NEWS 38 The Implications of the Subject Combinations 49 ATG Syllabus & Examinations' Group, Curriculum which are studied by Advanced Level Candidates Working Group Report, New Members, Hertford· shire Teachers' Group, Submission by the ATG SHOPFLOOR 58 on the D.E.S. Green Paper "Science in Education Careers' Information Relating to the Geological in Schools", News from Warwick Museum, CSE Sciences, Motorway Madness, Punched Cards for and GCE Geology in Avon 1982-83, Nominations Identifying Minerals for Council

, '.

REVIEWS 65 ARTICLES 42 Petroleum Geochemistry and Fossil Fuel FIELDWORK 69 Exploration

ATG SYLLABUS & EXAMINATIONS GROUP

Many ATG members are already actively involved with GCE or CSE Examining Boards, but from time to time we receive requests from Boards asking for names of our members who would be willing to act as geology examiners, or in some other capacity. I am therefore anxious to compile an up-to-date bank of ATG members who would be willing to have their names put forward should such a situation arise. Please write to me at the address below giving details such as home address and phone number, present teaching post and address of teaching establishment, past experience with Examining Boards and a brief outline of your teaching experience. In addition to establishing this bank of information, I also wish to maintain and strengthen contact with members who have, as a special interest, the role and development of geology syllabuses and examinations - the Syllabuses and Exami­nations Group is not a select brotherhood but is an informal 'life assemblage' of members who share common interests in these aspects of our work. Unfortunately we are unable to meet together as a group except at the Annual Conference, and so I see my role as being one of co-ordinator and 'liaison officer' rather than that of formal chairman. I believe that our objectives include acting as watchdogs over the Examining Boards and ensuring that the ATG has adequate representation on the geology subject panels; for me to be effective, there­fore, I require your active participation in supplying infor­mation, views and points of discussion.

Early in 1983 all GCE and CSE Examining Boards were asked to provide the Association with the names and details of persons serving as Chief Examiners, Moderators and members of subject and moderating panels, together with more general information relating to subject entries in geology and the development of 16+ geology. This enquiry is essentially an update of that made by David Thompson in 1977 and pub­lished in the September 1977 (volume 2, Number 3) edition of the Journal. Information received is now being processed and will shortly be published. If any members have information relating to 16+ developments in geology in their own region, I would be most grateful for details as 'official' documentation appears difficult to obtain.

lan Norris, Carlett Park College of Technology, Eastham, Wirral, Merseyside, L62 DAY.

CURRICULUM WORKING GROUP REPORT DECEMBER 1982·

As reported at Conference, the Group has prepared for council the A.T.G. submission on the D.E.S. Green Paper "Science Education in Schools" which is printed below.

One of our aims is to make recommendations on the ways geological curricula should be developed, in particular the development of a science-based approach which would relate to the needs and contributions of other subjects.

38

Why not join us? We work mainly by correspondence about three times a year. At the moment we are starting to review the geological science material that has been written for the lower secondary school. We hope to provide a digest for the D.E.S. short course at Keele University organised by David Thompson in July 1983. We know of some excellent material such as that produced by Peter Kennett in Sheffield and Peter Whitehead in Walsall. Let us hear of your developments, be it only of a single lesson plan.

If you would like to contribute to this group of the association please contact Alan Rhodes, 27 Lombardy Close, Hemel Hempstead, Herts, HP2 4NG.

NEW MEMBERS

Will existing members in neighbouring establishments please make new members welcome by making contact with them and offering advice where appropriate.

MARCH 1983

ORDINARY MEMBERS CRAIG, Ms June, Crosby Community College, Ratby Road, Crosby. GOODRICH, Mr. M.S. Lake Oswego High School, Oregon 97034, USA. JEFFREY, Mr. B.W. Burnley Sixth Form Centre, Habergham High School, Burnley, Lancs. LOOSE, Dr. L. Brancaster Straithes, Kings Lynn, Norfolk PE31 8BP. MASSA, Prof. B. Univ di Genoa, 1st. Di. Mineralogia, Palazzo delle Science, Corso Europa 16132, Genova, Italy. MERCHANT, Mr. M.J. Bryngwyn Comprehensive School, Dafen, Llanelli, Dyfed. MOSELEY, Dr. K.A. 1, Old Ham Lane, Stourbridge, West Midlands, DY9 OUW. O'CONNELL, Dr. D.C. Queensland Institute of Technology, George Street, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, GPO Box 2434. O'DONOGHUE, Sister Christina, St. Catherine's Senior School, Cross Deep, Twickenham.

STUDENT MEMBER MADDOX, Mr. R.G. St. Mary's College, University College of North Wales, Bangor.

INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER ALLlSON, Dr. I. Department of Applied Geology, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow.

D.B_T.

HERTFORDSHIRE TEACHERS' GROUP

Alan Rhodes informs us that in late December 1982 this group of Geology Teachers was disbanded.

D.B.T.

SUBMISSION BY THE A.T.G. ON THE D.E.S. GREEN PAPER "SCIENCE EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS".

The following is an edited version of the submission.

The Association of Teachers of Geology believes that the paper identifies many of the shortcomings in Science Edu­cation today. The role of the earth sciences in integrating science is immense and will contribute greatly to broader, more relevant science courses. The contributions which an earth science component can make have been argued in Schools Council Working Paper 58 "Geology in the School Curriculum" and will not be repeated here.

The study of the Earth Sciences can make an outstanding contribution to remedy several of the shortcomings referred to above by increasing the relevance of traditional science subjects. Traditional science subject material, although related to industry and technology in general should take into account the sources and supply of raw materials and the impact of their extraction and exploitation on the environment. Such studies will inevitably be rooted in the earth sciences and their significance will not be lost on pupils. Knowledge of earth science and its methodology has relevance to both work and leisure in later life.

Members of our Association have already contributed earth­science expertise to the Learning through Science Project for 5-13 year old pupils. ATG has produced a working paper on a recommended geology-earth science content of the core curriculum, for the 11-16 age range, in science. It was pub­lished in "Geology Teaching", Vol. 4, No. 2, June 1979, pp. 50-54 (copy enclosed). Members who teach science, know of the virtues of earth science in rekindling scientific interest in pupils who have been turned off science by mathematical and abstract chemical-physical concepts.

In general ATG supports the approach to science education that is outlined in the Green Paper, but we believe that a stronger commitment to, and funding of, in-service training needs to be made. ATG is seriously concerned that geology teachers are an endangered species. Over the past three years the number of geology teachers qualifying each year has plunged dramatically, especially when viewed alongside the figures for the training of other science teachers. In fact, the downward trend is such that, if continued, there would be no new geology teachers after 1984-85. The reasons for this relate to the cuts in teacher training quotas which force colleges to phase out subjects with smaller numbers of places.

A TG bel ieves that the earth sciences have much to offer as a medium for teaching science, since they have relevance to the worlds of both industry and leisure. Teachers and pupils frequently show a latent interest in such studies, therefore this opportunity should be seized to train and retrain teachers in earth science. Such efforts will result in a broader more balanced, relevant and interesting science curriculum.

A. Rhodes

NEWS FROM WARWICK MUSEUM

THE PERMIAN AND TRIASSIC BEASTIES OF WARWICKSHIRE COME BACK TO LIFE

The first part of an exciting project has just been completed at the Warwickshire Museum. Under the auspices of the Man­power Services Commission CEP scheme, the museum was

39

able to benefit for a year from the talent and painstaking skills skills of Robert Alcorn, sculptor and model maker. During this time he made enlarged models of insects for the school loans service and then embarked on a series of reconstructions of important Warwickshire fossil quadrupeds.

For the project, four fossil species were selected: Dasyceps buck/and; (Lloyd). a Permian amphibian related to Erypos, whose fossil skull (the holotype) was found in about 1849 in a . red sandstone quarry in Kenilworth, and is the museum's most scientifically important specimen; plus a Rhynchosaurus, Mastodonsaurus and a possible archosaur whose remains emerged from building stone quarries in the Triassic Bromsgrove Sandstone Group (?Ladinian) of Warwick and Leamington Spa between about 1830 and 1890. This Permian and Triassic tetrapod fauna attracted considerable attention in the scientific community of the time, being variously redescribed or figured by, among others, Robert Owen, T.H. Huxley, and Murchison and Strickland.

The project progressed in three phases: research and con· sultation; modelling and casting; finishing.

RESEARCH AND CONSULTATION Workers with the appropriate specialist knowledge were consulted at the Royal Scottish Museum (Roberta Paton), University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (Alec Panchen and Alick Walker) and at the British Museum (Natural History) (Alan Craig). After making preliminary sketches of all four beasties, rough plasticine models were prepared and photographed. The photographs were then sent to the panel of consultants for criticism. Robert Alcorn also visited Newcastle with some of the models. At this stage a visit to 'Bungalow' was arranged. Afficionados of the BM(NH)'s display section will recognise this as the self-effacing name for a cluster of buildings in north London were magic is practised. For here are housed the BM(NH)'s modelling and taxidermy workshops, where count­less hours of work go into fleshing out a model iguanodon or, most recently, breathing life back into the desiccated and balding skin of London Zoo's ex-gorilla 'Guy'. Arthur Hayward, high-priest of this temple, (now retired). let us into many of the dark secrets practised therein.

As might be expected, there was a spectrum of opinion offered by the specialists in response to the photographs. This ranged from the helpfully constructive (in the north) to the advice to destroy them all and start again (in the south). As with all such advice, responsibility is left with the person who seeks it. He has to sift the opinions and then go it alone. So I take this opportunity to thank all those workers for their help and advice and also to say to them that the blame for faults they may find in the finished product is mine alone, and can in no way reflect on the consultants!

MODELLING AND CASTING

Modelling was in plasticine supported on a wood and metal armature. I decided that Dasyceps should be full size (so that a direct comparison of the model's head with the holotype skull could easily be made by the museum visitor). The Triassic trio were planned as a group, and in the interests of display space, portability and cost, these were conceived at 1/3 life size. Since time was running out on the MSC scheme, we agreed to concentrate on Dasyceps and Rhynchosaurus so that these could be completed.

For the small Rhynchosaurus model (Fig. 1.) (about 290mm long). a cold-setting flexible mould was taken from the plasti­cine model, and supported with resin to make a solid resin cast. Three casts were made, one for the geology displays and two for use in the school loans service.

Fig. 1. Rhymchosaurus sp; resin model, 1/3 scale, length 290mm. by Robert Alcorn.

The problems posed by the larger Dasyceps model (Fig. 2.) (760mm long) were much greater, and a multi-part rigid resin mould was used, the sections bolted together for casting. Into this was poured a resin, to coat the inside of the mould, resulting in a hollow cast. Three casts were made, one for display, one for the school loans service, and a third is avail­able for purchase from an interested institution!

FINISHING

Any flash marks or other casting imperfections were removed using an .electric dental drill. Colour was applied using matt model-maker's enamel paint (oil-based). For Rhynchosaurus this gives the right impression of dry reptilian skin. But for Dasyceps, an amphibian which probably had some form of mucous secretion, a patchy shine effect was added using Manders 'Gard' eggshell finish.

The MSC scheme ended before all the models could be realised. Robert Alcorn is now working as a self-employed model-maker in Scotland, and the museum hopes to commis­sion him to produce the Mastodonsaurus and archosaur Triassic models. I should like to hear from any institutions that might be interesting in acquiring any of the models -either those that have been executed or those that are planned.

Tristram Besterman, Warwickshire Museum, Market Place, Warwick.

40

Fig. 2. Dasyceps burklandi (Lloyd); resin model; full-scale length 760mm. by Robert Alcorn.

CSE AND GCE GEOLOGY IN AVON 1982-83.

Since it is extremely rare for the geological community to be able to mount surveys to discover such basic information (except in Wales) as who does what and where, it is very helpful to be able to print a summary of a survey carried out in Avon (Ed).

This summary of information lists the numbers of candidates taking CSE and GCE geology at institutions in Avon and is based on a questionnaire survey made late in 1982. Numbers for 1983 are listed first with candidates for 1982 following in brackets.

CSE AND GCE GEOLOGY IN AVON 1982-83.

School/College

Total candidates

Total schools etc

CSE

287 (291)

22 (22)

o level A level

365 (381) 89 (74)

33 (32) 15 (12)

Although this survey is not quite complete and is partly based on anticipated numbers, certain conclusions can be drawn:

1. There is a slight fall in the numbers of CSE and 0 level candidates but an increase at A level.

2. There is a small increase in the overall number of schools and colleges taking CSE and GCE geology. Between 1982 and 1983,9 stopped offering the subject, while 16 began (or restarted) to enter candidates.

There are geology teachers in most schools in Avon, but courses are only run if sufficient candidates are interested. The current situation is made particularly complicated by falling rolls and the closing or regrouping of some schools on the one hand, but with enlarged sxith forms on the other. The comments made by teachers in this survey reflect the situation ...

COMMENTS · _ . "so few choose geology option - probably due to their

lack of knowledge of what geology is" · .. "keen interest at 6th form level" · .. "very difficult to get A level candidates if they have no

experience of the subject lower down the school" · .. "re-introduced in the Lower Sixth to cater for increase of

non-A level students . .. instead of repeat O/CSE geo­graphy previously offered"

· .. "surviving, though not very healthy" · .. "possibility of introducing geology at 4/5 if not faced with

problems caused by falling rolls" · .. "numbers for A level have dropped, we suspect, because

fewer students are being interested in the subject in local schools" (from a Technical College)

· .. "pressure is very much for geology to go because of reduced rolls and ability to offer less in 4th year options. If I were to leave, then that would be the end."

· .. "Numbers steadily increased but dependent now on 'opposition' subject popularity on option list"

· .. "set as an option against physics so is now becoming a subject for less able"

· .. "numbers in 6th form groups have increased every year" · .. "in its infancy but surviving - just!" · .. "to finish this year due to smaller numbers"

... "we do as much as we can within geography, local studies and science courses"

. .. "dropped as master with keen interest in geology has just retired . .. may be picked up again by new appointment"

Andrew Mathieson, City Museum, Queen Road, Bristol

NEW MEMBERS

Will existing members in neighbouring establishments please make new members welcome by making contact with them, and offering advice where appropriate.

NOV-DEC 1982

ORDINARY MEMBERS BRENNAN, Mr J.F. Hackney Downs Sch., London. KERRY, Miss M. Blythe Bridge H.S., Stoke. McARTHUR, Dr. J. Dept. Geol., U.C. London. NEWMAN, Mr S.J. Hungerhill Sch., Edenthorpe, Doncaster.

STUDENT MEMBERS BROWN, Mr T. Dept. Educ. Aberystwyth. FARRINGTON, Mr M. Dept. Educ. Keele GOODMAN, Mr N. Dept. Educ. Keele HAMMOND, Miss C.A. (Hindhead Surrey). MORRIS, Heather E.Dept. Educ. Keele STARR, Mr P.P. Dept. Educ. Aberystwyth.

NOMINATIONS FOR COUNCIL

M.J.C.

Nominations are invited for election to Council. Three vacancies arise by normal rotation and expiry of term of service of Ordinary Members of Council. Nomi­nations, duly proposed and with candidates'written agreement (see Rule 12), should be sent to reach The Secretary as soon as possible (not later than the A.G.M.

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Jim Brooks of Bristol~founder and chairman Of the Petroleum Geochemistry group of the Geological Society of London, contributes an updating article in a field in which understanding . is expanding rapidly.

This article is reprinted with minor alterations from Chemistry in Britain vo119, part 5, May 1983 with the permission of the author, the editor and the general manager of publications of the Royal Society of Chemistry.

Petroleum geochemistry and fossil fuel exploration Although the search (or oil and gas in the North Sea has been very successful, it has become progressively more difficult and costly in recent years. The need for continuing success in finding accumu­lations of hydrocarbon has created a climate which favours the use of modern scientific, and technological, methods and techniques. Amongst these is organic geochemistry (particularly petroleum geo­chemistry) and the past decade has seen great advances and appli­cations of this area to petroleum exploration. Oil and gas were produced in NW seepage oils were produced from a Europe for nearly a century before the Derbyshire coalmine, and later, interest off-shore areas of the European turned to the distillation of cannel coals Continental Shelf were explored, but the in Scotland, which continued for many quantities were relatively small. The first years and became the start of the Scot-reported use of British seepage oil was tish oil shale industry. for medical purposes in the 17th century. The earliest deep drilling exploration In NW Germany, natural petroleum was in England took place on the Carbonifer-already in use for lighting and lubrication ous accumulations in the Southern Pen-as early as 1546. In the UK, in the 1850s, nines and Scotland. In 1922, a small

oilfield was discovered at Hardstoft near Chesterfield and it was still producing oil on a very small scale over 50 years later. Exploration and some small commercial production has continued in the UK, on­shore (see Fig. 1) in the Carboniferous (Southern Scotland, NW England and East Midlands), Permian (Eastern England), Triassic (Western England) and Jurassic (Southern England) For­mations. However it was not until the discovery of the vast natural gas field at Groningen in the Netherlands, in 1959, that extensive off-shore exploration activities commenced. T. s unexpected discovery of recoverable gas (56 trillion cubic feet of gas) made the field one of the largest ever found. In addition to Groningen's economic importance, the

Fig. 1. (a) On-shore UK Petroleum exploration; (b) geological timescales (after Harland et a11983)

Carboniferous prospects A. Scotland-oil and gas shows in outcropping rocks. and In workings and borings of oil shale field . B. NE England-oil or gas accumulations possible In Carboniferous and older rocks; occasional gas in coal mines C. Midlands-oil In rocks in outcrop. bore holes and mines. and in limestone. O. NW England-strong oil seepages in peat near Formby; small oil field in Triassic rocks near surface E. Perm/an prospects-evidence of oil and gas in boreholes and outcropping rocks. F. Palaeozoic prospects-oil accumulations possible in Carboniferous and older rocks. G. Mesozoic prospects-oil impregnated sandstones etc of Jurassic and Cretaceous age outcroppmg along coast; Wytch Farm oil discovery in Jurasslc and Triassic ages.

42

1a

3400

25-38

38-55

65-144

144-213

213-248

248-286

286-360

360-'-408

438-505

505-590

590-

'U' '\:;) Faroes

~

British

Are a

Oil. Gas 0

Condensate 0

2

Fig. 2. NW Europe sedimentary basins, oil and gas fields.

discovery also provided a new scale of reference for potential North Sea dis­coveries. Explorationists now began to anticipate the possibility of large hydro­carbon accumulations rather than reservoirs measured in only tens of feet vertical thickness and acres in extent.

Just over 18 years ago, in 1965, the first gas discovery in U K waters was made at the West Sole Field in the Southern North Sea Basin. This was followed immediately by the gas discov­ery at Viking and, in rapid succession by the discovery of the Leman Bank, Inde- ' fatigable and Hewett Fields in 1966.

The major turning point in the explo­ration for oil in NW Europe was the discovery of the giant Ekofisk Field in the Norwegian part of the North Sea in December 1969. Following this major oil discovery, the North Sea has proved to be one of the best areas for petrpleum exploration anywhere in the world and a

Or Jim Brooks is with the Exploration Division, Britoil, 150 St Vincent Street, Glasgow. He is founder and chairman of the Petroleum Geochemistry Group of the Geological Society.

number of large oil fields have been discovered (Fig. 2), The development and production of North Sea oil and gas is generally considered to be an out­standing event in the economic develop­ment of Europe during this century. Current U K oil production averages 1.9 million barrels per day and the UKCS (United Kingdom Continental Shelf) proven reserves total about 11 billion barrels recoverable oil, with estimated oil reserves of up to 18 I:iillion barrels.

Geochemistry and exploration Early theories about the controlling prin­ciple of petroleum occurrences were often limited in concept in that they mainly addressed the question of 'where' accumulations were located. It has become clear during the past 20 years, that to be able to answer the question where? it is also necessary to evaluate why. when and how much pet­roleum is present in a basin, and to understand and establish the generation, migration and accumulation processes. This understanding is essential if we are to improve our petroleum exploration success ratio.

43

The formation of hydrocarbons is cur­rently understood as a complex series of geochemical processes (Fig. 3) within a source rock by which the original com­ponents of biological systems (natural products) are converted to hydrocar­bons, and to a lesser extent, into polar compounds of varying degree of ther­modynamic stability during sediment­ation and burial at elevated temperature and pressure in the subsurface. The pri­mary migration of liquid and gaseous products out from the source rock and the subsequent secondary migration (via carrier horizons, faults etc) into porous reservoir rocks leads to the formation of hydrocarbon accumulations where fur­ther migration is halted by a trap.

Compounds with similar chemical structures are found in the organic ex­tracts from sediments and also in pet­roleum. The compounds of major sig­nificance to the petroleum geochemist are those possessing 'biological mar­ker' ('chemical fossil') characteristics (Scheme 1). Such hydrocarbons are closely related to the compounds occur­ring in biological systems (eg lipids, pigments and metabolites) from which petroleum is formed. These compounds not only demonstrate the biogenic origin of the hydrocarbons, but also are capable of yielding very specific inform-

, ation regarding the hydrocarbon source rocks, maturation and generation, migration and the biodegradation of petroleum.

Hydrocarbon source rocks The term hydrocarbon source rock is probably best defined as 'a fine grained sediment that in its natural setting has or could generate and release significant amounts of oil and/or gas'. The classifi­cation of source rocks is defined in terms of amount and type of organic matter, its state of organic maturation (changes caused by temperatures of approximate­ly 50-180 DC), and the nature and amount of hydrocarbons capable of being produced. Organic matter ('kQro­gen')' in sediments occurs in many different forms, but can be classified into four main types (Fig. 4):

• Liptinites have a very high hydrogen, but low oxygen, content due to the presence of aliphatic carbon chains. They are considered to have been de­rived mainly from algal material (often bacterially degraded) and have high po­tential for petroleum.

• Exinites contain a high hydrogen content (but lower than liptinites), with aliphatic chains and some saturated naphthene and aromatic rings and oxygen containing functional groups, This .-Qrganic matter is derived from membraneous plant materials such as spores, pollen, cuticle and other struc­tured portion of plants. Exinites have a good potential for oil, can generate con-

• Kerogen (keros=wax; gen=that which pro­duces) is the disseminated organic matter of rocks that is insoluble in organic solvents, nonoxidising mineral acids and bases.

densate and have a good potential for gas at higher maturation levels.

• Vitrinites have a low hydrogen con­tent, high oxygen content and consist mainly of aromatic structures with short aliphatic chains connected by oxygen containing functions. They are mostly derived from structured woody (ligno­cellulose) materials and have a limited potential for oil, but a high potential for gas.

• Inertinites are the black opaque debris (high carbon, low hydrogen) that are derived from highly altered woody pre­cursors. They have no potential for oil or gas.

The main factors for recognition of a hydrocarbon source rock are its content of kerogen, its type of organic matter and stage of organic maturation. Good source rocks ideally require about 2-4 per cent organic matter content of a suitable type to generate and release their hydrocarbons. Under favourable geochemical conditions, oil can be gen­erated from sediments containing lipt-

inite and exinite organic matter. Gas is usually generated from vitrinite-rich source rocks or by thermal cracking of previously generated oil.

The burial of a sedimentary basin re­sults in the organic matter contained being subjected to an increasingly higher temperature, which causes the thermal degradation of kerogen to form petroleum-like products. There are limits to the time and temperature (depth) at which petroleum can be formed in com­mercial amounts. Temperature can be traded for time (assuming a first order reaction and applying Arrhenius' equa­tion). For example, if a quantity of pet­roleum formed in approximately 20 mil­lion years at 100°C, it would take about 40 million years to form at 90°C or 80 million years at 80 QC. The rate of hydro­carbon generation from kerogen appears to double for each 10°C increment. However, the chemical composition of kerogen is very variable and this time-temperature relationship is only a useful working approximation.

Current geochemical evaluations

show a typical North Sea basin thermal gradient of about 1.6-1.9 OF per 100 feet. Such gradients suggest that the organic-rich source rocks generated their liquid hydrocarbons at a burial depth of about 8000-13000 ft, which were attained 50-80 million years ago. Lighter oils and condensatest were probably generated in the zone from 13000-16000 ft, and the methane (dry gas) generation zone is estimated to be at depths in excess of 16000 ft.

Oil occurrences in the North Sea The principal source rocks of the North Sea oil accumulations are of late Jurassic-early Cretaceous age and col­lectively known as the Kimmeridge Clay Formation. The total organic content of these extensive black shales varies from 1-30 per cent, but average values are usually between 5-10 per cent. The oils

t Condensate = hydrocarbon mixture that is gaseous in the reservoir, but condenses into liquid when produced. This generally corre­sponds to API gravity >45°.

Fig. 3. Geochemical processes: organic diagenesis, maturation and metamorphism. (After Brooks 1981, with permission).!

Process

Increasing temperature

EARLY Diagenesis

Oi/prone

Algae, spores, pollen, resins, waxes,

cuticles

Biological material

(microbiological Biological methane and chemical

Biological methane

I I I I I I I I I I

1

a Iteration) LATE

Maturation (chemical changes;

loss of volatile compounds;

increased aromacity ofresidue)

Metamorphism (chemical changes;

increased carbonisation)

Oil

Graphite

Biological methane

Methane

Brown coals, lignites,

humic acids

Sub-bituminous coals containing vitrinite, exinite,

inertinite

and some .... ---t light hydrocarbon

Graphite

44

Gas prone

Wood, altered material

Low hydrocarbon components

Kerogen

Biological methane

Dispersed organic matter

containing vitrinite, inertinite

Methane

3

Lipids, waxes, fa'ts //

H-C atomic ratio 2.0 /

/ /

/ /

1.5

1.0

0.5

/ /

Liptinite

Inertinite

.. Increasing temperature

4

Maturation pathway

Exinite

'normal' oil by the removal of n- and branched alkanes by microorganisms, to leave a heavier residue of higher mol­ecular-weight, more polar, compounds.

Geochemical analyses

(origin; altered woody material)

Most of the existing classifications of crude oils were established by refiners and generally relate to information on distillation fractions. They include the simple chemical and physical properties of the fractions, together" with sulphur content and API gravity. Such classifi­cations are still extensively used in refin­ing and petrochemical processes, but have very limited applications in pet­roleum exploration. Explorationists have to consider different problems and. re­quire more detailed chemical analyses to be able to distinguish the different families of crude oils occurring in a sedi­mentary basin, and the inter-relationships between crude oils and their source rocks.

Crude oils can be classified on the content and composition of various structural component classes: (i) paraf­fins-n-alkanes, branched alkanes; (ii) naphthenes-cyclo-alkanes including steranes and p~ntacyclic triterpanes; (iii) aromatics-alkyl aromatics, cyclo aro­matics, polynuclear aromatics; (iv) NSO, polar and asphaltenes-polar com-' pounds, often containing heteroatomic f· tions with increasing molecular weigr t . The various components are normally analysed by chromatography (Ic, hplc or tic) followed by capillary

o O-C atomic ratio o 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25

Fig. 4. The relationships between kerogen type, elemental composition and organic

maturation pathways. Zones of generation DC02H02 (approximate composition of

lipids, cutin etc,) D oil, C gas. (After Brooks, with permission).'

or accumulation. Heavy oil discoverie~ :,. Tertiary reservoirs of the Viking Graben indicate the biodegradation of the

are considered to have been generated mainly from the Kimmeridge Clay For­mation mixed liptinite-exinite-vitrinite organic assemblages during a midstage of organic maturation (95-105 QC).

The occurrence and properties of North Sea oils and condensates de­pends upon: (i) the chemical nature of its source rock, (ii) the geochemical processes of generation of the hydrocar­bons, (iii) the migration path to the reservoir, (iv) the biodegradation of the accumulated oils within the reservoir, caused by migrating ground water bringing bacteria into contact with the oil, or by water-washing of the oil.

Fig. 5. Schematic summary of steps leading to determination of the most favourable zone of petroleum accumulation in a basin. (After Tissot and We/te, with permission).'o

In the' North Sea, all the oils in current production are non-degraded rich par­affinic oils with API (American Petroleum Institute) gravities 30-45°. Large quan­tities of heavy oil (API < 20°) and con­densate (API>45°) have been dis­covered and will be produced using advanced production technology in future years.

Differences in the detailed chemical composition of oils from different North Sea basins are controlled to some extent by the differences in the organic charac­ter of the Kimmeridge Clay Formation but mainly by the source rock maturity or burial history. Although North Sea crude oils have very similar bulk properties, differences in the detailed chemical composition of oils from Jurassic re­servoirs in the Ekofisk area of the Central Graben, Outer and Inner Moray Firths, East Shetland Basin and Viking Graben are reported, thus suggesting differences in the chemical origin and/or geochem­ical processes of generation, migration

Geological input

Stratigraphic and lithologic information

Spatial relationship between source rocks and pooled hydrocarbons and overall geological setting

Paleogeographyand facies diagrams

Diagramsof subsidence and geothermal gradients

Distribution of permeable beds, faults and unconformities

Diagramsof subsidence and ageoftraps

45

5

Organic geochemlca/ mput Where to drill .. Identification of source rock .. Select numbers

of different --- ------------ .. target-horizons

or plays .. Oil source rock correlation

I

Reglon:xte~~--l

"'1 of source rock and organic facies J .. Regional

confinement -~--------l'" oftargets

. I and plays ... Maturation stages I of source rock

... M;9",;o",von"] in the basin

Rating ofthe .. most favourable ... petroleum

Timing of oil and gas prospects ... generation, migration and accumulation

Scheme 1. Biological markers present in crude oils and sediments.

(a)

(b)

HO

geochemical , alteration.

n-Heptadecane (n-C'7)

Pristane (C, .-isoprenoid)

Phytane (C20 -isoprenoid)

Stigmasterol (natural product) Stigmastane (biological marker)

rx.a..rx.R isomer rx.rx.rx.S isomer rx.P.PR and rx.P.p.S isomers

OH OH

····~OH

Bacteriohopanetetrol (natural product)

(e)

geochemical , alteration.

23 24 R = H or CH 3

Hopane (biological marker)

geochemical , alteration.

+

'. 29R "r 30

······Ce H'3

Bacteriohopane-extended hopane (biological marker)

Phytyl02 C H3 CO2 C Chlorophyll (natural product)

+ Isoprenoid hydrocarbons

column gas chromatography and/or mass spectrometry (computerised gc-ms). .

Recent advances in geochemical ana­lysis for the correlation of crude oils and source rocks are based mainly upon a detailed study of the structures and distribution of the compounds with kno;"'n biological origin that are present. Steranes, pentacyclic triterpanes and porphyrins (Scheme 1) are important biological markers derived from steroids,

Vanadyl porphyrin (biological marker)

triterpenoids and chlorophylls. The pro­gress of these compounds through the sedimentary processes. the generation of hydrocarbons, and their subsequent occurrence in crude oils is now actively studied, and is being increasingly applied in petroleum exploration. Steranes, tri­terpanes and porphyrins have closely related chemical structures to their pre­cursor molecules found in the living organisms from which petroleum is formed. Examination of these detailed

46

chemical structures and the specific changes of their stereochemistry is capable of yielding valuable information on the source, organic maturation, mi­gration and biodegradation of petroleum.

Complex mixtures of steranes are pre­sent in immature sediments and inherit the stereochemistry of their biological precursors, (the sterols), 8P(H), 91X(H), 141X(H), 171X(H), 20R with mixtures of isomers at C-5 and C-24 (Scheme 1 b and c).·Withincreasing organic matur-

UKCS exploration areas • Northern and Central North Sea Areas. More than 450 exploration and over 230 appraisal wells have identified 26 oil fields and the large Frigg gas field that are being, or are expected to be developed, for production. In addition, about 58 other oil and gas discoveries have been made on the UKCS and await decisions on development. Oil and gas have been identified in Devonian and Permian sandstones and limestones, in Jurassic and Cretaceous sandstones and lime­stones and in Tertiary sandstones and limestones. Various areas of the Northern North Sea Basin contain large accumulations of Tertiary shallow-reservoired heavy oil (APt< 20°). However, there is a gap in the technology for producing off-shore heavy oil and such accumulations are not expected to be produced until the 1990s. Large oil and gas discoveries have been made' in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea and the recent preliminary exploration north of 62°N, suggests that this Norwegian sector holds much promise.

• Southern North Sea Basin. Exploration in this area was very active during the early and mid-1960s and large gas accumulations were identified. Some of these have been developed and provide the UK natural gas, whilst other discovefies await the anticipated increase in the UK gas price before develop­ment. Rec!llnt indications of changes in gas econoJ11ics and policies, are 5timulati;ngincreasing interest and activity in the Southern Gas Province. R~wo;'roQls;for these gas fields are sandstones of Permian and Triassic age, TnA;',I'IJIL~,~{!"U.~AnAlln(] from the Carboniferous age coal measures.

Since the discovery of the significant on-shore Wytch .ehas been great interest and expectancy for certain

English Channel area'. However, there has been

OffShore Cornwall contains a number of basins Exploration in these areas have taken place in

wilt be needed to assess the hydrocarbon

area contains various geological basins in ormli\l,!",,,,,t::l' exploration activity has taken place in

continental shelf edge. A large oil barrels·of 'heavyish' oil in place) has

" ... ' .. r~'n., is reported to be of different age of North Sea accumulations, and

~ f;Elseirvoir's shallow depth and anticipated fOI:m~ttic~ns. However, hydrocarbons have been

and exploration activity is continuing in this

area contains known deep basins, with water and such regions provide extensive areas for

rock studies. The biologically derived 17fi(H), 21 rl(H) configuration in the hopanes of immature sediments is lost in favour of the more stable 17 'l. (H),

immature sediments contain chlorins, which subsequently undergo metal­lation to produce a series of metallated alkyl porphyrins. Immature sediments contain simple mixtures of mainly DPEP petroporphyrins with a carbon range of C2S-C32 ' Organic maturation increases the complexity by the generation of etio products with an increased carbon number range, C2G-C40 . Recently petro­porphyrins with carbon numbers up to CGO have been reported in shales and crude oils.

I n many instances, of all of the com­bined organic geochemical analyses, it is the interpretation of the computerised gc-ms biological marker data that can give crucial information for application in petroleum exploration,

Location of petroleum prospects Exploration drilling is expensive. When a new exploration programme is designed (especially in offshore regions), only a limited amount of general geological in­formation is normally available. The first geochemical studies include the col­lection of outcrop samples (if possible) at the rim of the basins being evaluated, followed by studies of the available in­formation on the filling of the basin (stratigraphic and facies analyses) which may give preliminary indications of potential source rocks and reservoirs.

(Figure 5) summarises the various, steps that lead to the determination of the most favourable zone of petroleum accumulation in a basin, This approach uses the geological information together with petroleum geochemical studies and shows the sequence of applications that influence exploration decisions. In con­clusion, the determination of the most favourable petroleum exploration tar­gets, depends upon the best use of our geochemical knowledge of petroleum generation, migration and accumulation, combined with the geology of the basin.

Acknowledgement: I would like to thank Britoil for permission to publish this article.

ation, isomerisation occurs at C-14, C-17 and C-20 and mature source rocks contain mainly 5cx(H), 14cx(H), 17cx(H)­steranes and 5Cl(H), 14P(H), 17P(H)­steranes in about a 1: 3 ratio, both essentially fully isomeric at C-20 (ie a 1 : 1 mixture of 20R and 20S isomers). '

21 ri( H) and 17 rl( H), 21 'l.( H) configur- References and recommended further reading. ations. I n addition to isomerisation at C- 1. Organic maturation studies and fossilfuel

The changes that occur in the con­figuration of the widely occurring penta­cyclic triterpanes of the hopane series (Scheme 1 d) is now applied in source

Key 1billion=10s 1 !rillion=10 '2 1 foot=0.304 m 1 cubic foot=0.028 m3

1 acre=0.405 ha 1 barrel=42 US gallons at stp. API degrees gravity=

141.5 -131.5

specific gravity at 60 0 /60°F

°F=~oC+32 5

17, and C-21, the configuration at C-22 exploration, J, Brooks (ed). London: (22R in naturally occurring hopanes Academic, 1981. with C more than 30 carbon atoms) is 2. Kerogen, B, Durand (ed). Paris: Technip,

1980, lost in favour of a more stable 60: 40 3. Petroleum geology of the continental mixture of S to R isomers in the mature shelf of NW Europe, G, D. Hobson and hydrocarbons, Recent advances in L. V. IlIing (eds), London: Institute of sterane and triterpane analyses and Petroleum, 1980.

4, J. M. Hlolnt, Petroleum geochemistry and applications have been rapid and geology. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, interested readers are referred to 1979. publications by Mackenzie and 5, A S. MacKenzie et aI, Geochim. Cosm-

Maxwell (1980-82), G Ourisson et al 6. ~ch~mM~~~e~z~~:t ~~' ~;t~;e (London), (1974-80),7 and Seifert and Molaowan 1982,295,223. (1979-82). B s 7. G. Ourisson et aI, Pure and Appl. Chem.,

Petroporphyrins (Scheme 1e) are 1980,51,709. k t . 'de range of 8. W. K. Seifert and J. M. Moldowan, nown 0 occur In a WI Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 1979, 43,

sedimentary rocks and petroleum, 783. mainly as a series of deoxophylloery- 9. W. K. Seifert et al in Advances in organic throetio-porphyrins (DPEP) and etio- geochemistry 1981, M. 8joroy (ed).

k I h · London: Heyden (in press). types. These al y porp ynns are con- 10. B. P. Tissot and D. H. Welte, Petroleum sidered to be the products of chlorophyll formation and occurrence. Berlin: diagenesis and maturation. Shallow Springer-Verlag, 1978.

Or J. Brooks, Exploration Division, Britoil, 150 St Vincent Street, Glasgow. .

"7

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48

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THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE

SUBJECT COMBINATIONS

WHICH ARE STUDIED BY

ADVANCED LEVEL

CANDIDATES.

The editor of A TG introduces the statistics of the subject combinations offered by candidates in geology in the Joint Matriculation Board's Advanced Level examinations for 1980 and 1981 and discusses some of the implications of the analysis of the statistics.

INTRODUCTION Occasionally members of council of ATG are asked the question "What combinations of subjects do Advanced Level geology candidates normally study?". The query comes from educationists, professional geologists, careers advisers, college and university admissions' tutors, local authority advisers, members of the education committees of local authorities and learned institutions, and many others.

The Secretary of the JMB, Mr Colin Vickerman and the Director of Research, Dr Gerry Forrest, have ki~dlY given permission for the publication of an edited version of such relevant information from documents prepared each year by the Research Unit of JMB. Figures given in the Sections which follow refer to 1981 and comparable figures for 1980 are given in parentheses after each entry (JM B 1980, 1981).

. Every year these figures are studied and commented upon the Subject Committee for Geology of JMB. The duty of this committee is to monitor these matters in relation to broader questions such as the comparability of standards between subjects, the needs of students in schools, and the general position of geology in the school curriculum. All these matters, and others, were reviewed by a former assistant secretary (presently Deputy Secretary) of the Board, Dick Whittaker, in addresses to ATG in 1976-7 (see Whittaker 1977a, 1977b), and both his articles bear re-reading in the present context. Apart from the duty of the Boards to con­sider these matters, it is important that members of outside bodies who are bold enough to comment on the nature and direction of geological education, whether they originate from colleges and universities or professional institutipns, should be precisely aware of the composition of the very heterogeneous nature of the groups of students which are taught by geology teachers in our sixth forms. It is sometimes assumed that the background of all these students is the same as that of the group which annually gains entry to higher education. From the evidence of the present article, it will become clear that the educational needs of sixth form geology students and the problems and purposes of sixth form geology teachers cannot be judged by such glib extrapolations.

49

In scanning the figures set down in the sections which follow, it should be borne in mind that the size of the JMB exami­nation entries for all subjects is so large that its figures for most subjects can be taken to be a large and representative sample of the sixth form population of England and Wales as a whole (but not, of course, Scotland). Further details ~f overall entries for Advanced Level Geology may be found in Brown (1979).

AN ABSTRACT OF THE JMB DOCUMENTS.

"COMBINATION OF SUBJECTS OFFERED AT THE ADVANCED LEVEL OF THE GCE: GEOLOGY 1981"

This analysis of combinations of subjects offered with an individual subject in the GCE Advanced level examination has been prepared by the JMB Research Unit· similar analyses have been completed for all Advanced level subjects offered by the Board commencing with the entry for 1973.

About a quarter of the candidates in the summer examinations of the GCE in England and Wales enter through the Joint Matriculation Board, although in some subjects the proportion is nearer to a third. It has been established by previous investi­gations that the national trends in the GCE entries are re­flected in the trend in JMB figures.

The figures available relating to national examination results do not include data about the detailed combinations of individual subjects offered. Because only one board is involved in the analysis which follows some caution must be observed in using the figures. The following points should also be borne in mind:

(a) All candidates who have been awarded grades (including failing grades) in the examination have been included.

(b) The figures relate only to the year in question; a candi­date's entry in any previous year has not been taken into account.

(c) The information relates mainly to entries for JMB examinations. In addition, the listed combinations of subjects include those subjects, offered by candidates from JMB centres, which have been made available by other boards as well as those subjects which have been made available on an inter-board basis.

(d) Because the figures have been compiled on a different basis, total figures quoted in the tables may vary slightly from those given in the Statistics published annually by the Board.

(e) Because of rounding errors the sum of the percentages may not add up to the total percentages given.

1. In 1981, 1227 (1176) candidates offered Geology at the advanced level. 122 (130) candidates i.e. 9.94 (11.05) per cent offered geolcgy alone.

2. The numbers of candidates offering geology in combi­nation with other advanced level subjects in 1981 were as follows

BOYS Geology and one other 180 (151 ) Geology and two other 300 (276) Geology and three other 297 (303)

GIRL.S 58 (63)

108 (112) 136 (130)

6 (2) o (0)

TOTAL. 238 (214) 408 (388) 433 (433)

Geology and four other 20 (9) 26 (11) Geology and five other 0 (0) o (0)

*

797 (739) 308 (307) 1105 (1046)

The remaining 122 (130) candidates offered geology alone.

3. JMB subjects offered (excluding General Studies) have been classified as Science, Social Science or Arts as follows*

Science Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Physical Science, Geology, Woodwork, Metal­work, Geometrical and Engineering Drawing, Engineering Science, Mathe­matical Subjects.

Social Science British Government and Politics, Geo­graphy, Economics, Principles of Accounts, Domestic Science, Sociology.

Arts English Literature, History (all sylla­buses), Religious Knowledge, Art, Craft (Design and Practice), Music, Languages (Classical and Modern).

The pattern follows the groupings adopted by the Depart­ment of Education and Science. (Statistics of Education 1978. Volume 2, GCE, CSE and School Leavers. London HMSO, 1980).

4. GEOLOGY WITH GENERAL STUDIES

BOYS GIRLS TOTAL

24(17) 5(5) 29(22)

5. THE NUMBERS OF CANDIDATES OFFERING ONE OTHER SUBJECT AT ADVANCED LEVEL IN ADDITION TO GEOLOGY WERE AS FOLLOWS

BOYS GIRLS TOTAL

Geology and an Arts Eng. Lit 7 (1 ) 7 (5) 14 (6) History 7 (3) 5 (2) 12 (5) Art 2 (2) 3 (4) 5 (6) French 0 (2) 1 (2) 1 (4) German 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 )

16 (8) 16 (14) 32 (22)

Geology and a Social Science B. Govt. & P. o (0) o (1) 0 (1 ) Geog 77 (79) 15 (23) 92 (102) Econ 10 (3) 1 (0) 11 (3) Sociol 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Housecft o (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Fashion & Fabrics o (0) o (2) 0 (2)

87 (82) 18 (26) 105 (108)

50

BOYS GIRLS TOTAL

Geology and a Science P. Maths & Stats 0 (1) 0 (3) 0 (4) Maths 2 (3) 1 (0) 3 (3) Maths. SMP 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Stats o (1) 0 (0) o (1) Physics 11 (10) 1 (0) 12 (10) Eng. Sci 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Ch em 9 (7) 0 (3) 9 (10) Nuf. Chem 1 (1 ) o (0) 1 (1 ) Biology 23 (14) 17 (12) 40 (26) Nuf. Bioi o (1) o (0) o (1) Env. Sci 1 (1 ) o (0) 1 (1) G.E.D. 1 (2) o (0) 1 (2) Design 2 (0) o (0) 2 (0) Soc. Bio 1 (0) o (0) 1 (0) Comp. St. o (2) o (0) o (2) Woodwork o (1) o (0) o (1)

53 (44) 19 (18) 72 (62)

6. THE NUMBERS OF CANDIDATES OFFERING ONE OTHER SUBJECT AT ADVANCED LEVEL IN ADDITION TO GEOLOGY AND GENERAL STUDIES WERE AS FOLLOWS

BOYS GIRLS TOTAL

Geology, General Studies and an Arts

Eng. Lit 3 (4) 4 (11) 7 (15) History 5 (4) o (0) 5 (4) Art 0 (3) 2 (3) 2 (6) Anc. Hist 0 (0) o (1) o (1) Music 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) French 1 (1 ) 2 (2) 3 (3) German 1 (0) 1 (0) 2 (0) Latin 0 (1 ) o (0) o (1)

10 (13) 10 (17) 20 (30)

Geology, General Studies and a Social Science

Geog 64 (59) 17 (16) 81 (75) Econ 11 (5) 6 (4) 17 (9) B. Govt. & P. 1 (1 ) o (0) 1 (1 )

76 (65) 23 (20) 99 (85)

Geology, General Studies and a Science

Stats 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) Maths 7 (4) 0 (1 ) 7 (5) P. M & Sts 2 (7) 1 (0) 3 (7) P. Maths 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Physics 16 (2) 1 (0) 17 (2) Nuf. Phys 2 (5) 0 (0) 2 (5) Chem 1 (2) 2 (2) 3 (4) Nuf. Chem 3 (2) 0 (0) 3 (2) Biology 9 (14) 7 (9) 16 (23) NUf. Bioi o (0) 0 (1 ) o (1) Env. Sci 1 (1 ) 0 (1 ) 1 (2) G.E.D. 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Eng.Sci o (1) 0 (0) o (1) Woodwork o (1) 0 (0) o (1)

43 (39) 11 (15) 54 (54)

7. THE NUMBERS OF CANDIDATES OFFERING lWO BOYS GIRLS TOTAL

OTHER SUBJECTS AT ADVANCED LEVEL IN ADDITION TO GEOLOGY WERE AS FOLLOWS Geog, Craft 1 (1 ) 0 (0) 1 (1 )

Geog, French 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0)

BOYS GIRLS TOTAL Geog, An. Hist. 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Geog, Cl. Civl. 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 )

Geology and Arts 15 (21) 13 (17) 28 (38) Eng. Lit, History 4 (2) 2 (1) 6 (3)

Eng. Lit, Art 1 (1) 0(0) 1 (1) Eng. Lit, Archaeo 1 (0) 0(0) 1 (0) Geology, Arts and Science Eng. Lit, Spanish 0(0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Eng. Lit, Physics 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Eng. Lit, Cl. Stud 0(1) 0(0) 0(1 ) Eng. Lit, Biology 0 (0) 2 (1 ) 2 (1 ) Hist ReI. Stud 0(1) 0(0) 0(1 ) History, Maths 1 (0) 0 (0) . 1 (0) Hist An. Hist 0(1) 0(0) 0(1 ) History, Chem 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) French, German 0(0) 0(1 ) 0(1 ) History, P. M & Sts 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0)

6 (6) 3 (2) 9 (8) History, Biology 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Art, Biology 1 (4) 0 (0) 1 (4) French, P. M & Sts 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0)

Geology and Social Science German, Math. SMP 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Geog, Econ 21 (20) 3 (4) 24 (24) Spanish, Stats 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Geog, B. Govt. & P. 2 (0) 0 (1) 2 (1) Craft, Bioi 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Geog, Housecft 0 (0) 1 (2) 1 (2)

7 (5) 3 (2) 10 (7) Econ, B. Govt. & P. 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0)

24 (20) 4 (7) 28 (27) Geology, Social Science

and Science Geology and Science Geog, Nuf. P. Sci 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) P. Maths. Nuf. Chem 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) Geog, P. Maths 0 (1) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Maths, Fr. Maths 2 (0) 1 (0) 3 (0) Geog, Maths 1 (2) 1 (0) 2 (2) Maths, Physics 14 (15) 1 (0) 15 (15) Geog, Math. SMP 2 (2) 1 (0) 3 (2) Maths, Nuf, Phys 3 (4) 0 (0) 3 (4) Geog, P. M & Sts 8 (1) 3 (3) 11 (4) Maths, Eng. Sci 2 (0) 0 (0) 2 (0) Geog, Physics 10 (6) 0 (0) 10 (6) Maths, Chem 5 (2) 0 (0) 5 (2) Geog, Stats 0 (2) 0 (0) 0 (2) Maths, Nuf. Chem 2 (0) 0 (0) 2 (0) Geog, Ch em 5 (1) 1 (1 ) 6 (2) Maths, Nuf. P. Sc 1 (1 ) 0 (0) 1 (1 ) Geog, Nuf. Physics 0 (2) 0 (0) 0 (2) Maths, Biology 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Geog, Nuf. Chem 1 (1 ) 0 (0) 1 (1 )

Maths, G.E.D. 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Geog, Biology 12 (21) 14 (12) 26 (33) Math. Smp, Physics 4 (2) 0 (0) 4 (2) Geog, Nuf. Bioi 1 (1 ) 0 (1 ) 1 (2) P. M & Sts, Physics 1 (1 ) 0 (0) 1 (1) Geog, Woodwork 1 (1) 0 (0) 1 (1 ) P. M & Sts, Chem 2 (0) 0 (1 ) 2 (1) Geog, G.E.D. 2 (0) 0 (0) 2 (0)

P. M & Sts, Biology 2 (2) 2 (1 ) 4 (3) Geog, Soc. BioI. 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1)

Physics, Chem 8 (6) 0 (0) 8 (6) Geog, Design 2 (0) 0 (0) 2 (0) Physics, Nuf. Chem 3 (0) 0 (0) 3 (0) Geog, Env.Sci 0 (2) 0 (0) 0 (2) Physics, Biology 1 (3) 1 (0) 2 (3) Econ, Maths 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Nuf. PhY5, Chem 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Econ, P. M & Sts 1 (1 ) 1 (0) 2 (1 ) Nuf. Phys, Biology 1 (1 ) 0 (0) 1 (1 ) Econ, Biology 1 (0) 1 (0) 2 (0) Chem, Biology 14 (18) 10 (10) 24 (28) Econ, Stats. 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Nuf. Chem, Biology 1 (1 ) 1 (1 ) 2 (2) Sociol. Biology 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Nuf. P. Sc, Biology 1 (1 ) 0 (0) 1 (1 ) Biology, Housecft 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Biology, Env. Sci 0 (0) 2 (0) 2 (0)

49 (47) 23 (17) 72 (64) Stats, Chem 0 (1) 0 (0) 0 (1) Stats, Bioi 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) Bioi, Woodwork 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) P. M & St5, Nuf. P. S. 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 8. THE NUMBERS OF CANDIDATES OFFERING lWO

OTHER SUBJECTS AT ADVANCED LEVEL IN 70 (60) 18 (15) 88 (75) ADDITION TO GEOLOGY AND GENERAL STUDIES

WERE AS FOLLOWS

BOYS GIRLS TOTAL Geology, Arts and

Social Science Geology, General Studies and Arts Eng. Lit, B. Govt. & P. 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) Eng. Lit, Music 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) Eng. Lit, Geog 2 (7) 5 (8) 7 (15) Eng. Lit, History 0 (0) 2 (6) 2 (6) Eng. Lit, Law 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Eng. Lit, ReI. Stud 1 (0) 0 (1 ) 1 (1 ) Eng. Lit, Housecft 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Eng. Lit, Art 0 (1 ) 3 (2) 3 (3) History, Geog 7 (10) 3 (3) 10 (13) Eng. Lit, French 1 (0) 1 (1 ) 2 (1 ) History, Econ 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) History, An. History 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) History, Sociol 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) History, Art 1 (1 ) 1 (0) 2 (1 ) Geog, Art 4 (2) 1 (4) 5 (6) History, Latin 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 )

51

BOYS GIRLS TOTAL BOYS GIRLS TOTAL

History, French 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Geog, Cl. Civil * (0) (0) (0) Music, French 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0)

0 1 1

French, German 1 (0) 1 (0) 2 (0) Geog, An. Hist* 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0)

Art, French 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) 0 (2) Geog, French 2 (2) 5 (5) 7 (7) Geog, German 0 (2) 0 (1 ) 0 (3)

4 (5) 10 (12) 14 (17) Econ, Art 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Econ, German 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Econ, French 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 )

Geology, General Studies B. Govt. & P, Art 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) and Social Science

Geog, Econ 42 (34) 10 (7) 52 (41) 44 (50) 28 (47) 72 (97)

Geog, B. Govt. & P. 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Geog, Fash & Fab 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Geology, General Studies Geog, Bus. St 2 (2) 0 (0) 2 (2) Econ, B. Govt. & P. 1 (2) 0 (1 ) 1 (3)

Arts and Science Eng. Lit, P. Maths 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 )

46 (38) 11 (8) 57 (46) Eng. Lit, Maths 1 (0) 2 (0) 3 (0) Eng. Lit, Biology 2 (2) 3 (2) 5 (4) History, P. M & Stats 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 )

Geology, General Studies History, Chem 0 (1) 1 (0) 1 (1 )

and Science History, Biology 0 (1 ) 2 (0) 2 (1 )

Maths, Fr Maths 0 (2) 0 (0) 0 (2) Art, Biology 0 (1) 1 (1 ) 1 (2)

Maths, Physics 33 (33) 5 (1 ) 38 (34) Art, Math Smp 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 )

Maths, Nuf. Phys 5 (5) 1 (0) 6 (5) French, Physics 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0)

Maths, Eng. Sci 3 (1 ) 0 (0) 3 (1 ) French, Chem 1 (1 ) 0 (0) 1 (1 )

Maths, Ch em 7 (6) 1 (1 ) 8 (7) French, Biology 1 (0) 1 (1 ) 2 (1 )

Maths, Nuf. Chem 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) ReI. Stu, Bioi 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 )

Maths, Phys. Sci 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Music, Physics 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 )

Maths, Biology 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) Music, Chem 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 )

Maths, G.E.D. 0 (2) 0 (0) 0 (2) Anc. Hist, Nuf. Phys. 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 )

Math, Smp, Physics 1 (3) 0 (1 ) 1 (4) Maths Smp, Nuf. Chem 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 )

6 (12) 10 (5) 16 (17)

P. M & Sts, Physics 1 (4) 2 (0) 3 (4) P. M & Sts, Chem 5 (5) 2 (1 ) 7 (6) P. M & Sts, Biology 2 (0) 4 (3) 6 (3) P. M & Sts, Woodwork 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) P. Maths, Biology 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Geology, General Studies,

Physics, Chem 6 (6) 2 (0) 8 (6) Social Science and Science

Physics, Nuf. Ch em 1 (1 ) 0 (0) 1 (1 ) Geog, Maths 8 (6) 2 (3) 10 (9)

Physics, Biology 5 (4) 1 (3) 6 (7) Geog, Math, Smp 4 (1 ) 1 (1 ) 5 (2)

Physics, G.E.D. 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Geog, P Maths 0 (2) 0 (0) 0 (2)

Nuf. Phys, Chem 3 .(0) 1 (0) 4 (0) Geog, P. M & Sts 15 (7) 10 (4) 25 (11 )

Nuf. Phys, Nuf. Chem (2) 0 (0) 1 (2) Geog, Stats 1 (2) 0 (0) 1 (2)

Nuf. Phys, Biology 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Geog, Physics 9 (7) 0 (1 ) 9 (8)

Eng. Sci, Chem 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Geog, Nuf. Phys 2 (2) 0 (0) 2 (2)

Eng. Sci, Env. Sci 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Geog, Eng.Sci 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0)

Chem, Biology 20 (19)11(11) 31 (30) Geog, Ch em 12 (12) 5 (1 ) 17 (13)

Chem, Nuf. Bioi 1 (3) 0 (1 ) 1 (4) Geog, Nuf. Chem 1 (3) 0 (0) 1 (3)

Chem, Ph & Math 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Geog, Biology 22 (29) 18 (18) 40 (47)

Nuf. Chem, Biology 3 (3) 3 (1 ) 6 (4) Geog, Nuf. Bioi 0 (2) 1 (2) 1 (4)

Biology, Metalwk 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Geog, Env.Sci 0 (2) 0 (1 ) 0 (3)

Stats, Chem 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Geog, G.E.D. 1 (1 ) 0 (0) 1 (1 ) I Geog, Soc. Bio * 0 (0) 1 (1 ) 1 (1 )

102 (105) 34 (24) 136 (129) Econ, Maths 2 (3) 0 (0) 2 (3) Econ, Maths Smp 0 (2) 0 (0) 0 (2) Econ, P. M & Sts 5 (0) 0 (0) 5 (0)

Geology, General Studies Arts and Econ, Stats 0 (3) 0 (0) 0 (3)

Social Science Econ, Ch em 1 (1 ) 0 (0) 1 (1 )

Eng. Lit, Geog 13 (18) 13(19) 26(37) Econ,Phys 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 )

Eng. Lit, Econ 2 (2) 0 (0) 2 (2) Econ, Biology 0 (1) 1 (1 ) 1 (2)

Eng. Lit, Housecft 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Econ, Nuf. Bioi 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0)

Hist. Housecft 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) Econ, Nuf. Chem 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 )

History, Geog 17 (12) 2 (10) 19 (22) B. Govt. & P, Maths 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0)

History 3 (3) 2 (1 ) 5 (4) B. Govt. & P, Nuf. Chem 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0)

Hist, B. Govt. & P. 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) Sociol, Biology 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0)

Geog, ReI. Stud 0 (1 ) 1 (0) 1 (1) P. M & Sts, Fash & Fab 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0)

Geog, Art 2 (6) 3 (8) 5 (14) Biology, Housecft 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0)

Geog, Craft 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) 87 (88) 42 (33) 129 (121) Geog, Music 1 (2) 0 (1 ) 1 (3)

52

9. THE NUMBERS OF CANDIDATES OFFERING THREE BOYS GIRLS TOTAL

OTHER SUBJECTS AT ADVANCED LEVEL IN Geology, General Studies, Arts ADDITION TO GEOLOGY WERE AS FOLLOWS and Social Science

Art, Chem, Bioi 0(0) 0(1) 0(1) BOYS GIRLS TOTAL Eng. Lit, Geog, Art 1 (0) 0(0) 1(0)

Eng. Lit, Geog, French 0(0) 1 (0) 1 (0) Geology and Arts History, Geog, Econ 1 (0) 0(0) 1(0) Eng. Lit, Art, Craft 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) History, Maths, Physics 0(1) 0(0) 0(1) -- Music, Maths SMP" Physics 0(1) 0(0) 0(1)

0 (1 )' 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Music, Maths SMP, Chem 0(1) 0(0) 0(1)

Geology and Science 2 (3) 1 (1) 3 (4)

Maths, Fr Maths, Physics 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Geology, General Studies Maths, Eng. Sci, G.E.D. 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Arts and Science Maths, Physics, Chem 3 (0) 0 (0) 3 (0) History, Maths, Physics 0(1) 0(0) 0(1) Maths SMP , Physics, Chem 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Art, Chemistry, Biology 1 (0) 0(1 ) 1 (1) .

Physics, Chem, Biology 2 (0) 0 (0) 2 (0) French, German, P. M & Stats 1 (0) 0(0) 1 (0) Music, Maths SMP. Physics 0(1) 0(0) 0(1 )

6 (2) 0 (0) 6 (2) Music, Maths SMP, Chemistry 0(1) 0(0) 0(1)

Geology, Social Science 2 (3) 0(1) 2 (4)

and Science Geog, Maths, Nuf. Physics 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) Geology, General Studies,

(1 ) Social Science and Science

0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 Geog, Maths, Nuf. Phys 0(1) 0(0) 0(1 ) Geog, P. M & Sts, Biology 0(0) 1 (0) 1 (0)

Geology, Arts & Science Geog, Chem, Biology 0(0) 1 (0) 1 (0)

Eng. Lit, Art, Biology 0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) Geog, Nuf. Chem, Biology 1(0) 0(0) 1 (0)

0 (1 ) 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 1 (1) 2 (0) 3 (1)

Geology, Arts, Social Geology, General Studies

Science and Science Arts, Social Science and

Geog, Art, Math. Smp 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Science

Geog, Art, Physics 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) Eng. Lit, Geog, Biology 0(1) 0(0) 0(1)

Geog, Art, Biology 0 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) History, Geog, P. M & Sts 1 (0) 0(0) 1 (0) Geog, Art, G.E.D. 0(1 ) 0(0) 0(1)

2 (0) (0) 3 (0) --1 (2) 0(0) 1 (2)

SUMMARY Geology, Arts and Social THE NUMBERS OF CANDIDATES OFFERING GEOLOGY

WITH SUBJECTS IN THE 1981 IN DES CATEGORIES Science WERE AS FOLLOWS: Eng. Lit, Geog, Anc. Hist 0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 )

0 (0) 0 (1 ) 0 (1 ) BOYS GIRLS TOTAL

Geology with Arts 22 (15) 19 (16) 41 (31 ) 10. THE NUMBERS OF CANDIDATES OFFERING THREE Social Science 111(102) 22 (33) 133 (135) OTHER SUBJECTS AT ADVANCED LEVEL IN Science 129 (106) 37 (33) 166 (139) ADDITION TO GEOLOGY AND GENERAL STUDIES Arts and Social Science 15 (21 ) 13 (18) 28 (39)

WERE AS FOLLOWS Arts and Science 7 (6) 3 (2) 10 (8) Social Science & Science 49 (48) 23 (17) 72 (65) Geology, General Studies Arts, Soc. Sci. & Sci. 2 (0) 1 (0) 3 (0)

and Science General Studies 24 (17) 5 (5) 29 (22) P. Maths, Nuf. Chem, Biology 0(0) 0(1) 0(1) General Studies & Arts 14 (18) 20 (29) 34 (47) Maths, Fr. Maths, Physics 0(1) 2 (0) 2 (1)

General Stud. & Soc. Sci.122 (103) 34 (28) 156 (131 ) Maths, Physics, Chem 4 (2) 0(0) 4 (2)

General Stud. & Science 159 (147) 48 (40) 207 (187) Maths, Physics, Nuf. Chem 2 (0) 0(0) 2 (0)

Gen.Stud, Arts & Soc Sci 46 (50) 29 (47) 75 (97) Maths, Physics, Biology 1 (0) 0(0) 1 (0) Gen. Stud. Arts & Sci 8 (15) 10 (6) 18 (21 ) Maths, Physics, G.E.D. 1 (0) 0(0) 1 (0) Gen. Stud, Soc Sci & Sci 88 (89) 44 (33) 132 (122) Maths, Nuf. Physics, Ch em 1 (0) 0(0) 1 (0)

Gen. S~ud, Arts, Soc. Sci Maths, Nuf. Phys, Nuf. Chem 1 (0) 0(0) 1 (0) & Sci (2) 0 (0) (2) Maths, Chem, Biology 1 (0) 0(0) 1 (0) Maths SMP, Physics, Nuf. Chem 1 (0) 0(0) 1 (0) 797 (739) 308 (307) 1105 (1046) Maths -SMP. Nuf. Chem, Bioi 1 (0) 0(0) 1 (0) Candidates offering Physics, Chem, Biology 1 (0) 1(0) 2 (0) geology alone 91 (88) 31 (42) 122 (130)

14 (3) 3 (1) 17 (4) 888 (827) 339 (349) 1227 (1176)

53

IN TERMS OF PERCENTAGES THE FIGURES ARE AS FOLLOWS:

Geology with Arts Social Science Science Arts and Social Science Arts and Science Social Science and Science Arts, Social Science and Science

General Studies General Studies and Arts General Studies and Social Science General Studies and Science General Studies, Arts and Social Sciences General Studies, Arts and Science General Studies, Social Science and Science General Studies, Arts, Social Science and Science

Candidates offering Geology alone

OVERALL TOTALS %

ANAL VSIS AND DISCUSSION

The subject groupings reported in the preceding tables form but a representative sample of the vast range of combinations used over the years. The numbers of rarer combinations, typified by the social sciences· arts· sciences groupings, would be greatly extended were the sample to encompass a five·year or ten·year period. Nevertheless it is likely that the main combinations apparent in the figures for 19BO-B1 will be repeated yearly and can be relied upon for purposes of analysis and discussion.

The following considerations emerge from the study of the tables:

1. The number of candidates taking Advanced Level geology is small compared with the number of candidates studying other major subjects. The geology candidates form only 2% of all Advanced Level candidates, whereas the figure is nearer 20% for most major subjects taken in combination with geology.

2. The ratio of boys' compared with girls' entries (72:2B) does not mirror the overall entry pattern by boys and girls (56:44) for all boards and all subjects, so comparisions between the figures for all subjects and geology will be biased in this regard. Any comparison of boys and girls entries for any combination of subjects has to bear the bias of this ratio in mind.

3. (a) There is a wide spread of subject combinations which include geology. A subjective view is that this spread is more akin to that normally associated with social science rather than science subjects.

(b) Mixed combinations of science-social science and science-arts subjects are frequently chosen by students, presumably because these meet their educational needs.

54

BOYS GIRLS TOTAL

1.79 (1.2B) 1.55 (1.36) 3.34 (2.64) 9.05 (B.67) 1.79 (2.B1 ) 10.B4 (11.4B)

10.51 (9.01 ) 3.02 (2.B1 ) 13.53 ( 11.B2) 1.22 (1.79) 1.06 ( 1.53) 2.2B (3.32) 0.57 (0.51 ) 0.24 (0.17) 0.B1 (0.6B) 3.99 (4.0B) 1.B7 ( 1.45) 5.B7 (5.53) 0.16 (0.0) O.OB (0.0) 0.24 (0.0)

1.96 ( 1.45) 0.41 (0.43) 2.36 (1.B7) 1.14 (1.53) 1.63 (2.47) 2.77 (4.00) 9.94 (B.76) 2.77 (2.3B) 12.71 (11.14)

12.96 (12.50) 3.91 (3.4) 16.B7 (15.90) 3.75 (4.25) 2.36 (4.00) 6.11 (B.25) 0.65 (1.2B) 0.B1 (0.51 ) 1.47 (1.79) 7.17 (7.57) 3.59 (2.B1 ) 10.76 (10.37) O.OB (0.17) 0.0 (0.0) O.OB (0.17)

64.96 (62.84) 25.10 (26.11) 90.06 (BB.95)

7.42 (7.4B) 2.53 (3.57) 9.94 (11.05)

72.37 (70.32) 27.63 (29.6B) 100.00 (100.00)

(c) The number of candidates offering geology alone is quite high.

4. There is a strong bias towards the use of 3·subject combi· nations, and, where general studies is added, 4·subject combinations. One, 2- and 5- subject combinations are rare, as are 3- and 5- subject combinations with general studies.

5. Of the candidates offering geology and one other subject, those with social sciences (105) are more numerous than those with sciences (72) or arts (33), the social sciences being mainly geography (92) and economics (11), the sciences being biology (40) rather than physics (12), chemistry (9) or mathematics (4).

Likewise where general studies and geology and one other subject is concerned, those with social sciences (99) exceed those with sciences (54), and arts (20), the social sciences being largely geography (B1) rather than economics (17); the sciences being physics (19) or biology (16) rather than mathematics (11) or chemistry (6).

In general, because of the small number of subjects offered, both these groups of students are likely to comprise can­didates who have hitherto achieved less academically and who do not wish to take many subjects. In particular they do not wish to develop any further the technical, laboratory, manipulative and computational skills asso­ciated with the study of basic sciences and mathematics.

6. Of the candidates offering 3-subject combinations with geology, those with sciences (B5) exceeded those with social sciences (2B) and arts (9); likewise those with mixed social sciences - sciences combinations (72) exceed tthose with arts - social sciences (2B), or arts - sciences combi-

nations (10). Of the number of candidates with 4 subjects including general studies and geology, combinations with sciences (136) exceed those with social sciences (57) and arts (14); likewise combinations with social sciences -sciences (129). exceed those with arts-social sciences (72), and arts-sciences (16).

Since the largest number of students do 3 subjects, or 3 subjects plus general studies, both these groups are likely to contain a representative cross-section of the whole Advanced Level ability range for whom three specialist subjects are not considered by teachers, parents and students to be too challenging. It is interesting, and perhaps from some points of view gratifying, that this group of students, (by far the majority), is much more science­orientated than the preceding groups mentioned in para­graph 5.

7. The numbers of candidates offering 4 subjects including geology are small. The numbers with sciences (6) exceed those with social sciences-arts-sciences and arts-social sciences.

The number of candidates who offer 5 subjects including general studies are also small, but those with sciences (17), exceed those with social sciences (3) or combinations of social sciences-sciences (3), arts-social sciences (2) or arts-social sciences-sciences (1).

These groups probably contain the most able students since such a heavy programme of study would not be ' recommended to those whose GCE Ordinary level record, hitherto, had been one of modest attainment.

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8. Overall these are more combinations where geology is taken with science subjects alone (13.5% of the entry) than with social sciences alone (11.4), or with arts alone. Even where the combinations are general studies plus two subjects including geology, the trend is the same: combinations with science subjects (16.9%)' exceed those with social sciences (12.7%), or with arts (2.36%). These trends are common to both boys and girls.

Those students who choose science combinations are obviously those who are most fitted to go on to do more specialist sciences in further or technical education if they leave at 19, and those with high grades in sciences form a select group which will be able to apply for entry to science courses in higher education.

Many other students choose mixed combinations of sciences-social sciences (with or without general studies) (204 candidates i.e. 16.63%), or social sciences and arts (103 i.e. 8.39%) or science and arts (28 i.e. 2.28%). It is very pleasing to be able to justify these combinations both in terms of a broad, balanced education which ends at 19, and in terms of entry to higher education in social sciences, or possibly arts.

The most frequently occurring single subjects appearing in subject combinations with geology in 1981 were:

Subject Boys

General Studies 462

Geography

Biology

Mathematics * Physics

Chemistry

All entries for geology

387

134

184

165

137

797

%

70.8

12.9

55.1

80.0

89.9

76.5

12.1

All A level entries: all boards: all subjects in thousands (DES 1979).

312.256.2

Girls % Total % of all geology entry

190 29.1 652 59.0

144 27.1 531 48.1

109 44.8 243 22.0

46 20.0 230 20.8

20 10.1 185 16.7

42 23.4 179 16.2

308 27.8 1105 100

242.7 43.8 554.9

* = including statistics When the figures for 1981 are compared with 1980, and those in turn with pre-1980 figures, it is apparent that there is an increase in the numbers of students taking science combinations. In view of the general policy decisions taken by ATG and the expectations of admissions tutors in departments of geology in higher education, this can be said to be a steady, welcome trend, but we shOUld not forget the fact that large numbers of students will still use geology for purposes of achieving a sound, balanced, general education when they leave at 19, and for this large group of students this trend towards science combinations might be irrelevant. Whilst those in higher education might be gratified from their own point of view, and whilst the general status of Advanced Level geology in the country will probably be enhanced by the recognition of this trend, one timely outcome might also be that the former advanced level geology students who eventually seek training in the teaching of the geological and other sciences will possess a more appropriate background than hitherto.

9. Advanced Level Geology is more used by boys and girls. Allowing for the imbalance of entries by boys and girls (72:28),only in biology (55:45) does the number of entries ·for boysl and girls lequate in a proportionate way with that for all subject entries (56:44). This probably reflects that fact that often girls drop one or other, or both, of physics and chemistry in favour of biology in their preceding Ordinary Level course.

Sometimes girls drop. basic subjects like mathematics too. When the most able of these girls come to choose Advanced Level subjects and are seeking to find something to go alongside their biology, only geology is newly avail· able and can be started from scratch in the sciences; courses in mathematics, physics or chemistry which assume little previous background in those subjects are simply not available and are badly needed. It is little wonder, there­fore that the entries at Advanced Level in the basic scie~ces and mathematics are dominated by males. With these strictures in mind, therefore, geology can be regarded as something of a girrs subject - a very pleasing fact.

IMPLICATIONS Some implications may be drawn from this analysis:

1. The vast spread of subject combinations which include geology means that Geology as an Advanced Level subject must of necessity serve many uses with respect to careers. The subject combinations of most Advanced Level geology students would forbid their entry to higher education to do geology and other science courses, though they would not preclude entry to many social science, or possibly arts courses. These figures tend to support the intuitive, but hitherto unsubstantiated, statement that 90% of Advanced Level geology students do not go on to higher education in geology or any other science subject.

For curriculum developers, the implication of the overall figures is that it would be wrong to compose geology syllabuses which are narrowly related to the needs of a small group of students who will eventually enter the geological profession; the curriculum should only inciden­tally provide the elements of professional apprenticeship and training. A similar point has been made recently by the biologists (et Gregson-Allcott 1982). It would be wrong for those persons whose sample of students with Advanced Level geology is that which annually goes into higher education, to assume that the cohort that they know well is typical of all Advanced Level geology students and their educational background and needs. No groups of Advanced Level geology students or teachers should be made to feel like second-class citizens as the result of the pronounce· ments of professional geologists or teachers in higher edu­cation who have not fully understood the needs of students or the problems of the schools and colleges with respect to the choice of subjects.

Faced with the evidence that Advanced Level geology teaching groups are bound to have such very heterogeneous backgrounds, the job of the sixth form geology teacher is seen to be at least as demanding, if not more demanding, in this respect than that of his counterpart in higher edu­cation.

2. For many Advanced Level students, their geology will be their only contact with science after G.C.E. Ordinary Level or CSE. Hence it is most important that the syllabuses continue to promote a broad-based scientific understanding based on a careful selection of content, concepts and processes, and reflecting a worthwhile methodology and

56

philosophy. Not many Advanced Level geology syllabuses can claim to do this at the present and any revisions need to take this point into account. The proposed 'Core A Level' syllabus did not begin to tackle this problem.

It follows that Geology syllabuses should encourage, and geology examinations measure, the degree to which students have been able to understand and use scientific methodology and philosophy to identify and solve problems. Theoretical hypothetico-deductive and inductive methods of working should be highlighted and real-life case histories, illustrating and actual way in which geological ideas grew to fruition within the culture of their times, should be set down in syllabuses for study and evaluation.

As with all the sciences, it would be most important for syllabuses and examinations to lay emphasis on the rele­vance and utility of science, and its services to technology and the well-being of mankind. A paramount aim, however, shOUld be to demonstrate the limitations, as well as the power, of scientific methods and ideas. If girls are to be encouraged to enter science courses, and particularly basic science and mathematics courses, in technical and higher education, or if they are to be edu­cated in science in a balanced way, it is very important that their biology and geology courses at Advanced Level shOUld reiterate, use and greatly augment their understanding of basic science concepts, otherwise progress in higher edu­cation will be greatly hindered.

3. In the laboratory and classroom it is simply not possible to assume that many basic scientific concepts will have been taught or assimilated. Basic ideas in physics, chemistry and biology, without which the geological sciences cannot properly be understood, shOUld be reiterated and used in sixth-form geology teaching for the benefit of all students, not just those doing science combinations. It is no good teachers taking the easy line and asking the geology­physical sciences students to display understanding of silica tetrahedron, proxY-aluminium, solid solution, ionic sub­stitution according to Goldschmidt's rules etc. for the benefit of the others; the concept will have to be pains­takingly taught from scratch, and the 'others' helped to display their command of these ideas - preferably with the help of models and other aids. Recently the biologists have been making a similar point with respect to the very large and equally heterogeneous group of Advanced Level candidates who take their subject without having studied much physical science, particularly chemistry (cf. Gregson­Allcott 1982, p. 16).

4. Since a great many students take combinations of subjects which include geography as well as geology (48%), syl­labuses for both subjects should be organised so as to complement each other; there should be an overt attempt to highlight differences between the methodology and philosophy of the sciences and the social sciences in the statement of aims in syllabuses and of assessment objectives in examinations. The problem of overlap in geology and geography syllabuses, and especially in the questions com­prising advanced level examination papers, used to be considerable (Wilson, P.A. 1973). Probably overlap was always least with JMB examinations (ibid) and has since diminished with the confines of that board, but it is still a problem where other boards are concerned.

5. It might be suspected from some of this analysis that a large minority of students are doing geology at Advanced Level in the sixth form because of lack of choice of more suitable syllabuses of a different kind.

On a more lighthearted note, the mind boggles at the career intentions of the student who has studied Geology, Pure Mathematics and Statistics, and Fashion and Fabrics; a future accountant-director-manager of a fashion house specialising in the design and marketing of fieldwork apparel - aimed first at the chic French and continental market rather than the more rugged British fraternity?

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank lan Hunter and John Bale for a critical reading of drafts of the manuscript.

REFERENCES

BROWN, G. 1979 Growth trends in 'A' level Geology. British Geologist 5(4). 106-8. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE 1981 Statistics of Education 1979 Vol.2 GCE, CSE and School Leavers. London HMSO. GREGSON-ALLCOTT, B. 1982 Biology in the School Curriculum - the state of play. Biologist 29(1), 15-20. JOINT MATRICULATION BOARD 1980 Combinations of subjects offered at the Advanced Level of GCE: Geology 1980. Manchester, JMB 13 pp. JOINT MATRICULATION BOARD 1981 Combinations of subjects offered at the Advanced Level of GCE: Geology 1981. Manchester, JMB 13 pp. WHITTAKER, R.J. 1977a Examining and Examination Syllabuses in Geology for GCE. Geology Teaching 2(1). 39-47. WHITTAKER, R.J. 1977b The nature of geology and its place in the curriculum. Geology Teaching 2(2), 86-93. WI LSON, Pat A. 1973 Concept attainment in physical geology - some ideas for syllabus construction and assessment. Geology 5,42-51.

D.B. Thompson, Department of Education, University of Keele, Staffs, ST5 5BG.

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CAREERS'INFORMATION RELATING TO THE GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES

INTRODUCTION

In the author's experience, a school or college which boasts a fully-qualified, keen and able group of careers' teachers in fortunate indeed. More often than not, a random selection of subject teachers is invited to join the group of careers advisers and they are expected to learn 'on the job', by trial and error. It is often a matter of luck whether or not pupils find the services which are provided helpful to their particular needs. Perhaps the most worthwhile attribute of a careers' teacher is an ability to deal sympathetically at a very personal level with clients who are often bemused and not a little daunted by the whole business. A further and vital attribute relates to the ability to assemble and organise careers' information over a wide range of fields.

These problems are particularly acute with respect to careers in the geological sciences where the range of possible openings is very wide and the information available somewhat scant and specialised. It is unlikely that a careers' teacher who is not also a geology teacher will know much of the field and the sources of information which are appropriate to a proper con­sideration of the issues involved in planning for a worthwhile geological future.

In order to help geology teachers and careers specialists, two lists have been assembled here, the first relating to basic information about careers in geology and related fields which should be in the careers' room and/or geology department of every school and college, and the second relating to detailed articles which should give students a flavour of what it is like to work in the geological profession at various levels.

The author would be grateful if ATG members or careers' teachers would write to him and seek to augment the material which is presented here.

THE LISTS

CAREERS REFERENCES FOR THE EARTH & GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES PART I These references are of interest mainly to students at schools and colleges. Addresses where these publications may be obtained are given after the reference.

ANON 1978. Career Profiles 6: Geology (interviews with geologists from the Coal Board, an Engineering Co., an Oil Exploration Co., and with a geochemist and a geological technician). London, Manpower Services Commission Careers and Occupational Information Centre, 3 St. Andrews Place, Regents Park, London NW1 4LB. Publication now taken over by Thomas Nelson & Son, Nelson House, Mayfield Road, Walton-on-Thames, Surrey. Tel: 0932246133. ANON 1981. Degree Course Guide: Geological and Environ­mental Sciences_ Cambridge, Hobson's Press, Bateman Street Cambridge CB2 1 LZ. Tel:' 022369811. '

58

ANON 1980. Geological Technology - Training courses for Geology Technicians. London, Geology Section, South London College, Knights Hill, London SE27 OTX. Please send a stamped, addressed envelope. ANON 1981. International Mining (revised edition). London, Mineral Industry Manpower and Careers Unit, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2BP. Tel. 01-584 7397. ANON 1968. The Metal Seekers. Mining Association of the United Kingdom, 6 St. James Square, London SW1 Y 4LD. Tel: 01-9032399. CASWELL, P.V. 1981. Careers for Geologists. London, Institution of Geologists, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London W1V 9HG. Tel: 01-7340751. DARMON, C. 1980. Which University. Nationwide Geology Club Newsletter 23, p. 8 only. From C. Darmon, 13 Acacia Avenue, Chapeltown, Sheffield S304PQ. INSTITUTE OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES 1980. Careers in the Geological Sciences. Institute of Geological Sciences, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2DE. Tel: 01-589 3444. INSTITUTION OF GEOLOGISTS. 1981. Geology the Science: Geology the Profession. Advice to students at school on careers in Geology. London, I.G. Burlington House, Piccadilly, London W1V 9HG. 6 pp. Tel: 01-734 0751. K EL LI NG, G. 1981. Comment (on career prospects for geologists in 1981-2). Geology Teaching 6 (2), p. 72 only. KENNA, R. & LLOYD, N. 1981. Opportunities for geologists. Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services, published by Central Services Unit, Crawford House, Precinct Centre, Oxford Road, Machester M13 9EP. Tel: 061-2736464. TAR LING, D.H. 1981. Geophysics and Universities (a careers' guide to Geophysics Courses in UK). Geology Teaching 6 (2), 58-60. TURNER, S. 1980. A career asa museum geologist. Nation­wide Geology Club Newsletter 23, p. 8 only. From C. Darmon; see above for address.

CAREERS REFERENCES FOR THE EARTH & GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES PART 11 These references are of interest more to undergraduates and postgraduates but may still be useful for students at school and college. The articles are to be found largely in British Geologist, the magazine of the Institution of Geologists Ltd. Back copies may be obtained from The Secretary, Institution of Geologists Ltd. Burlington House, Picadilly, London W1V 9HG. Tel: 01-7340751.

ANON 1982 Petroleum: Careers in Exploration and Pro­duction. Sydney, Australian Petroleum Exploration Asso­ciation Ltd., GPO Box 2974, Sydney, NSW 2001. ANON 1975 IPG Membership Criteria. British Geologist 1 (3),29-30. ANON 1981 A mine foreman looks at Geologists. British Geologist 7 (4), 101-2. ARGENT, C.R. 1980 Geologists and the Third World. Aid and Research - are they mutually exclusive? British Geologist 6 (4),92-6. BAREFOOT, M.J. 1976 Membership statistics (of APIPG). British Geologist 2 (3), p. 35 only. BAREFOOT, M.J. 1977 The last statistics of APIPG. British Geologist 3 (4), p. 55 only.

A T G ~ &\@m@r2rt@;JJ.£; • ATG TIE £3.40 (plus 30p for p & p) Blue cloth tie with ATG motif.

• GRAIN SIZE SCALE 20p each (plus 20p for p & p) 15p each for 20 copies or more (plus 20p for p & p) 100 copies or more (post free) Specially printed for ATG in red and black on white plastic card. (Size 6 x 9 cm) .

• SLIDE SETS FOLDS by R.C. Standley £2.50 for 10 slides with notes (plus,25p for p & p)

Thrusted out overturned anticline, Flat lying overturned asymmetrical folds, Upright anticline, Upright syncline in thickly bedded sandstones, Small anticline in slates, Kink band in alternating mudstones and siltstones, Similar folds in migmatic gneisses, 'z' shaped parasitic fold, Concentric folds in Devonian slate,

INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS FIELD RELATIONSHIPS by D Linington and P Harrison £2.50 for 10 slides with notes (plus 25p p & p)

Aplite intruding shales, Pitchstone sill in new red sandstone Dolerite dyke in Moine Schist, , Felsite dyke in Mona Schist, Vent Agglomerate, Aplite dyke, Jointed granite. Columnar joining, Layered basic intrusion, Geological map of the Isle of Arran.

SEISMIC SECTION by P. Harrison and Western Geophysical Company. £4.00 for 14 slides with notes and a seismic profile. (plus 25p p & p).

Oil Traps Seismic Surveying Geophysics and data processing Seismic sections

GEOLOGY FROM SPACE - Plate Tectonics (published by Space Frontiers Ltd. in conjunction with the A.T.G.) £3.75 for 12 slides with notes (plus 25p p & p).

Red Sea and Gulf of Aden San Andreas Fault Afar Triangle East African Rift Iceland Tuamotu Archipelago Tonuge of the Ocean

The Salton Trough The Andes Kuril Island Arc Fold Mountains in Namibia Fold Mountains in Australia

• TARR'S WORLD SEISMICITY MAP* £3.00 (plus 50p p + p) Depicts magnitude, depth and date of the world's major earthquakes. (Siz approx. 90 x 120 cm) .

• OPEN UNrVERSITY EVOLUTION CHART* £1.50 (plus 50p for p & p) Illustrates evolution of major faunal and floral groups through geological time. (Size approx. 75 x 100 cm).

PALAEOECOLOGY, by Prof. D.V. Ager (reissue) £2.40 (plus 20p p + p) 24 slides (as strips) with notes LIFE ORIENTATIONS: Coral reefs, tree stumps, productids, burrowing bivalves, resting bivalve, Rudist colony. DEATH ORIENTATIONS: parallel belemnites, random crinoid stems, overturned brachiopod, gaping bivalves, separated mollusc shells, fossil 'spirit-level'. FOSSI L ASSOCIATIONS: brachiopod and coral, ammonites and worms, oysters and sponges, crinoid and gastropod, low diversity fauna, high diversity fauna. TRACE FOSSILS (Mesozoic & Cenozoic): Dip/o-craterion, Tha/assinoides, Ophiomorpha, Rhizocoral/ium, Zoophycus, browsing trails.

MODERN SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS 1 (sedimentary environments of the Bahama Bank~ and the Arabian Gulf) by Roger Till and Chris Wilson £3.00 (plus 20p p + p) 30 slides (as strips) with notes BAHAMA BANKS - Oolite Facies (including aerial views of sandbanks, and microphotographs of oolite grains). Mud & Pellet Mud Facies (aerial view of inte­rtidal muds, microphotos). Oolites, Grapestone & Reefs (aerial views of oolite sandbanks encroaching over grapestone sediments, and of reef, microphotos).

ARABIAN GULF - Algal sediments (aerial views of Sabkha environment, and examples of laminated sediments analoguous to those in British Carboniferous, Rhaetic and Purbeck). Evaporites and Red Beds (this set shows modern sediments comparable to those that accumulated on the margins of the '~echstein Sea' in the present North Sea in Permian times).

ELSEVIER'S MINERAL AND ROCK TABLE Compiled by P. Lof, published by Elsevier Scientific Publising Co. £5 each (plus 25p p & p)* The "at a glance" chart format will provide you with:

• 74 rock-forming minerals • 53 ore minerals • comprehensive diagrams featuring all important rock

classifications • full indexing • Michel-Levy Chart

*. Orders to Steve Flitton, Geology Dept, Worthing Sixth * Postage and packaging rates quoted for maps and charts * F C II B I R d W rth' W S . * orm 0 ege 0 sover oa 0 mg . ussex. *

despatched folded. Requests for despatch unfolded In map roll ' " will be charged at £2 per despatch, irrespective of number of *Ch did d bl tAT G * h * eques an posta or ers ma e paya eo. . . * maps or c arts. Promotions Group.

59

~ ([j/ ~@WiJiWrlt1@Vf1$; * * * COLLECT YOUR MATERIAL AT CONFERENCE AND SAVE POST· * *

AGE AND PACKING PLUS THE SPECIAL CONFERENCE DISCOUNT

SUDE SETS Folds Intrusions Seismic Sections Geology from Space Palaeoecology Modern Sed. Environments Rock Textures

~£2.20 ~£2.20 ~£3.50 A.T.G. Tie ~ £3.30 Grain Size Scales .~ £2.20 Tarr's World Seismicity Map

...£a- £2.80 Open University Evolution Chart .gQp" 70p Elsevier's Mineral & Rock Table

This offer is only available to members collecting goods at conference. Payment by cash, cheque or officiat order invoice.

~£3.20 -2-8p l8p

..£3-£2.80 ~£l.30

M"fA.50

~RISBROOKE HOUSE HOT;.l The ISLE OF WIGHT is full of geological interest so why not bring your field study students to our friendly licensed hotel? We are experienced in taking both school parties and field study groups and provide use of the dining room for evening study facilities together with video, blackboard and still projector if required. Drying facilities available. Bed, breakfast, packed lunch and evening meal.

Carnoch Outdoor Centre Glencoe

GEOLOGY & PH~AL GEOGRAPHY COURSES

Facilities, equipment & specialist staff

Telephone or write for further details to Paul and Details: L o;.no O"yton. Ca,;.b, .. ke Hou .. Hotel. 11 8 .. oh".ld I

Road, Sandown. Tel: 0983402257. --l Glencoe, Argyll, Scotland PA39 4HS Phone: Ballachulish (085 52) 350

COLCHE GEOLOGY is a prominent feature of our B.Sc., and B.A. Honours and Ordinary Degrees validated by Lancaster University.

GEOLOGY may be studied in combinations with 19 other subjects.

GEOLOGY may be combined with Geography for the B.Sc. or B.A. Honours Degree programme.

A common first year forms the basis for all degree programmes.

Fieldwork is the foundation of the Geology Course.

Write or telephone: Mr J.D. Crossley, Division of Geology Tel:051 - 489 6201 Ext. 251

The City of Liverpool College of Higher Education The City of Liverpool College of Higher F:ducdtion, Liverpool Road, Prescot, Merseyside. L34 1 NP

60

BATE, R.H. 1980 Micropalaeontology at the BM (British Museum of Natural History). British Geologist 6 (4), 110-111. BEAVINGTON, C. 1980 Geologists and the Third World: The Commonwealth Geological Liaison Office. British Geo­logist 6 (4),98-100. BERTIE, D.M. 1981 Behind the facade - geological collections in British Museums. British Geologist 7 (3), 80-81. BISHOP, W.w. & BLUNDELL, D. 1976 What professionalism means to us. British Geologist 2 (1), 6-8. BRISTOW, C. 1979 English China Clays. British Geologist 5 (3), 78-9. CHAPMAN, N. 1979 Nuclear waste disposal and the geologist. British Geologist 5 (1), 11-13. BURWELL, D. 1981 What sort of geology degree would employers of geologists prefer? British Geologist 7 (3), 72-5. CAMM, S. et al 1981 Carnon Valley, Cornwall, a placer tin deposit. British Geologist 7 (3)' 65-71. CARTE R, P. 1982 In-career training. British Geologist 8 (1), p. 16 only. CASWELL, P.V. 1981 Graduate Geologist Survey - 1980. British Geologist 7 (3), p. 79 only. See also Nicholas, C. (letter) British Geologist 7 (4), p. 106 only, 1981. CUTLER, A & JOACHIM, M. 1975 Female Geologists: Employment Problems. British Geologist 1 (1), p. 10 only. DESLO, A. 1976 Professional Geology in Italy. British Geo­logist 2 (3), p. 39 only. DU F F, K. 1979 A geologist in conservation and planning. British Geologist 5 (1), 9-10. DUN HAM, K.C. 1975 Interview with Sir Kingsley Dunham. British Geologist 1 (3), 31-34. DUN HAM, K.C. 1978 Sir Kingsley Dunham (Address at Inauguration of Institution of Geologists). British Geologist 4 (2),26-7. DUNSTAN, M. 1980 Policy making and the Geologist. (30 years experience of geologists in the Civil Service). British Geologist 6 (2), 37-9. DURRANCE, E. 1980 Geologists and the Developing Countries (Editorial). British Geologist 6 (4), p. 116 only. EV ANS, E. 1979 Many breeds of Cat (the story of an in­dependent geology consulant serving the Petroleum industry). British Geologist 5 (4), 99-100. EVANS, E. 1982 Recent changes in the role of the geologist in the Oil Industry. British Geologist 8 (2), 34-5. EVANS, R. 1980 An international mineral exploration fund. British Geologist 6 (4), 96-7. FALCON, N. 1979 How it was is Persia (The story of a career in the oil industry 1927 onwards). British Geologist 5 (4), 90-93. FOTHERGILL, C. 1975 What professionalism means to me. British Geologist 1 (1), 3-4. FOTHERGILL, C. 1979 The Role of Independent Oil Companies. British Geologist 5 (4), 95-6. FRENCH, J. 1975 Women and geology. British Geologist 1 (4), p. 53 only. HAWKINS, R. 1981 "Job Hunting". British Geologist 7 (3)' p. 82 only. HASTINGS, D. 1980 Geologists and the Third World. Geo­scientists for International Development. British Geologist 6 (4), 104-106. HEADWORTH, H. 1982 The role of the IG in advancing the standard and reputation of Geologists. British Geologist 8 (2),39-40. H ICKSON, C. 1982 Planning your career? British Geologist 8 (1), p. 9 only. HOARE, R. 1982 Have geologists in the Coal Industry made advances in technical capacity and responsibility? British Geologist 8 (2), 33-4. KIRBY, R. 1978 Research activities at 10S (Institute of Oceanographic Sciences) Taunton, British Geologist 4 (4), 90-93. 61

KIRKWOOD, S. 1980 SEG Committee for Women in Geo­physics (letter). British Geologist 6 (1), p. 27 only. KNILL, J. & CHAPLOW, R. 1975 Professional recognition in geology. British Geologist 1 (1), 7-9. LAM ING, D.J.C. 1979 100 years young (An interview with a veteran geologist, E.J. Beer). British Geologist 5 (2), p. 49 only. LAMING, D.J.C. 1980 Geologists and the Third World. North-South: the Brandt Programme of Survival. British Geologist 6 (4), 91-2. LAVER, M. 1981 The relevance of professionalism. British Geologist 7 (2) 42-3. LEWIS, D. 1979 Pictures of the Geological Profession. British Geologist 5 (3), 69-71. (The work of the Occupational Research Centre at Hatfield Polytechnic). LlNDNER, J.N.D. 1979 The Geologist's role in the oil industry. British Geologist 5 (2), 49-51. LLOYD, J. 1975 Careers in geology. British Geologist 1 (4), -44-47. LOVE L L, B. 1981 Nuclear-waste disposal: trouble ahead? British Geologist 7 (1), 29-30. LUCAS, J. 1978 Spotlight on the NCB Opencast Executive. British Geologist 4 (4), 78-80. LUTLEY, W. 1976 Women in geology - a feminist per­spective. British Geologist 2 (3), p. 40 only. (See comment by S. Kirkwood in British Geologist 2 (4), p. 55 only.) MORTON, S. 1981 The Geologist in the brick industry. British Geologist 7 (2), 37-41. NEWBERRY, J. 1975 What professionalism means to me. British Geologist 1 (4), 42-3. N ICHOLAS, C. 1982 Employment Service. Analysis of vacancies notified 1981. British Geologist 8 (2),48-9. OLlVER, P. 1979 A geologist in Waste Disposal. British Geologist 5 (1), 10-11. OWEN, M. & MORGAN-JONES, M. 1978 Geologists in the Thames Water Authority. British Geologist 4 (4), 81-83. (See also letter by J.L. Lucas British Geologist 5 (1), p. 27, 1979). OWENS, B. 1980 Micropalaeontology in the IGS (Institute of Geological Sciences) approach. British Geologist 6 (4), 111-113. PATRICK, Andrea (Laming, D. editor) 1977 An interview with a very senior geologist. (An interview with E.J. Beer). British Geologist 3 (2), 18-20. RANKILOR, P. 1982 The changing role of the engineering geologist in the Industry. British Geologist 8 (2), p. 36 only. RICHARDS, L. 1982 Earth Science Conservation in Britain. British Geologist 8 (-1), 4-8. RICHARDSON, K. 1981 A statistical glimpse at IG. British Geologist 7 (2), 45-6. RICHARDSON, K. 1982 The Geologists Employment Organ­isation - GED (Company profile). British Geologist 8 (2), 43-5. R IOD, M. 1979 Petroleum geology in BNOC (The British National Oil Company}. British Geologist 5 (4), 93-5. ROYDS, A. 1980 Geologists and the Third World. Geological Overseas Aid. British Geologist 6 (4), 101-103. SCOTT, B. 1981 Merging of education committees (of IG and GS). British Geologist 7 (4), 104-5. SEVERAL AUTHORS 1979 Geophysics in the UK. British Geologist 5 (2)' 31-42.

Hughes, M. Marine seismic exploration. pP. 31-4. Sarginson, M. Marine Engineering geophysics. 34-7. McQuillan, R. Marine geophysics in IGS. 37-8. Masson-Smith, D. Applied geophysics in IGS. 38-40. King, R. Geophysics at Birmingham. 40-42.

SEV E RAL AUTHO RS 1980 Overseas geology. British lieo­logist 6 (3), 63-74.

King, R. Remote Geology. pp. 63-5. Morgan, W. An Australian experience. pp. 65-7. Tytherleigh, P. An Engineering geologist overseas. pp. 67 -9.

Dutton, C. Geologists in - Hongkong? pp. 69-71. Dixon, C. The Hazards of Man Buying. pp. 71-73. Whitford-Stark, J. Graduate Geology in the USA. pp. 73-4.

SEVERAL AUTHORS 1980 Engineering Geology. Seven articles on careers and training. British Geologist 6 (1). 3-19. SEVERAL AUTHORS 1981 The Work of the Institute of Geological Sciences.

Brown, G.M. Director's Introduction. pp. 4-5. Grey, D.A. Geophysics and Hydrogeology. 5-8. Moore, P .J. Geochemistry and Petrology. 8-10. Wright, J.E. Continental Shelf. 10-11. Wilson, H.E.SpeciaISurveys. 11-13. Lumsden, G.I. Land Survey: Scotland and Northern Ireland.

14-16 Calver, M.A. Land Survey, Northern England and North

Wales. 16-17 Evans, W.B. Land Survey, Southern England and South

Wales. 18 only. Ramsbottom, W.H.C. Palaeontology. 18-19 Hughes, I.G. An example of the work of the Overseas

Division - Ecuador Project. 19-21 Archer, A.A. Minerals strategy. 21-22 Dunning, F.W. The Geological Museum. 22-3 Dhondu, T.J. Publications. 23-4

SIMPSON, B. 1981 Extractive Industry Geology. British Geologist 7 (2). 43-5. SKINNER, A. 1977 The hydrogeologist's role in the manage­ment of groundwater. British Geologist 3 (3), p. 47 only. SLATER, J.M. 1978 Coal Geology Today, NCB Geological Branch. British Geologist 4 (4),75-78. SMITH, P.J. 1976 Personal column - Advertise or die. British Geologist 2 (3). 51-2. SMITH, P.J. 1977 Personal column. Just what are we trying to

.advance? British Geologist 3 (1). p. 11 only. SPINK, K. 1975 What career? British Geologist 1 (4), p. 52 only. (See replies by R. Chaplow and R.J.B. Kenna in British Geologist 2 (1), p. 14 only.) THOMAS, I. 1978 Aggregate Working Parties. British Geo­British Geologist 4 (4), 93-6. THOMAS, I. 1979 Minerals Planning. British Geologist 5 (2), 52-4. THOMAS, I. 1977 Geologists in local government. British Geologist 3 (2). 21-22. (See letter from P.G. Oliver, British Geologist 3 (3). p. 50 only.) THOMAS, I. 1977 Geologists in Local Government: 1977. British Geologist 3 (4), 65-67. THOMAS, I. 1978 Aggregare Working Parties. British Geo­logist 4 (4), 96-97. THOMAS, I. 1980 Environmental Geology in Local Govern­ment. British Geologist 6 (2). 39-45. THORNE, M. 1981 Trends in the hard rock mining industry in South West England. British Geologist 7 (4),92-98. WAR R EN, P. 1977 Remuneration report. British Geologist 3 (1). 4-5. WARREN, P. 1977 Geology in Government Service. British Geologist 3 (2). 24-5. WARREN, P. 1977 Salary survey. British Geologist 3 (3). 42-6. WARREN, P. 1978 Remuneration Survey Revisited. British Geologist 4 (2). 38-40. WAR R EN, P. 1980 Geologists in Government. British Geo­logist 6 (2),34-7. WARREN, P. 1980 1980 Remuneration Survey: a comparative assessment. British Geologist 6 (4). (See also letter by P. Warren British Geologist 6 (4), p. 114 only). WARREN, P. 1981 Hazardous waste disposal. British Geo­logist 7 (2),48-9. WATKINS, J.R. 1977 Qualification requirements for geo­logical employment in Australia. British Geologist 3 (2). p. 25 only.

62

WILSON, H. 1977 IGS report. British Geologist 3 (4), p. 67 only. WOLFENDEN, E.B. 1979 The Geological Service Company (eg. the Robertson Research Group). British Geologist 5 (4). 97-8. WOLFENDEN, E.B. 1982 Robertson Research (Company Profile of one of the leading companies in the UK, if not the world). British Geologist 8 (1), 10-13. WRIGHT, J. 1977 Offshore geology in IGS. British Geologist 3 (2). p. 23 only.

D.B. Thornpson, Department of Education, University, Keele, Staffs ST5 5BG.

GEOLOGY teaching

HURRY! WHILE RATES ARE LOW! MEMBERS MAY LIKE TO BRING THESE RATES TO THE ATTENTION OF THE FIELDWORK CENTRES AND SIMILAR HOSTELRIES THEY USE WHICH MAY HELP OTHER MEMBERS GAIN KNOWLEDGE OF GOOD FIELDWORK ACCOMMODATION.

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Full page £75 £135 £190

Half page £45 £ 80 £115

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Eighth £20 £ 35 £ 50

Inserts £90 per issue minimum.

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GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS

send for descriptive catalogue

RICHARD TAYLER MINERALS BYWA YS, BURSTEAD CLOSE, COBHAM SURREY Telephone Cobham 2340

4 issues

£235

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£ 90

£ 60

MOTORWAY MADNESS

Messrs Murphy, Murphy and Murphy Ltd (Road Builders) intend tendering for the construction of the proposed Trans­Wales Motorway from Pen-y-ffardding (A) on the map, Fig. 1 to Aberbananer (C), via Llandestine (B).

As consulting geologist, you are asked to draw up a report outlining the possible geological hazards which might be encountered in the area.

On the map provided, mark on the route which you would recommend your employers follow. Add this to your report, along with suggestions about: (a) where more detailed site investigations might be necessary and (b) where protective measures might be required. Remember that:

(1) Motorways cost millions of pounds per kilometre, there­fore the shorter your route, the better.

(2) Detailed site investigations also cost money.

(3) A short "cheap" route which collapses, or gets buried by landslides, is no longer cheap.

(4) You need raw materials. The nearer they are, the cheaper they are.

. (5) The more rock you have to excavate and move the more expensive a project becomes.

You will realise, of course, that there is no one "right" answer, some solutions are likely to be less disastrous than others, [however.

Finally confer with your colleagues in front of a 1 :626,000 geological map and be prepared to discuss orally the extent to which you believe that the geological dispositions and events depicted on this map are likely to exist in nature in Wales.

Robin Stevenson and Andrew Elyland, Department of Geology, Norfolk College of Arts and Technology, Tennyson !Avenue, Kings Lynn, PE30 2QW.

~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~----------,

Fig. 1.

Sandstone

Marl

Dolerite

Conglomerate

Coal

Alluvium

Slaty Agglomerate

Lime.tone

Shale

...... Fault

.. All spot heights are in metres

ill Steep slopes

THE GEOLOGY OF PART OF THE TRANS-WALES MOTORWAY

63

PUNCHED CARDS FOR IDENTIFYING MINERALS

&\\1 1.D

~ CII ~

III .~ CJ CII i III u :is

~ C CII> CII >CII CII ~;, ~

Cl

COLOUR

NAME OF MINERAL,

~ C '0.

chemical formula of mineral

type of mineral

form of mineral

Fig. 1. Actual size of card used to identify minerals

CII ~ i M q- «) Qj«)

C. .2 ~ ~ ~ "OC ~

~ 0 0 0 0 ~III

~ ~ 2£ Q. > ..c N M In

HARDNESS (MOHS' SCALE)

other properties

mode of occurrence

CLEAVAGE FRACTURE DENSITY STREAK

~ ~ CJ III

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& 0 ~

00 In 0 00 5& OCII

III N ~ >~ > 0)

«) EIII ii a III ~>

CII ... ... ... ... 0: ~~ u III III .. III q-u Ill ...

N N M M CII_

I use sets of 'punched' cards to help teach mineral properties and identification. The students learn to identify some of the minerals in the process of their making the cards and, once made, the cards further help the student to identify other minerals. I use these cards with Advanced level pupils, but there is no reason why they could not be used with 0 level and CSE groups.

CII ~

~ ... CJ III ~ -iii

"0 '0 -6 c 0 CJ

Each card is A5 in size and is printed in the form displayed in Fig. 1. The rectangular holes are punched with a Velobinder a gadget which is normally used for putting plastic binders on' pamphlets. The bottom right-hand corner of each card is cut off to prevent it becoming the wrong·way round or upside­down (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 2. Edge of card before cutting -

and after cutting

64

> ... 'iij c c CII ~ "0 0 ii ~

E > CII ..c ~ ~

> ... CII ~ III :E

CJ ii 0 CII

"0 III

~ 'CII :is C .J:: ~ 0

Initially each student is given 27 cards, one for each of the minerals which has to be learned and identified. The student makes physical tests on the 27 minerals and records the results in a laboratory notebook. He then fills in the card and ticks the appropriate holes to show the colour(s), hardness, cleavage, etc of each mineral. When cards have been filled in for all the minerals the student checks them against a master copy held by the teacher, who is thus able to monitor each student's progress quite effectively. The student then cuts into each hole which has a tick beside it, Fig. 2. Each card is treated similarly and when they are all complete the card-set is ready for use.

To use the card-set the student first looks up the properties of ~he first mineral to be identified. If the mineral is green, for Instance, he puts a thin knitting needle or piece of stiff wire through the green hole and then shakes the pack. All the cards of minerals which may be green then fall out onto the desk. The cards remining on the needle are then taken off and put to one side as they relate to minerals worthy of further in­vestigation. A further property of the first mineral to be identified is then chosen and the needle put through the appropriate hole of those cards which remain as 'possibles'. The process is repeated until only one card falls out. This should be the card which bears the name of the mineral being identified.

If the students work out the properties of the minerals them­selves, then they may well get them wrong or may miss identi­fying important varieties of a mineral. It is therefore necessary for the properties to be checked by the teacher before the cards are notched. On the other hand following traditional teaching strategies, students copy the properties from a textbook, half the point of the exercise is lost, and they will end up identifying all sorts of unusual mineral varieties.

Or Mike Tuke, Geology Dept., Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology, Collier Road, Cambridge, CB1 2AJ.

BOOKS RECEIVED

BARNES, J.W. 1982 Basic geological mapping. London, Open University Press/Halstead Press 112 pp. £4.95 [A very succinct introduction to a host of well-known, and some little known, skills and techniques. Although aimed at first and second year undergraduates, no Advanced level student could fail to benefit from reading and acting on most of this advice - not to mention his teacher! Rather costly for its size] BASSETT, M.G. (ed) 1982 Geological Excursions in Dyfed, South-West Wales. Cardiff, National Museum of Wales, 327 pp. £6.50 (£7.55 by post). CUMBERLAND GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 1982 The Lake District. London, Alien & Unwin 136 pp. £3.95. [A very useful, up-to-date field guide] GILLEN, C. 1982 Metamorphic Geology. London, Alien & Unwin 144 pp. paperback £4.95, hardback £12.00 SUCFT [A very suitable book for Advanced level and Extramural students, as well as beginning undergraduates] . GRAYSON, R. 1982 Salthill Quarry Geology Trail. London, Nature Conservancy Council. (unpagnated) 26 pp. £1.00. HALSTEAD, L.B. 1982 Hunting the past. London, Hamish Hamilton. 208 pp. £10.95. (hardback). [This must be one of the best Christmas or birthday presents available this year. After a simple, largely geological introduction, in which basic principles are set down, the author launches into a series of largely two-four page palaeontological topics, each self­contained and beautifully illustrated. The writing is fresh, thoroughly up-to-date and full of enthusiasm for the reve­lations which emerge. The writer sells his subject and his fossil hunting experiences with panache. Good value for money] . HAZEN, R.M. 1982 The Poetry of Geology. London, George Alien & Unwin 98 pp. hardback £4.95. [See the review by H.S. Torrens] . HOLY, M. 1980 Erosion and Environment. Oxford, Perganon Press. 225 pp. £28.00. LAMB, H.H. 1982 Climate History and the Modern World. London, Methuen. ,387 pp. £8.95 paperback. LEEDER, M.R. 1982 Sedimentology: process and product. London, Alien & Unwin. 342 pp. £11.95 paperback, £25.00 hardback. MACKENZIE, W.S., DONALDSON, C.H. & GUILDFORD, C. 1982 Atlas of igneous rocks and their textures. London, Longman. 140 pp. £9.95 [A wonderful compendium of coloured microscope photographs of rocks and textures in both plane-polarised and cross-polarised light. The coverage of rocks and textures is appropriate to university work, but advanced level students and their teachers could derive much benefit from the study of a limited and carefully selected series of photographs. The book sets out to describe and it does this to perfection; it does not seek to interpret] . PARK, R.G. 1982 Foundations of Structural Geology. Glasgow, Blackie, 135 pp. £7.95 or £16.95. [A book aimed at those who are tackling structural geology at college, polytech­nic or university for the first time, and for whom books by Hobbs, Price, Ramsay, Turner etc. are at first off-putting. This book is clearly and simply written, is well illustrated and will suit a good many teachers and advanced level studen~s _

65

for whom a readable distillation of ideas of modern structural geology is long overdue] . POMEROL, C. (translated D. and E. Humphries) 1982 The Cenozoic Era Tertiary and Quaternary. Chichester, Ellis Horwood Ltd. 272 pp. paper £12.50, hardback £24.50. PRESS, F. & SIEVER, R. 198 Earth (3rd Edition) San Francisco, Freeman, paperback £9.95. [A new, fully-revised edition of perhaps the best general text on the market for university students and teachers of Advanced Level Geology. Very suitable as a reference book for good A level students. Highly recommended for the careful way in which basic concepts in physics and chemistry are explained and exemp­lified by geological examples. Good value per page] . SIMPSON, I.M. 1982 The Peak District. London, Alien & Unwin 120 pp. £3.95 paperback. [A succinct up-to-date field guide to both hallowed and relatively unvisited ground] . TUCKER, M.E. 1982 The Field Description of Sedimentary Rocks. Londgn, Open University Press/Halstead Press 112 pp £4.95. [A first-class handbook for beginning undergraduates and advanced level students. Rather costly for its size] . WILSON, G. in collaboration with COSGROVE, J. 1982 Introduction to small scale geological structures. London, George Alien and Unwin 128 pp. paperback £4.95 hardback £10.00. SUCFT. [See review by R.C. Standley, Geology Teaching 7(2) 1982. ZIEGLER, P.A. 1982 Geologit:al Atlas of Western and Central Europe. (two volumes). Amsterdam, Elsevier for Shell Inter­national Petroleum, BV; 130 pp and 40 maps. [The Atlas comprises a text (A4 size) which is accompanied by beauti­fully coloured looseleaf maps of A3 size: 21 palaeogeographic, 3 tectonic, 2 palaeogeological and 7 with isopachytes. In addition, there are coloured stratigraphic correlation charts. In the text the author discusses the evolution of the sedimentary basins of Western and Central Europe in a plate-tectonic framework. In so doing, he integrates unpublished geological data, much of it subsurface, with unpublished geophysical data, and relates all this to a critical analysis of a vast literature in several languages - just the kind of overview that the hardpressed geology teacher will find useful. At the end there is a useful but short discussion on that thorny question: the origin of the various basins. This atlas can be considered to be the successor to Wills (1950) Paleogeographic Atlas, and it does for Western and Central Europe and the oil and gas industry, what Wills (1956) Concealed Coalfields did so brilliantly for the Midlands of England and the search for coal. The atlas provides a complement to, and a setting for, any stratigraphic study of the British Isles. It updates Anderton et aI's "Dynamic Stratigraphy of the British Isles" in some respects, and provides a proper setting for many of their discussions. The coloured maps are large enought to pin in groups on a display board, and are detailed enough to repay close study by small groups of students. In sum, tour de force. The price is a worry for teachers, but the ATG Promotions Group mi"ght be able to negotiate a special price for the loose, coloured maps alone. It would be worth the try] . VAN ROSE, SUSANNA 1983 Earthquakes. London, HMSO. 37 pp. £0.90. [Another excellent handbook from IGS].

LIFE OF THE PAST. N GARY LANE CHARLES E MERRILL PUBLISHING CO. 1978 ISBN 0-675 08411·3 £8.95 (paperback)

I suppose we all have our own ideas about what the syllabus ought to be like, rather than what it is. What a pleasure it is when we met someone with our own views (or prejudices)!

And what a pleasure this book isl This is palaeontology as I would wish to teach it, rather than palaeontology as I have to teach it. It is a book which is long on general principles and purposes, and short on fussy detail. The author discusses the origins of life; he talks about how and why evolution occurs - concepts central to the whole of palaeontology, and yet ignored by most school syllabi; he talks about ecology, and· organises its discussion of fossils under ecological groupings e.g. Plankton and Nekton, Filter and Detritus feeders etc. All this, to me, anyway, makes more sense than the con· ventional treatment of palaeontology. Plants and vertebrates, . so often mentioned in the syllabus and so rarely examined, are .dealt with clearly, and without the confusing mass of detail that often accompanies them.

This is a book which should be available in every school library; it is simply written and clearly laid out, and well illustrated. There is something in it to widen the horizons of every student, from the somewhat average to the very bright. Perhaps a few teachers and examiners could benefit from perusing its pages too!

PETROLOGY - IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC E.G. EHLERS & HARVEY BLATT. W H FREEMAN & CO 1982 ISBN 0·7167·1279·2 £21.95

Whereas sedimentary petrology has been relatively well served of recent years by the writers of textbooks, the same cannot be said of igenous or metarmorphic petrology. Such texts as have appeared have largely been highly technical, and almost impossible to distill to the sort of standard required for Advanced level. By contrast the present volume is, in parts anyway, fairly digestible, and so it is feasible to pick out important new ideas or concepts and incorporate them into A level lessons.

The igneous rocks are introduced by a short, but adequate, section on modes of occurrence. This is followed by a couple of chapters giving details of the chemistry of silicate melts. (These chapters are, of course, irrelevant to A level and so can be easily skipped. However, having been totally mystified and confused by phase diagrams whilst a student myself, I decided, in the interests of science, to plough through them. They do make sense). The next chapter, a short one, is on classification, and gives details of the "new" (to me) lUGS classification. Unfortunately, as the authors (P. 107) point out, this classification does not yet cover all igneous rocks. It also appears to be too complex to be useful at A level. The final portion of the chapter consists of some 14 pages of black and white photographs illustrating rocks, both in hand speci­men and in thin section. Some of these are less than useful. The next chapter, on the Evolution of Magmas, is also brief. It is clearly presented, but there is nothing "new" in it. The final chapters, however, are more interesting~ for they relate the evolution and occurrence of the igneous rocks clearly to structure; to rift zones, continental margins, continents etc. Whilst this information is already available, it is scattered about, and it is nice to have it all collected and collated in one place.

66

The next portion of the book covers the sedimentary rocks. In this section it is the introductory chapter which introduces the 'main depositional environments, and places them, briefly, in their global tectonic framework. After a chapter on weathering and the formation of sediments the main rock groups are treated in their quantitative order of occurrence. Accordingly the mudrocks are dealt with first, followed by sandstones and conglomerates, limestones and dolomites, and finally 'The Rest'. (This final chapter is very selective and some rock types, notably coal, are ignored completely). In each case the chapter starts with those features of the rock which can be observed in the field, goes on to detail laboratory studies and then, before concluding with a look at recent environments, deals with any additional topics of interest, such as diagenesis. The diagenesis of the sandstones is accorded a complete chapter to itself.

Lastly came the metamorphic rocks. Here again an intro­ductory chapter deals with their occurrence and classification. After this gentle start, the next chapter pitches one headlong into the concept of metamorphic facies, and their graphical representation on ACF diagrams etc. A later chapter, entitled 'Mineral changes during metamorphism', is also very facies­orientated. This sort of material is well beyond A level as it stands. Fortunately I

The remaining chapters, on "Controls and Processes', "Time, Temperature and Deformation Relationships", and "Meta­morphic Rocks and Global Tectonics", were altogether: more acceptable and contain useful and relevant information.

This book is one of very few up to date texts attempting to cover the whole field of petrology. As the authors state in their preface, it does assume an understanding of elementary chemistry, crystallography and mineralogy, and this certainly is necessary. Price alone rules it out as a book suitable for general student use; however, some chapters may be read with profit, and the book would make a useful addition to the school library, if the funds were available. Where money is tightL however, it could be better spent elsewhere.

Kirtleton House 21 Kirtleton Avenue, Weymouth Dorset DT4 7PS Tel. (0305) 785296

FOR YOUR FIELD STUDY TRIP IN DORSET

All rooms hot and cold and shaver points * Excellent food * Large Car Park * Heating all rooms * Lounge with colour TV * Residents Bar * Fire Certificate * Drying Facilities * Open all year * Prices from £8 per day for bed, breakfast and evening meal and packed lunch.

Film showing facilities available. Brochure available from resident proprietors Mr and Mrs GCole.

METAMORPHIC GEOLOGY. CON GILLEN GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN 1982 :ISBN 0-04-551058X PbK £4.95 (paperback)

:Subtitled 'An introduction to Tectonic and Metamorphic [Processes' this book invites comparison with the section of Metamorphic rocks in Ehlers and 8latt. The biggest contrast 'lies in their relative treatment of the facies concept. Gillen (p. 41) notes that "The difficulties involved in applying the ... concept: .. have led to its being largely abandoned in the last few years." He accordingly dismisses it in a page or so. Ehlers and Blatt, as noted, elsewhere, make the concept central to their whole treatment of metamorphism.

This means that Gillen's book has a far more traditional ring to it. Chapters follow a fami liar pattern: Factors controlling Metamorphism; Contact; Dynamic and Regional Meta­morphism etc. The text is well illustrated by diagrams, photo­graphs, and examples. Chapters end with a series of exercises (some of which could be more usefully performed by the teacher as demonstrations).

The most important thing about this book, however, is that it is much more accessible to A level students (and the teachers!) Less previous knowledge is assumed, the language is more appropriate, new terms are carefully defined, both in the text and in a glossary, and bold type is used to emphasise

important terms.

It can be recommended without hesitation as an up to date treatment of metamorphism, suitable for school use.

Robin Stevenson, Norfolk College of Arts and Technology, Tennyson Avenue, Kings Lynn, Norfolk

LANDFORM SLIDES

Landform Slides is an enterprise of one of our members, Mr Ken Gardner. Over many years he has built up a large col­lection of colour slides which he now offers for sale as single slides on approval. The technical quality and composition of h is slides are both excellent and I have found them very suitable for teaching. Mr Gardner is a retired teacher of con­siderable experience and he takes his photographs with a critical eye for the teaching potential of the subject.

His classified catalogue gives against the number of each slide, details of its location (including grid reference) and of the features it shows, and often refers the user to relevant litera­ture and maps. Some examples are as follows.

N 0810 Basalt tephra ring. Hverfjall, east of Lake Myvatn, the type Icelandic example. Produced by a single explosive eruption 2500 years ago, the diameter is 1 kilometre, the maximum height of the rim 150 metres, and the angle of the outer slope 26-30 degrees. The entire structure is still com­pletely unvegetated and both its inner and outer slopes are gullied by rain wash. Viewed from the adjacent lava field, the entire structure is seen in this picture.

S 0340 Shear joints, Bat's Head, Dorset. The view shows numerous sub-parallel shear joints (Group 3 of W.J. Arkell) dipping at c. 25-30 degrees cutting vertically bedded chalk in the vertical limb of the Purbeck Monocline. The relative movement along the joints is above and to the right in the picture. (For details of this structure see Geologists' Ass. Guide No. 22 p.9).

67

R 0321 Twin ox-bow lakes on each side of the R. Dane, Northwich, Cheshire (NGR SJ 670730). The picture was taken when the river level was high and the ox "bows full of water. At other times they are dry mortlakes.

D 0470 Deep, narrow, but flat floored, rectangular cross section of a wadi, one of many gorges dissecting the southern edge of the Tassili N'Ajjer Plateau in east Algeria. The floor is littered with large abandoned blocks, whilst the sides towering vertically several hundred metres show buttresses and pillars developed by weathering along vertical joints.

The majority of the slides are of British examples but also include shots from France, Algeria, USA, Iceland, Italy and Alaska. Some idea of the extent and bias of the collection may be gathered from the following list: igneous phenomena 172 slides; sedimentary structures 15; folds 18; joints 11; faults 19; unconformities 4; weathering 43; mass movement 26; river features 73; desert landforms 115; coastal features 84; karst 46; glaciation 70; glacial and fluvioglacial deposition 40; periglacial featu res 47.

Since these slides may be purchased singly and not as sets they allow the user to buy just what he or she wants to make up his own teaching collection. This facility and the high quality of the slides make them very good value, and I heartily recom­mend them to teachers of geology and physical geography at all levels.

Dr Derek Gobbet, Geology Department, Solihull Sixth Form College, Widney Manor Road, Solihull, West Midlands, 891 3JG.

FILM: CURRENT AND WAVE RIPPLES

by P.F. Friend, P.C. Jackson, S. Lamb and A. Ramos (Depart­ment of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge). This is a short 16mm colour teaching film on sand-movement and bed-forms using laboratory and beach photography.

The film lasts for 8 minutes, and has an optical-sound commentary. It is designed to form part of a lecture- or seminar-session on sa!1d movement and bed-forms and it is often useful to show it twice in anyone session.

The film consists of three distinct sections: (1) Sequences illustrating the range of ripples on beaches; and contrasting the flow patterns of waves (oscillatory flow), and tidal currents (unidirectional flow in the short period). (2) Sequences illustrating the working of a 30cm wide, re­circulating flume with rotatary current meter. The sand bed for this section and section (3) has a main modal grain-size of 0.3mm, and another mode of larger (tracer) grains. Close­ups of moving current ripples illustrate the transition, with increasing velocity, to upper-flow-regime flat-bed, lee-slope grain avalanching, the presence of 'secondary' oblique flows over sinuous and linguoid crestal patterns, and the unsteady nature of grain pick-up in flow re-attachment areas. (3) Sequences illustrating the use of the flume as a wave tank; the growth of wave ripples from a flat bed; various degrees of asymmetry of oscillatory flow and wave ripple profile, vortex formation, and formation of 'off-shooting' lamination by vortex"Qenerated sand-clouds.

D.B.T.

Copies of this film can be obtained by writing to: Dr. P.F. Friend, Department of Earth Sciences, Downing Street,

Cambridge CB2 3EO, England. Please enclose a cheque or money order, made out to 'University of Cambridge'. The cost is for orders within Europe, £48 (pounds sterling); for orders o~tside Europe: S98 (US dollars) (air parcel rate). These rates apply until 1 August 1983. Video tapes of the material dis· played in the film can be prepared to order on any specified system, but because they involve an individual laboratory order, the cost per tape will be higher than for the bulk·order film prints.

REFERENCES RELEVANT TO GEOLOGY TEACHING TAKEN FROM THE JOURNAL "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY"

(A journal of the Geographical Association) 1975-1982 Vols. 1-7 inclusive.

ANON. Developing a fieldwork Code. Teaching Geography 1 (2),71-2. ANON 1976. Geographical Fieldwork in Practice. Teaching Geography 1 (4), 170-2. ANON 1977. Fieldwork in a note from 1911. Teaching Geography 3(1), p.8 only. ARNOLD, R. and FOSKETT, N. Physical Geography in an environment: two examples. Teaching Geography 5(2), 60-63. ATKINSON, K. and CROSBY, B. 1981. Preparing Soil mono­liths for teaching and display. Teaching Geography 7(2), 84-85. BAI LEY, P. 1982. Why we must teach physical geography? Teaching Geography 8(1), p.2. only. BATEMAN, R. 1975. Physical Geography for the Fourth Year. Teaching Geography 1 (2), 61-3. BEAUCHAMP, J. 1976. Local Fieldwork in a London Suburb. Teaching Geography 2(2)' 66-7. BOARDMAN, D. 1979. Improving simulation through field­work. (Siting of a reservoir in Edale part of a National Park). Teaching Geography 4(4),158-160. BROWN, M.M. 1982. One day's fieldwork. An individualised approach to Sixth Form Studies. (Work on streams in the Gower Peninsula). Teaching Geography 7(4L 160-163. BRUNSDEN, D. 1981. Updating geomorphology: The rates of rock weathering. Theoretical models and experimental problems. Teaching Geography 7(2), 80-83 .. DOUG LAS, T. 1976. Fieldwork in the Faroe Islands. Teaching Geography 1 (3)' 108-110. FETHERSTON, R. and PAYNE C. 1981. A note on the calibration and use of current meters. Teaching Geography ·7(1),37-8. FORD, T.D. 1976. Geology, Geography and University Admission. Teaching Geography 2(1),35-6. G ILL, M. 1979. Field Research with Sixth-Form Students. Teaching Geography 5(1), 16-18. GLASS, S. 1976. Mountain Leadership and the Geography Teacher. Teaching Geography 2(1), 13-15. GOUDIE, A. 1981. Updating Geomorphology: the dis­integration of rocks by mechanical process. Teaching Geo­graphy 6(4), 176-179. GREGORY, K. 1980. Practical fieldwork in hydrology. If it moves, measure it. Teaching Geography 5(4), 170-174. HAMMERSLEY, A. and HARDING, M. 1980. Implications of the Health and Safety at Work Act, with Special reference to fieldwork. Teaching Geography 5(4), 174-6. JACKSON, S.J. 1980. Plean for Pedology. Teaching Geo­graphy 5(3)' 111-113. JOHNSON, W. and MARTLAND, B. 1976. Peak District under Pressure. Teaching Geography 2(1), 9-12. JONES, P.J. 1976. In-Service Training in Geology: time for a formal course. Teaching Geography 2(1),37-39. JONES, P.F. 1977. Come back Geography - all is forgiven

68

(letter re article by Ford, T.D. 1976). Teaching Geography 2(3), p. 134 only. KAY, 0, KAY, N. and MCDONALD, A. 1982. Teaching catchment hydrology: two dynamic models for classroom use. Teach ing Geography 7 (3)' 118-124. KING, C. 1981. A geography field course in the Yorkshire

.Dales. Teaching Geography 7(1), 15-19. KING, J.P. 1980. Measuring velocity in streams by three cheap techniques. Teaching Geography 6(1), 10-11. KNAPP, B. 1982. Updating geomorphology: Be it ever so lowly. Teaching Geography 7(4), 181-183. LAYMAN, J. 1979. Constructing a current meter and some field applications. Teaching Geography 4(4), 167-72. MARRIOT, A. 1977. Teaching Mineral Development. Teaching Geography 3(1), 24-6. MASTERTON, T. 4-977. Geology in the Secondary School in Scotland. Teaching Geography 3(2), p. 89 only. NELDER, G. 1976. Sandstone Waifs. Detective work in Urban Physical Geography. Teaching Geography 2(2), 56-59. NEWSOM. M. 1976. Rivers - we must catch up. Teaching Geography 2(2),72-3. NEWSOM, M. 1979. Up-dating geomorphology: up and down and seldom average. Teaching Geography 4(3), 121-5. NORRIS, I.L. 1977. Why not change the University Geology Courses? (Letter re article by Ford, T.D. in Teaching Geo­graphy 1976). Teaching Geography 2(3), 135-6. OAKS, S.M. 1976. Junior Schools' Volcano Project. Teaching Geography 1 (3), 134-6. PATTERSON, K. and CHAMBERS, W. 1982. Techniques for the Study of Limestone Pavements. Teaching Geography 8(1), 3-9. RAWLlNG, E. 1977. Two approaches to fieldwork with middle school pupils. (River StUdies). Teaching Geography 3(1), 3-8. ROBERTS, C. 1981. Geomorphyology in the field. Teaching Geography 6(4), 167-168. SAL TMARSH, B. 1976. Fieldwork: Dartmoor and South East Devon. Teaching Geography 2(1), 15-18. SAMPSON, A. 1981. Continuing Change on Blakeney Point: Fieldwork Possibilities. Teaching Geography 6(4), 168-174. SMITH, M. 1976. Making a volcano. (letter). Teaching Geo­graphy 2( 1), p. 40 only. SMITH, S.M. 1980. Geology in the School Curriculum. Two reports of the Schools Council Geology Curriculum Review Group. (1973-5). (Review). Teaching Geography 5(4), p. 184 only. TAYLOR, J.A. 1977. Examining A-level fieldwork. The activities, problems and experiences of the South Yorkshire Research Group. Teaching Geography 3( 1), 12-13. THOMAS, B. and ROUNCEFIELD, J. 1977. Fieldwork in a Highland Setting. A field research model in practice. Teaching Geography 2(3), 120-125. THOMAS, G. 1980. Sun, Sea and Scenery at Aberystwyth. Teaching Geography 6(2), 84-5. WALLING, D. 1979. Updating geomorphology: why no two rivers are alike. Teaching Geography 4(4), 162-7. WEYMAN, D. and WI LSON, C. 1975. Hydrology for Schools. Teaching Geography Occasional. Papers No. 25. 48 pp. Price 50p.

WEYMANN, 0.1978. Updating geomorphology: the processes which lead to streamflow. Teaching Geography 4(2), 71-76. WILLlAMS, A. and WEYMANN, D. 1980. Up-dating geo­morphology: chemical weathering processes. Teaching Geo­graphy 6(2), 67-71. WI LSON, R.C.L. 1976. Geology 'A' level is useful. Teaching Geography 2 (1), 40-41. WOOLEN, R. 1981. Volcano (planning for a disaster). (Mt. St. Helen's simulation for mixed ability 3rd years). Teaching Geography 7(2),78-80. WYNN, M. 1980. River Studies Field Research. Teaching Geography 6(1), 11-13.

D.B.T.

MATLOCK BATH

Temple Mine was opened on 1 May 1982 by Peak District Mines Historical Society, as a complement to the Mining Museum also run by the Society in the town. Visitors to the Mus~um now have the opportunity of an underground tour. The mine has been in the Society's possession since 1974, when it was 'nicked' according to th~ local lead-mining laws. It consists of fairly recent workings, having been in operation sporadically since 1920 for both lead and fluorspar.

Volunteers, working at weekends, cleared much of the debris from the mine and the floor at the entrance was lowered to improve drainage. Track was laid, points were made and tubs installed. The services needed for current work - compressed air pipe and electrical cable - run along t~e left-hand wall and may also be regarded as display items. The aim is to show a typical early 1930s' working with all its attendant clutter. An ore chute from the top of the incline to the tubs at the bottom is now being constructed; unfortunately visitor safety has required replacing the incline with concrete steps. Ring-arches hold back the unstable boulders and when com­pleted will enable visitors to pass from the mineralised lime­stone to the contrasting Matlock Lower Lava.

The mine has had a successful first season with over 14,000 visitors to date. The public have shown a high degree of interest, perhaps because here they have the opportunity to learn about both mineral and coal mining.

Andrew Mathieson, Bristol Museum

THE GOOD ROCK GUIDE TO EUROPE

The good news is that the general guide books are taking a broader look at the regions that they serve. No longer are they written solely for the classically educated elite of the eighteenth century. However geology still only merits the briefest of notices and it is time that the casual traveller had more guidance when abroad.

Listed below are some recommended sites for'parts of Europe. These are places where one can indulge one's geological interests, try to puzzle out what the rocks mean, visit small local museums and enjoy delectable places quite often away from the tourist honey-pots.

It is not intended to be a definitive list of all exposures nor is it intended for the specialist; the latter can find their own way about. This list is for the specialist away from his special ism, the student hitch-hiker, the adult who has attended evening classes and the teacher enjoying his geology away from the treadmill of the syllabus.

The list is intended to point the traveller in. the right direction and provide some hints for tourists planning a tour. The lack of guide books in English should not be a deterrent indeed it could be a blessing and challenge. Do we, as teachers ac­customed to drilling pupils for examinations, sometimes forget the excitement of discovery?

69

Please send me your suggestions for inclusion in our next list on 5" x 3" index cards giving details of location, geological interests and access. The list below will indicate the style.

AUSTRIA. Hallein, south of Salzburg. Saltmines. Unusual descent into the mines on backside on wooden slides. Half day.

FRANCE. I.G.N. Maps (UK) Ltd. 122 King's Cross Road, London WC1 X 90S. Useful list of geological maps and guides which can be purchased at the address above. Geology of France with twelve itineraries by Charles Pomerol 1980 Paris, Masson 256 pp and geological map. (In English). Forest of Fontainbleau 60 km SSE of Paris. Extensive outcrop of Tertiary silcretes set in open woodland. Ideal lunch stop on the Autoroute du Solei I Exit to the N51. Half day. Jura traverse Route 0470-0436 Moirans-Gex. Considerable road improvement works have resulted in extensive sections. Mind where you park on the hairpin bends! Day or half day.

GERMANY. Hesselburg 16 km E of Dinkelsbuhl. Geological teaching trail with exposures in Jurassic Lias, Dogger Maim. Display boards and leaflet. Hill set in typical South German scarplands; the oxen in the fields have gone, as have the peasants but the Romantische Strasse still retains much of its charm. Baden - Wurtemburg. Geo-Karte Free from Landesfremden­verkehsvenband, Baden-Wurttemburg, Postfach 304 7000 Stuttgart 1. Poster size map at 1 :500,000 showing a wide range of geological-geomorphological places to visit including museums, geological trails, 'Klopfplatzen' prepared by Antje and Klaus-Dieter Balke of Tubingen University. A most valuable guide for the visiting amateur with more than enough for a two week visit! Neubulach - Wurttemburg. 33 km south of Pforzheim. Old silver mine working and museum. 'A little gem of a place in a typical Black Forest Village'. Half day. Hesselberg. 16 km E of Dinkelsbuhl. Geological trail, with leaflet and display boards. Lias, Dogger and Maim (Jurassic). Half day. Solnhofen in the Altmuhl valley 35 km NW of Ingolstadt. World famous for rich collection of well preserved fossil fish, insects, plants and reptiles. You probably will not find anything valuable but the old quarries are fun to look over and there is an excellent museum. Half day. HOlzmadenlTeck, Wurttemburg. Leave the Stuttgart-Ulm autobahn at the Aichelberg exit. (a) Museum Hauft. Small but incredible display of Jurassic vertebrates and other fossils. Closed Monday. (b) The quarry is fenced off but visitors are provided with a pile of rock to pick over! Half day.

ITALY. Mount Etna. Approach either from Linguaaglossa (coach) or Nicolosi (chair lift), Day. Volcano and Lipari may be reached by boat from Milazzo. Day. San Gimignano, Tuscany. Magnificent hilltop towns amid vineyards planted in Tertiary silts littered with well preserved bivalves and gastropods. HaU day. Carrara, 22 km ESE of La Spezia. Extensive quarries for marble to the east of the town. A vast industry. Half day.

SWITZERLAND. Saas Fee. Geological trail south of town near foot of glacier. Exciting variety of rocks permanently labelled. Day or half day. Val D'Herans, Valais. A valley running south from Sion to the Italian frontier. Reckoned by one Swiss geographer to be the best fieldwork location in Switzerland if not Europe! Pyramid! of Euseigne, river terraces at Les Handeres and numerous ' easily accessible glaciers. Very highly recommended for family or school visits. Ten days is not too long! Gornergrat above Zermatt. One of the best Alpine panoramas with extensive views of glaciers. Ascend by the highest open air railway in Europe from Zermatt. Day. Bex, in the Rhone Valley east of Lake Geneva. Take the road from Devens to Bex. Salt mines. Guided tours underground on a train. Best to make a reservation (025) 632461/62. Half-day.

This list has been compiled with contributions from John Myers, Roger Mason, Margaret Dobson.

Hugh Prudden, Yeovil College, IIchester Road, Yeovil, Somerset BA21 3BA.

CAMPSITES OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST

FRANCE: Ploumanach, Perros-Guirec. "Le Ranolien" on the Granit Rose coast. Lumps of lovely pink granite outcrop on the site and are carved into fantastic shapes along the adjacent cliffs. The French have names for them all, of course. Superb views out to the Sept lies where there is a huge gannet colony; boat trips available.

Aval/on just off the A6 autoroute between Auxerre and Dijon. Camping Municipal "Sous Roches". Granite cliffs and attractive hill-top town nearby - most northerly outpost of the Massif Central.

GERMANY: near Pirmasens between Karlsruhe and Saarbrucken. Camping Platz Buttelwoog, at Dahn. Pine forest site in valley with cliffs of dark red Permo-Trias sandstone.

AUSTRIA: Del/ach am Millstattersee, Carinthia. Lage 1 cm garnet crystals to be found be paddling and panning in the lake by the campsite.

NORTHERN ITALY: Dolomites - an awful or awefullot of dolomite. We camped on adamellite, near Monte Adamello, with Monte Tonale just up the road, at Camping Dolomiti di Brenta, Dimaro, near Madonna di Campiglio.

NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM: Salzburg Modern displays, maps and models. Vienna Old fashioned (1977 visit) but fantastic Tethyan fossils. Hal/statt history of the salt mines.

Mrs. Margaret Dobson, 23, Dale Lodge Road, Sunningdale, Ascot, Berks SL5 OL Y.

SALTHllL QUARRY SSSI, CLlTHEROE, LANCASHIRE

A new site of special scientific interest (SSSI) in the Carboniferous Reefs of the Clitheroe district, offering access to and preservation of the classic locality was formally opened in October 1982 at Salthill. Two officers of the Nature Con­servancy Council Drs Tony McCurdy and Keith Duff explain how this was achieved.

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A major initiative in practical geological conservation took place in Clitheroe in October, with the opening by the Mayor of Ribble Valley, Mrs Myra Clegg, of a geological trail which demonstrates the scientific value of a disused limestone quarry on the outskirts of the town. The opening was attended by the Council and guests representing national, regional and local interests. The opening crowns a joint effort by the Ribble Valley Borough Council, the Lancashire & Greater Manchester Joint Reclamation Team and the Nature Con­servancy Council, who have worked in close harmony to produce the most advanced project to combine geological conserVation and industrial development yet seen in Britain.

About ten years ago Ribble Valley Borough Council, the owners of Salthill Quarry, planned to reclaim the quarry for industrial purposes to meet the growing needs of the town. However, Salthill Quarry has long been of interest to geo­logists, as it provides unrivalled sections through a series of reef deposits. When the Clitheroe area lay only a few hundred miles north of the equator, over 300 million years ago, a number of conical reefs became established on the floor of the warm shallow sea which then existed there. These structures grew in height and spread laterally as a result of sediment bring trapped within their framework, and were eventually buried by sediments which were accumulating between them. The rock faces around the edges of Salthill Quarry now provide a series of vertical sections through these structures, which are of particular interest as nothing comparable is known to be developing in our seas at present.

Salthill Quarry had first been notified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest in 1970, in view of its great geological interest, and the Nature Conservancy Council and Ribble Valley Borough Council sought ways in which conservation of the quarry walls could be combined with industrial develop­ment on the quarry floor. Both organisations felt that the site offered potential for a formal geological trail, which could be used to give both geologists and non-geologists alike a glimpse of the environmental conditions which existed in the area in the Lower Carboniferous, and this accordingly formed an integral part of the reclamation plans.

The reclamation work at Salthill has been carried out by the Borough Council through the Joint Reclamation Team, a group of engineers employed by, and operating within, the counties of Lancashire and Greater Manchester and led by their Principal Engineer, Mr Joe Melling. They have displayed considerable sensitivity to the task in hand and the quarry is now a model example of multi-purpose landuse in which scientific education and research have been blended with the industrial needs of the area.

Robin Grayson (Wigan College of Further Education) has contributed to the project since its outset. He has written the guidebook, based largely on his own research. The book is aimed primarly at Advanced level geology students and assumes a basic level of competence in the science. It describes eight rock exposures and two viewpoints which help put the rocks described on the trail within their regional geological context. One of the major educational virtues of Salthill Quarry is that the major features of interest are on a large scale and can be readily appreciated wnen viewed from a distance, as structures and different rock types are conveniently dis­tinguished by colour changes. Accordingly, a convincing demonstration of the geological development of the Clitheroe area can be given using the quarry walls against the backdrop of the surrounding landscape. Salthill also has the rare virtue of being one of the few disused quarries in the country where fossil collecting at certain locations does not significantly detract from the scientific interest of the site. For example,

one of the location points on the geological trail is underlain by a thick "gravel" of fossil remains which could furnish the reasonable requirements of many generations of students of geology.

A broadsheet which describes the interest of the quarry in non-technical language has been produced for the non­specialist visitor to Salthill, and is available from the Tourist I nformation Office and from the Counci I Offices at Clitheroe.

The trail provides a safe route for visitors, who are directed away from the quarry faces by fences. To cater for research geologists who need access to the faces, the Nature Con­servancy Council is entering into a management agreement with the Borough Council under Section 15 of the Country­side Act 1968 through which access to the fenced-off areas will be regulated by permits.

From the outset all the participants in the project have been determined that it will reach a successful conclusion. It is pleasing to report that their efforts have now borne fruit. In particular, the way in which it has been possible to produce a clearly-defined geological trail, explained in the form of both a published guidebook and a simplified broadsheet, and linked with the protection of restricted access rock exposures for use by research geologists, has provide a suite of facilities quite unique in Britain. However, the achievements have not stopped there; they are being further supplemented by the development of a geological museum on the first floor of the Clitheroe Castle Museum, in which Salthill Quarry will feature prominently. But even more praiseworthy is the fact that the owners of the quarry, Ribble Valley Borough Council, have designed and developed an industrial site in combination with the geological features, and have done this in a manner which has given full protection to these features. All this constitutes an achievement of which the Borough Council must be proud, and is certainly one which will receive the praise of teachers and students of geology throughout the country. It is hoped that other site owners and local auth­orities in Britain will follow Ribble Valley Borough Council in this pioneering approach.

For further information please write to Mr M. Jackson, Chief Executive, Ribble Valley Borough Council, Church Walk, Clitheroe, Lancs. BB7 2RA. 0200 25111. A.P. McKirdy, and Dr Keith Duff, Nature Conservancy Council, Geology Section, Foxhold House, Thornford Road, Crookham Common, Newbury, Berks. 063523 533 or Neil Robinson, Nature Conservancy Council, Blackwell, Bowness-on-Windermere, Windermere, Cumbria. 09662 5286.

FIELDWORK SITE CLEARANCE

The Geology and Physiography Section of the Nature Con­servancy Council has cleared a considerable number of field­work sites in the East Mendip area. These have been selected for their educational value and the aim of this project is to encourage school, college and university fieldwork groups to make use of sites that are not Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Some SSSI are visited by very large numbers and as a consequence are suffering from "student erosion" such that their scientific interest is adversely affected. A fieldwork guide to the East Mendip sites is to be published by NCC later this year.

Sites useful for geological and geomorphologial education in the West Mendips and in Avon are also being cleared by NCC. A section of Carboniferous volcanic ash and lava has already been cleared in Goblin Combe (ST 47956475) and this makes

71

a very useful fieldwork site. A thickness of 3m of basalt is overlain by a thin bed of limestone and about 4m of volcanic ash, and a small fault cuts through the centre of the exposure. A number of outcrops in Burrington Combe are to be cleared soon in order to better expose the Dolomitic Conglomerate, the Triassic/Carboniferous unconformity, and the Lower Limestone Shale in the West Twin Stream. Other sites to be cleared are the Lower Lias at Pennyquick Bridge, Bath, the Inferior Oolite at Tucking Mill, Midford, and the Bitton railway cutting where Pennant Sandstone is faulted against folded Keuper, Rhaetic and Lower Lias rocks.

NCC is asking for suggestions of other educational fieldwork sites in West Mendip and Avon that could usefully be cleared, and at the same time is appealing to schools, colleges and societies to take on the maintenance of sites that are cleared. Please contact Alan McKirdy, Geology Section,tNature Con­servancy Council, Foxhold House, Crookham Common Newbury, Berks RG15 8EL, for information about sites th~t have been cleared, suggestions for sites to clear, and the site maintenance scheme.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY SECTION

The following publications are currently available:

Wren's Nest NNR Geological Trail (revised 1974) 15p Wren's Nest NNR Geological Handbook (1978) 20p Fyfield Down NNR Student Worksheets (per set) lOp Glen Roy NNR The Parallel Roads of Glen Roy (1977) 15p Mortimer Forest Geological Trail (1977) 15p Tertiary Igenous Rocks of Rhum (1979) 60p Staple Edge Geology Teaching Trail (1981) 60p Staple Edge Worksheets (per set) 15p Salthill Quarry Geological Trail (1982) 75p Inverpolly NNR. Knockan Cliff Geological Trail

(3rd edition) 30p

For publications sent by post, the NCC standard rates should be added; these are at present:

Orders up to - 50p - 25p; from 51p - 99p - 40p; £1 -£2.99 - 75p; £3 - £4.99 - £1.00; £5 - £9.99 - £1.50; £10 - £14.99 - £2.00; £15 - £19.99 - £2.75; £20 - £24.99 - £3.50; £25 and over - 10% of order.

Copies of Conservation and the Earth Sciences (1977) (15gm) and the more recent back numbers of Earth Science Con­servation are available, from Foxhold Housetonly, free of charge, on receipt of an appropriately stamped self-addressed envelope with your request. Weights of back numbers are: 19 - 70 gm; 14 to 18 - 50 gm each; No. 13 - 30 gm; No 12 - 35 gm; No. 11 - 25 gm.

EARTH SCIENCE CONSERVATION

This free newsletter is published by the Nature Conservancy Council and circulated to educational organisations in Britain. Each LEA arranges its distribution to teachers concerned with the Earth Sciences and a copy is sent to the geology or geo­graphy department of each school. The most recent issue contains articles about a newly established geology trail at Salthill Quarry, the problems of conserving Chesil Beach, and news of the clearance and conservation of geological and geomorphological sites throughout Britain.

Further information is available from Andrew Mathieson Schools Service Department, City Museum, Queens Road, Bristol. Comments and contributions for this newsletter would be welcome.

BSc Honours Degree in Earth and Life Studies with specialism in Geology Other specialisms in Biology and Geography

Dual subject specialism :- any two from Geology. Biology. Geography

Write for illustrated brochure to:-The Admissions Office Derby Lonsdale College Kedleston Road Derby DE31GB Telephone (0332) 47181

EDITORIAL SUBCOMMITTEE

David Thompson (Editor) Bob Standley (Assistant Editor) Stephen Hannath (Primary School Geology) Dick Mayhew (Reviews) Robin Stevenson (Fieldwork) Frank Spode (Primary School Geology, Teacher Training) David Thompson (News, Shopfloor) Ray Harris (Advertising)

Opinions and comments in this issue are the personal views of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Association.

Advertising enquiries to: Ray Harris, 17 Caroline Buildings, Widcombe, Bath BA2 4JH.

Contributions fot the next issue of GEOLOGY teaching will be welcome, and should be sent to the Editor, from whom notes for contributions are available.

GEOLOGY teaching: Published quarterly

by the A~sociation of Teachprs of Geology.

Volume 8, No. 2, June 1983

72

COUNCIL OFF.ICERS

President: Prof T.R. Owen, Dept. of Geology, University College, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP.

Secretary: M.J. Collins, 20 Pebworth Close, Alkrington, Middleton, Manchester M24 1QH.

Assistant Secretary: P.F. Cotterell, 207 Hurdsfield Road, Macclesfield, Cheshire, SK10 2PX.

Treasurer: S.M.P. Alcock, 43 Yoxall Avenue, Hartshill, Stoke­on-Trent, Staffs. ST4 7JJ.

Assistant Treasurer: P.w. Williams, 2 Kingsway, Northwich, Cheshire.

Editor: D.B. Thompson, Education Department, University of Keele, Staffs. ST5 5BG.

Assistant Editor: Dr R.C. Standley, Dept. of Geology, City of London Polytechnic, Bigland Street, London E1 2NG.

• Membership enquiries to the Assistant Secretary • Annual subscriptions enquiries to the Assistant Treasurer.

• Bankers' Orders enquiries to the Treasurer. • Change of address to the Secretary.